251:"Book of Joseph the Official" of rabbi Joseph ben Nathan (13th century) which presents among other arguments a conversation between a Christian, the 'Chancellor,' and two rabbis. For polemical and apologetic reasons, a wider interest in Christian theology and a desire to acquire the necessary linguistic tools (the study of Latin) seem to emerge during the 13th century. Other apologetic works include
430:, page 7, 2004. "I have used the term “polemics” broadly, not distinguishing between defensive thrusts, sometimes identified as apologetic, and attacks on the opposing faith. With regard to the distinction between those works intended for insiders and those for outsiders, I also use the inclusive term polemics, although I sometimes tend to call the latter missionizing or proselytizing works."
35:(from "defence") may be distinguished but may also be considered somewhat subjective. A smaller number of proselytizing text also exists intended to convert Christians, or more rarely Muslims, to Judaism. However, the vast majority of Jewish polemical literature was written in response to Christian polemical writings and with a permanent reference to Christian arguments.
805:
817:
456:
862:
ed. Michael A. Shmidman - 2007 "Furthermore, his theory of "two Yeshus" (which was advanced numerous times previously, both in the context of disputations23 and apparently sincerely by the
Tosafot ha-Rosh) shows that he did not believe the derogatory passages in the about "Yeshu" referred to Jesus of
459:
According to
Philippe Bobichon: "it is the permanent rooting in the historical reality that characterizes anti-Christian Jewish literature and distinguishes it from most anti-Jewish Christian writings. In all cases, without exception, this type of Jewish texts refer to a menace for the permanence of
738:
Chazan 2004 "While the obligation of the Jewish polemicist begins with rebutting
Christian challenges, it does not end with such defensive maneuvers. The responsibility of medieval Jewish polemicists, as perceived by Joseph Kimhi, extends to identifying weaknesses in the opposing camp and bringing
596:
1972 "Fragments from the Cairo
Genizah attest to the polemics directed in this period against the Samaritans, Christianity, and Islam, as well as Jewish schismatic sects, apparently from the beginning of the tenth century" cites J. Mann, Genizah Fragments of the Palestinian Order of Service (HUCA,
755:
TSMJ 10; Tubingen: Mohr 1996 p196 "When one thinks of a typical
Ashkenazic polemic, one generally looks to a book such as Sefer Nizzahon Yashan, ... 8 A critical edition of Sefer Nizzahon Yashan, with English translation and notes, can be found in David Berger, The Jewish-Christian Debate in the
728:
2004 Page 37 "Both Jacob ben Reuben's
Milhamot ha-Shem and Joseph Kimhi's Sefer ha-Berit begin with the Christian spokesman adducing a series of arguments to show that reason dictates the truth of Christianity. Once again, the Jewish participants in these dialogues assume a largely defensive
522:
475:
ed. Geoffrey
Wigoder - 1989, p. 68, "Apologetics and Polemics ... when Jewish writers sought to defend Judaism against the criticisms of Hellenism and paganism. Two noted works were Philo's Apology on behalf of the Jews and Against Apion by the historian Josephus, who vindicated the Jewish
609:
Yossef
Schwartz, Volkhard Krech 2004 Page 240 "At the same time, however, the Qur'an defined for the Muslim polemist the areas of polemical activity, which differed for Judaism and for Christianity. In general, the disagreement with Judaism was limited to the charge of altering the..
507:
ed. Jeremy Cohen Page 448 1991 "Further, R. Tarfon regards these Jewish
Christians as worse than idolaters; for while a pagan might embrace the new faith, it was a great source of frustration that Jews, raised in the traditions of Judaism, would have done so as
580:(London, England) page 176 "... obvious reluctance to polemicize against other Islamic tenets while exercising no such restraint vis-a-vis Christianity, it would seem that the discussion of naskh should be seen in the context of Saadya's anti-Christian polemic."
562:
Page 66 Ruth Langer - 2011 "These commonalities extend as well to the rabbinic discussions about the prayer and to many elements of the
Christian polemics and Jewish apologetics that emerge in the late medieval world, particularly as national boundaries become
172:, Christianity, and Islam, as well as Jewish sects, from the early 10th century. Both Jews and Christians under Islam were careful in criticism of, or proselytizing to, their host's religion, in response to Muslim proselytizing of Jews and Christians.
777:) 1993 p103 "The Sefer Nizzahon Vetus begins with a quite brief introduction where God's help is invoked. After this, the text follows the order of the ... Presumably the Nizzahon Vetus was much used because of its manageable and systematic form."
790:
p94 2002 "This is illustrated clearly in an episode in Sefer Joseph Hamekane (Book of Joseph the Zealot, France, thirteenth century), recounting a conversation in Paris between the 'Chancellor' and two rabbis.29 The Christian claimed that from
906:
2003 "Magen va-Herev 's methodology and use of sources offer other clues regarding its target audience. Like other works designed to win hesitant converses over to Judaism, all the arguments in Magen va-Herev appeal to either Scripture
679:
Volume 1 - Page 342 Phyllis G. Jestice - 2004 "The book's subtitle, Kitab al-Hujja wa-al-Dalil fi Nasr al-Din al-Dhalil (The book of refutation and proof on behalf of the despised religion), identifies it as a work of religious
893:"Like Montalto, Saul Levi Morteira, the disciple who accompanied his master to Paris and who took his body to Amsterdam for burial, continued in this same polemical tradition of conducting a rational critique of Christianity."
228:"Book of the covenant" (c. 1150) follows Jacob ben Reuben's format of an apologetic response to Christian argument, but does not only refute Christian challenges, Kimhi also identifies weaknesses of Christian belief.
836:
204:"Wars of the Name" of Jacob ben Reuben (12th century) is an apologetic text against conversion by Christians, notable in that it contains questions and answers based on selected Hebrew translations of the Latin
697:
1998 Page 26 "By the twelfth century, when European Jews began to write polemical works, they had far more information, which made their task easier in some respects and more complex in others.
850:
Isidore Singer, Cyrus Adler "As to the two Hebrew standard works of New Testament criticism in the Middle Ages, written for apologetic purposes, the " Sefer Nizzahon " and the "Hizzuk Emunah,"
451:
Philippe Bobichon, "Littérature de controverse entre judaïsme et christianisme : Description du corpus et réflexions méthodologiques (IIe-XVIe siècle) (textes grecs, latins et hébreux)",
667:
Page 60 Adele Berlin, Maxine Grossman - 2011 "Later Jewish apologetics reasserted Judaism against Greek philosophy, Christianity, Islam (*Yehuda ha-Levi's Kuzari dealt with all three), "
872:
Saadia R. Eisenberg, “Reading Medieval Religious Disputation: The 1240 'Debate' Between Rabbi Yehiel of Paris and Friar Nicholas Donin” (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 2008)
407:
739:
them forcefully to the attention of Jewish readers. This aggressive thrust of medieval Jewish polemics is well documented in Sefer ha-Berit, and we shall cite this first of "
397:
24:
20:
134:"Life of Jesus" (7th century), although this does not follow the reasoned format of argument found in a true polemic or apologetic work. The earliest true polemic is the
461:
283:
A subcategory of apologetics in the late medieval period is found in necessary Jewish responses to highly dangerous Christian charges concerning material related to
442:
Page 60 ed. Adele Berlin, Maxine Grossman - 2011 "Jewish apologetics is less “apologetic” than the term indicates. Occasionally, too, Jews have gone on the attack."
534:
Joel E. Rembaum, The Influence of "Sefer Nestor Hakomer" on Medieval Jewish Polemics, in: Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, Vol. 45, (1978)
655:
as a source of inspiration for a Jewish polemicist.51 These Questions prove indeed that criticism of the scriptures was not foreign to the Medieval Jewish.."
523:« Persécutions, calomnies, ‘birkat ha-Minim’, et émissaires juifs de propagande antichrétienne dans le Dialogue avec Tryphon de Justin Martyr »
124:
During the Middle Ages many polemical texts originated outside Catholic Europe in lands where Jews and Christians were on an even footing as subjects of
495:
Tel-Aviv University. "Introductory words on the nature of polemics and apologetics - Josephus, admittedly, was not the first of the Jewish apologetics"
186:" (c 1120), subtitled "The book of refutation and proof on behalf of the despised religion," included apologetics to Islam alongside Christianity and
66:
70:
930:
774:
93:
925:
802:
Controverse judéo-chrétienne en Ashkenaz (XIIIe s.). Florilèges polémiques : hébreu, latin, ancien français (Paris, BNF Hébreu 712)
902:
Talya Fishman, "Changing Early Modern Jewish Discourse About Christianity: The Efforts of Rabbi Leon Modena", in David Joshua Malkiel
640:
214:
140:"The Book of Nestor the Priest" (c. 600 CE). The book represents itself as the arguments for Judaism of a former Christian (possibly
890:
935:
521:. VOLUME II : Commentaires, Appendices, Indices. Editions universitaires de Fribourg, 2003, vol. II; Cf. Philippe Bobichon,
97:
828:
See Philippe Bobichon's Hebrew text, French translation and analysis of the apologetic section of the Book of Principles :
810:
Citations latines de la tradition chrétienne dans la littérature hébraïque de controverse avec le christianisme (XIIe-XVe s.)
101:
89:
360:
208:
and appears to have served as a precedent for the full Hebrew translation and interspersed commentary on Matthew found in
940:
577:
242:
543:
Daniel J. Lasker, "Jewish-Christian Polemics at the Turning Point: Jewish Evidence from the Twelfth Century", in:
368:
308:
767:
Shield and sword: Jewish polemics against Christianity and the Christians in France and Spain from 1000-1500
320:
247:
233:
625:
Freethinkers of Medieval Islam: Ibn Al-Rāwandī, Abū Bakr Al-Rāzī, and Their Impact on Islamic Thought
300:
83:
352:
340:
284:
73:, mutual Jewish-Christian debate, polemics and apologetics occurred as for example in the words of
364:
62:
505:
Essential papers on Judaism and Christianity in conflict: from Late Antiquity to the Reformation
886:
770:
636:
205:
200:
136:
830:
Yosef Albo, Sefer ha-‘Iqqarim , III, 25 : Un chapitre de la controverse judéo-chétienne
628:
402:
288:
187:
152:
749:
348:
344:
260:
620:
558:
372:
296:
292:
268:
161:
883:
From polemics to apologetics: Jewish-Christian rapprochement in 17th Century Amsterdam
919:
648:
316:
312:
165:
130:
78:
57:
769:
Texts and Studies in Medieval and Early Modern Judaism 8. Tubingen: Mohr (Siebeck) (
715:
J. Rosenthal (ed.), Jacob b. Reuben, Milhamoth ha-Shem (Jerusalem, 1963), pp. 141-52
489:
392:
221:
173:
157:
141:
74:
729:
position, although the Jewish defense is portrayed as spirited and convincing.1."
336:
332:
304:
252:
209:
144:) priest. The need for apologetics emerged as national boundaries were in flux.
113:
593:
32:
169:
695:
Jewish history and Jewish memory: essays in honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi
43:
Defences of Judaism to Greek, Egyptian and Roman religionists are found in
632:
753:
Contra Iudaeos: ancient and medieval polemics between Christians and Jews
380:
52:
517:
See Philippe Bobichon's commentaries and notes to his critical edition:
116:
is generally counted as covering Europe from the 5th to 15th centuries.
462:
Ph. Bobichon, A Bird's Eye View on the Jewish Anti-Christian Literature
198:
Jews in Europe began to write polemical works in the 12th century. The
28:
367:
continued in Montalto's tradition of conducting a rational polemical
183:
178:
147:
128:. Among the oldest anti-Christian texts with polemic intent is the
19:
were texts written to protect and dissuade Jewish communities from
315:"Shame of the Gentiles" (1375), Joseph Albo (mentioned above) and
125:
44:
245:'s 1405 polemical work) a "typical Ashkenazic polemic," and the
156:"Book of Belief and Opinions" (933) includes refutations of the
788:
Religious violence between Christians and Jews: medieval roots
486:
Josephus' Contra Apionem: studies in its character and context
706:
William Horbury Hebrew study from Ezra to Ben-Yehuda 1999 128
693:
Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979 in
814:
Latin-Into-Hebrew : Texts and Studies, I : Studies
574:
The Jews of medieval Islam: community, society, and identity
493:
Polemic and Apologetic Methods of Writing in Contra Apionem
428:
Fashioning Jewish identity in medieval western Christendom
677:
Holy people of the world: a cross-cultural encyclopedia
351:
in Paris until his death in 1611, among others such as
39:
Under the pre-Christian and Christianizing Roman Empire
525:, Revue des Études Juives 162 /3-4, 2003, pp. 403-419
408:
Christian polemics and apologetics in the Middle Ages
343:. Notable among apologetics of the 17th century was
607:
Religious apologetics - philosophical argumentation
398:
Proselytization and counter-proselytization of Jews
335:the religious landscape of Europe changed with the
488:Page 143 Louis H. Feldman, John R. Levison - 1996
71:Emperor Constantine’s legalization of Christianity
17:Jewish polemics and apologetics in the Middle Ages
164:'s arguments against the Jewish scriptures. The
860:Turim: Studies in Jewish History and Literature
691:Jewish-Christian Debate in the High Middle Ages
460:Judaism whose reality cannot be doubted." See:
379:"Shield and Sword", were designed to win back
65:authors. In the early centuries following the
8:
665:The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion
440:The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion
904:Lion shall roar: Leon Modena and his world
812:in R. Fontaine and G. Freudenthal (dir.),
557:Cursing the Christians?: A History of the
647:Page 204: "Joseph van Ess has suggested
519:Dialogue avec Tryphon, édition critique
419:
237:"The (old) Book of Victory" (in Latin
67:emergence of Christianity from Judaism
804:, Bibliothèque de l’EPHE, Paris,2015
7:
94:Dialogue of Athanasius and Zacchaeus
327:Renaissance and Counter-Reformation
241:, to distinguish from Prague rabbi
168:fragments include polemics against
816:, Leyde, Brill, 2013, pp. 349-390
14:
359:whose works were printed by the
160:, and more restrainedly against
98:Dialogue of Simon and Theophilus
453:Revue d’Histoire ecclésiastique
231:Around the same period are the
653:Questions concerning the Bible
545:The Harvard Theological Review
102:Dialogue of Timothy and Aquila
90:Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus
1:
547:, Vol. 89, No. 2 (Apr., 1996)
371:. Many polemical works, like
361:Jewish community of Amsterdam
275:"Faith strengthened" (1590).
259:"Book of Principles" (1420),
153:Kitab al-Amanat wal-I'tikadat
92:(2nd century), and the later
49:Apology on behalf of the Jews
833:dans l’Espagne du XVe siècle
287:, found in the responses of
267:"Light of the Lord" (1410),
578:Institute of Jewish Studies
473:The Encyclopedia of Judaism
957:
926:Jewish medieval literature
243:Yom-Tov Lipmann-Muhlhausen
21:conversion to Christianity
369:criticism of Christianity
756:High Middle Ages 2008 "
347:, personal physician to
309:Disputation of Barcelona
77:and, on the other side,
936:Medieval Jewish history
931:Jewish–Christian debate
848:The Jewish encyclopedia
765:Hanne Trautner-Kromann
455:107/1, 2012, pp. 5-48.
321:Disputation of Tortosa
279:Defences of the Talmud
835:, Madrid, CSIC, 2015
808:; Philippe Bobichon,
633:10.1163/9789004452848
590:Encyclopaedia Judaica
363:. Montalto's student
248:Sefer Joseph Hamekane
234:Sefer Nizzahon Yashan
137:Sefer Nestor Ha-Komer
31:(from "battles") and
786:Anna Sapir Abulafia
726:The medieval crusade
724:Susan Janet Ridyard
301:Disputation of Paris
84:Dialogue with Trypho
800:Philippe Bobichon,
357:Vindiciae Judaeorum
353:Menasseh ben Israel
341:Counter-Reformation
285:Jesus in the Talmud
100:(5th century), and
941:Jewish apologetics
365:Saul Levi Morteira
194:In Catholic Europe
63:Hellenistic Jewish
627:. Leiden: Brill.
206:Gospel of Matthew
201:Milhamoth ha-Shem
158:Christian Trinity
61:as well as other
948:
910:
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449:
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403:Jews for Judaism
289:Yechiel of Paris
257:Sefer Ha-Ikkarim
188:Greek philosophy
179:Kitab al Khazari
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349:Maria de Medici
345:Elijah Montalto
329:
281:
261:Chasdai Crescas
196:
122:
110:
104:(6th century).
96:(4th century),
41:
25:rarely to Islam
12:
11:
5:
954:
952:
944:
943:
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933:
928:
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821:
818:online article
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642:978-9004315471
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559:Birkat Haminim
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457:online article
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426:Robert Chazan
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377:Magen va-Herev
373:Leon of Modena
331:Following the
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297:Judah of Melun
293:Moses of Coucy
280:
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269:Isaac of Troki
239:Nizzahon vetus
226:Sefer ha-Berit
195:
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162:Hiwi al-Balkhi
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40:
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689:Berger David
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680:apologetics."
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649:Hiwi al-Balhi
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317:Astruc HaLevi
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313:Profiat Duran
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273:Hizzuk emunah
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182:"Book of the
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166:Cairo Genizah
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131:Toledot Yeshu
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88:and the lost
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79:Justin Martyr
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69:, but before
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64:
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59:
58:Against Apion
54:
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18:
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356:
355:, author of
330:
311:(1263), and
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246:
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232:
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222:Joseph Kimhi
220:
218:(c. 1385).
213:
199:
197:
177:
174:Judah Halevi
151:
146:
135:
129:
123:
111:
82:
75:Rabbi Tarfon
56:
48:
42:
27:. The terms
16:
15:
837:online book
806:online text
748:Ora Limor,
337:Reformation
333:Renaissance
305:Nachmanides
253:Joseph Albo
210:Ibn Shaprut
120:Under Islam
114:Middle Ages
108:Middle Ages
33:apologetics
920:Categories
885:1981 - 95
594:Cecil Roth
414:References
215:Touchstone
176:'s Arabic
170:Samaritans
23:, or more
863:Nazareth.
592:Volume 3
381:conversos
265:Or Adonai
142:Nestorian
623:(1999).
387:See also
323:(1413).
307:at the
303:(1240),
53:Josephus
29:polemics
319:at the
299:at the
184:Khazars
889:
773:
639:
597:1925).
295:, and
148:Saadia
51:, and
576:1995
126:Islam
45:Philo
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339:and
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