43:
362:
663:. While his assertion was not initially well-received, later intensive field studies of fossil beds lent weight to his claim. Eventually, most paleontologists began to accept the idea that the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous were largely or at least partly due to a massive Earth impact. However, even Walter Alvarez has acknowledged that there were other major changes on Earth even before the impact, such as a drop in
717:, 450–600 km (280–370 mi) in diameter, would substantially exceed Chicxulub in size and has been estimated to be about 66 mya, an age consistent with the K–Pg boundary. An impact at this site could have been the triggering event for the nearby Deccan Traps. However, this feature has not yet been accepted by the geologic community as an impact crater and may just be a sinkhole depression caused by salt withdrawal.
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177:
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31:
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861:), which proposes that volcanism might have gotten so intense as to "shoot up" material into a ballistic trajectory into space before it fell down as an impactor. Due to the spectacular nature of this proposed mechanism, the scientific community has largely reacted with skepticism to this hypothesis.
647:
The Deccan Traps could have caused extinction through several mechanisms, including the release of dust and sulfuric aerosols into the air which might have blocked sunlight and thereby reduced photosynthesis in plants. In addition, Deccan Trap volcanism might have resulted in carbon dioxide emissions
1579:
Schulte, Peter; Smit, Jan; Deutsch, Alexander; Salge, Tobias; Friese, Andrea; Beichel, Kilian (April 2012). "Tsunami backwash deposits with
Chicxulub impact ejecta and dinosaur remains from the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary in the La Popa Basin, Mexico: Cretaceous-Palaeogene event deposit, La Popa
643:
caused the extinction were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual, as the flood basalt events were thought to have started around 68 Ma and lasted for over 2 million years. However, there is evidence that two thirds of the Deccan Traps were created within 1 million years
869:
It is possible that more than one of these hypotheses may be a partial solution to the mystery, and that more than one of these events may have occurred. Both the Deccan Traps and the
Chicxulub impact may have been important contributors. For example, the most recent dating of the Deccan Traps
466:" (as it came to be known) was that no documented crater matched the event. This was not a lethal blow to the theory; while the crater resulting from the impact would have been larger than 250 km (160 mi) in diameter, Earth's geological processes hide or destroy craters over time.
553:, for which evidence has been found all around the coast of the Caribbean and eastern United States—marine sand in locations which were then inland, and vegetation debris and terrestrial rocks in marine sediments dated to the time of the impact.
675:
Several other craters also appear to have been formed about the time of the K–Pg boundary. This suggests the possibility of nearly simultaneous multiple impacts, perhaps from a fragmented asteroidal object, similar to the
736:
rock layers from various parts of the world, the later ones are terrestrial; earlier ones represent shorelines and the earliest represent seabeds. These layers do not show the tilting and distortion associated with
745:, that is, a buildout of sediment, but not necessarily a drop in sea level. No direct evidence exists for the cause of the regression, but the explanation which is currently accepted as the most likely is that the
644:
about 65.5 Ma, so these eruptions would have caused a fairly rapid extinction, possibly a period of thousands of years, but still a longer period than what would be expected from a single impact event.
1668:
Hofman C, Féraud G, Courtillot V (2000). "40Ar/39Ar dating of mineral separates and whole rocks from the
Western Ghats lava pile: further constraints on duration and age of the Deccan traps".
2209:
Richards, Mark A.; Alvarez, Walter; Self, Stephen; Karlstrom, Leif; Renne, Paul R.; Manga, Michael; Sprain, Courtney J.; Smit, Jan; Vanderkluysen, Loÿc; Gibson, Sally A. (November 2015).
38:, Alberta, Canada, where glacial and post-glacial erosion have exposed the K–Pg boundary along with much other sedimentation (the exact boundary is a thin line not obviously visible).
519:
in the Yucatán during the late 1970s. Penfield was initially unable to obtain evidence that the geological feature was a crater and gave up his search. Later, through contact with
549:
The shape and location of the crater indicate further causes of devastation in addition to the dust cloud. The asteroid landed right on the coast and would have caused gigantic
296:
1629:
Ohno, Sohsuke; Kadono, Toshihiko; Kurosawa, Kosuke; Hamura, Taiga; Sakaiya, Tatsuhiro; Shigemori, Keisuke; Hironaka, Yoichiro; Sano, Takayoshi; Watari, Takeshi; Otani, Kazuto;
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879:
497:, striking the Earth. The date of the impact coincides precisely with the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), slightly more than 66 million years ago.
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3014:
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The word "Cretaceous" is derived from the Latin "creta" (chalk). It is abbreviated K (as in "K–Pg boundary") for its German translation "Kreide" (chalk).
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445:
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1547:"Coarse-grained, clastic sandstone complex at the K/T boundary around the Gulf of Mexico: Deposition by tsunami waves induced by the Chicxulub impact?"
1783:
922:
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extinction. The regression would also have caused climate changes, partly by disrupting winds and ocean currents and partly by reducing the Earth's
546:
samples from the impact itself. The discoveries were widely seen as confirming current theories related to both the crater impact and its effects.
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2501:
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1940:"The Shiva Crater: Implications for Deccan Volcanism, India-Seychelles rifting, dinosaur extinction, and petroleum entrapment at the KT Boundary"
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A very large structure in the sea floor off the west coast of India was interpreted in 2006 as a crater by three researchers. The potential
2115:
Archibald, J. David; Fastovsky, David E. (2004). "Dinosaur
Extinction". In Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka (eds.).
970:
1633:; Sugita, Seiji (April 2014). "Production of sulphate-rich vapour during the Chicxulub impact and implications for ocean acidification".
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supports the idea that rapid eruption rates in the Deccan Traps may have been triggered by large seismic waves radiated by the impact.
2531:
2491:
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environments, since continental runoff now had longer distances to travel before reaching oceans. While this change was favorable to
2064:
Marshall, C. R.; Ward, P.D. (1996). "Sudden and
Gradual Molluscan Extinctions in the Latest Cretaceous of Western European Tethys".
1125:
Renne, P. R.; Deino, A. L.; Hilgen, F. J.; Kuiper, K. F.; Mark, D. F.; Mitchell, W. S.; Morgan, L. E.; Mundil, R.; Smit, J. (2013).
606:. This would have further reduced the sunlight reaching the Earth's surface and then over several days, precipitated planet-wide as
749:
became less active and therefore sank under their own weight as sediment from uplifted orogenic belts filled in structural basins.
523:
in 1990, Penfield obtained samples that suggested it was an impact feature. Evidence for the impact origin of the crater includes
1096:
505:
440:
hundreds of times greater than normal. They suggested that this layer was evidence of an impact event that triggered worldwide
1191:
Alvarez, L.W.; Alvarez, W.; Asaro, F.; Michel, H. V. (1980). "Extraterrestrial cause for the
Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction".
3009:
2256:
Renne, Paul R.; Sprain, Courtney J.; Richards, Mark A.; Self, Stephen; Vanderkluysen, Loÿc; Pande, Kanchan (2 October 2015).
500:
The crater is estimated to be over 150 km (93 mi) in diameter and 20 km (12 mi) in depth, well into the
2981:
2717:
2712:
2617:
1895:
1852:
1810:
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mass extinction. However, research concludes that this change would have been insufficient to cause the observed level of
655:
In the years when the Deccan Traps theory was linked to a slower extinction, Luis
Alvarez (who died in 1988) replied that
667:
and massive volcanic eruptions that produced the Indian Deccan Traps, and these may have contributed to the extinctions.
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Clear evidence exists that sea levels fell in the final stage of the
Cretaceous by more than at any other time in the
42:
822:
at the boundary is consistent with this hypothesis. However, analysis of the boundary layer sediments failed to find
677:
710:
would have been obscured by erosion and tectonic events such as the relentless northward drift of Africa and India.
3039:
3029:
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2319:
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2367:
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1314:
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2697:
2567:
1706:
Duncan, RA; Pyle, DG (1988). "Rapid eruption of the Deccan flood basalts at the
Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary".
271:
660:
1545:
Smit, J.; Roep, T.B.; Alvarez, W.; Montanari, A.; Claeys, P.; Grajales-Nishimura, J.M.; Bermudez, J. (1996).
3034:
2863:
2732:
2702:
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784:
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2341:
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discovered that sedimentary layers found all over the world at the
Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary contain a
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1208:
277:
2987:
2971:
2919:
1889:
1846:
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1804:
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1319:
884:
1001:
Renne; et al. (2013). "Time Scales of Critical Events Around the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary".
756:
area, which is the most species-rich part of the sea, and therefore could have been enough to cause a
504:
of the region of about 10–30 km (6.2–18.6 mi) depth. It makes the feature the second of the
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1987:
1715:
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that ten million years before had been host to diverse communities such as are found in rocks of the
733:
474:
1213:
2572:
1951:
1418:
889:
429:
417:
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240:
2258:"State shift in Deccan volcanism at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, possibly induced by impact"
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2153:
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2011:
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1410:
1234:
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and the generally accepted scientific theory is that this impact triggered the extinction event.
117:
2687:
2647:
1252:
Keller G, Adatte T, Stinnesbeck W, Rebolledo-Vieyra, Fucugauchi JU, Kramar U, Stüben D (2004).
977:
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2003:
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615:
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508:, and the only one whose peak ring is intact and directly accessible for scientific research.
501:
2029:
Liangquan, Li; Keller, Gerta (1998). "Abrupt deep-sea warming at the end of the Cretaceous".
1910:
1546:
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in which 75% of plant and animal species on Earth suddenly became extinct, including all non-
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392:
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Another discredited cause for the K–Pg extinction event is cosmic radiation from a nearby
746:
585:
528:
520:
449:
142:
Strong evidence exists that the extinction coincided with a large meteorite impact at the
849:
An attempt to link volcanism – like the Deccan Traps – and impact events causally in the
2352:
2273:
2226:
2167:
2077:
2042:
1991:
1719:
1646:
1508:
1444:
1382:
1364:"The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary"
1269:
1204:
1145:
1014:
189:
reveals part of the 180 km (110 mi) diameter ring of the crater. The numerous
2888:
2848:
2823:
2808:
2642:
2627:
2587:
2546:
2401:
1911:"Shiva structure: a possible K–Pg boundary impact crater on the western shelf of India"
685:
524:
421:
405:
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1516:
1288:
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2015:
1601:
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780:
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600:
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Complex Cretaceous-Paleogene clay layer (gray) in the Geulhemmergroeve tunnels near
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1974:
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82:
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of North America. The reduction of these seas greatly altered habitats, removing
2727:
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858:
795:
772:
542:
of the impact crater, hundreds of meters below the current sea floor, to obtain
425:
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792:
788:
512:
349:
246:
94:
35:
30:
2007:
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2119:(2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 672–684.
1464:"Drilling Into the Chicxulub Crater, Ground Zero of the Dinosaur Extinction"
1390:
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854:
838:
834:
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700:
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557:
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539:
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1325:
Planetary and Space Science Centre University of New Brunswick Fredericton
131:
which destroyed a majority of the world's Mesozoic species, including all
1127:"Time Scales of Critical Events Around the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary"
1092:"PIA03379: Shaded Relief with Height as Color, Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico"
914:
761:
726:
619:
486:
456:
190:
132:
113:
102:
1054:
Life: A Natural History of the First Four Billion Years of Life on Earth
2903:
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738:
689:
681:
603:
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532:
437:
90:
86:
79:
47:
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1727:
1654:
765:
610:, killing vegetation, plankton and organisms which build shells from
573:
478:
409:
339:
186:
2211:"Triggering of the largest Deccan eruptions by the Chicxulub impact"
921:), that is now discouraged as a formal geochronological unit by the
416:
In 1980, a team of researchers led by Nobel prize-winning physicist
2142:"Could a Nearby Supernova Explosion have Caused a Mass Extinction?"
803:
799:
490:
396:
41:
945:
Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G., eds. (2004).
853:
direction compared to the proposed Shiva crater is the so-called
50:, the Netherlands. Finger is just below the actual K–Pg boundary.
2333:"66 million-year-old deathbed linked to dinosaur-killing meteor"
1938:
Chatterjee, S; Guven, N; Yoshinobu, A & Donofrio, R (2003).
1909:
Chatterjee, S; Guven, N; Yoshinobu, A & Donofrio, R (2006).
1101:
976:. International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2012. Archived from
511:
The crater was discovered by Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield,
453:
193:
clustered around the trough of the crater suggest a prehistoric
182:
136:
2432:
2356:
2325:
105:
1362:
Schulte, P.; Alegret, L.; Arenillas, I.; et al. (2010).
538:
In 2016, a scientific drilling project drilled deep into the
1254:"Chicxulub impact predates the K-T boundary mass extinction"
771:
Marine regression also resulted in the reduction in area of
485:, after which the crater is named. It was formed by a large
116:
Era. Its age is usually estimated at 66 million years, with
2051:
10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0995:ADSWAT>2.3.CO;2
1918:
Special Publications of the Museum of Texas Tech University
699:, a 20 km (12 mi) diameter impact crater in the
93:
than other bands. The K–Pg boundary marks the end of the
652:
when the dust and aerosols cleared from the atmosphere.
493:
about 10–15 km (6.2–9.3 mi) in diameter, the
688:, a 24 km (15 mi) diameter impact crater in
1944:
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs
1616:
Dinosaur-Killing Asteroid Triggered Lethal Acid Rain,
913:
This former designation has as a part of it a term, '
462:
When it was originally proposed, one issue with the "
2912:
2781:
2560:
2484:
2390:
833:, a supernova byproduct which is the longest-lived
752:A severe regression would have greatly reduced the
345:
327:
288:
283:
270:
262:
254:
239:
231:
223:
215:
207:
202:
164:
1973:
1750:
584:O)), which would have ejected large quantities of
120:yielding a more precise age of 66.043 ± 0.011 Ma.
1120:
1118:
706:Any other craters that might have formed in the
2146:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1972:MacLeod, N.; Rawson, P.F.; et al. (1997).
1864:
1862:
1445:"Dinosaur asteroid hit 'worst possible place'"
768:and therefore increasing global temperatures.
2444:
2368:
949:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
8:
1554:Geological Society of America Special Papers
880:Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
741:; therefore, the likeliest explanation is a
506:largest confirmed impact structures on Earth
1975:"The Cretaceous–Tertiary biotic transition"
2451:
2437:
2429:
2375:
2361:
2353:
1877:. Archived from the original on 2011-08-04
1834:. Archived from the original on 2008-07-09
1792:. Archived from the original on 2011-06-03
787:. Another consequence was an expansion of
175:
161:
2281:
2185:
2175:
2157:
1701:
1699:
1287:
1277:
1212:
971:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart"
481:. Its center is located near the town of
123:The K–Pg boundary is associated with the
1462:St. Fleur, Nicholas (17 November 2016).
923:International Commission on Stratigraphy
368:
29:
27:Geological boundary between time periods
1757:. Princeton University Press. pp.
937:
906:
2215:Geological Society of America Bulletin
1887:
1844:
1802:
1309:
1307:
599:that combined with water to produce a
2384:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
446:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
197:in the depression left by the impact.
125:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
7:
1346:The Dinosaurs: Death of the Dinosaur
185:'s Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
1670:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2340:Preston, Douglas (29 March 2019).
1784:"Debating the Dinosaur Extinction"
25:
2331:Sanders, Robert (29 March 2019).
1980:Journal of the Geological Society
1517:10.1038/scientificamerican0302-76
108:, and marks the beginning of the
2551:
2545:
1594:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2011.01274.x
1097:Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
636:Before 2000, arguments that the
556:The asteroid landed in a bed of
408:(right) at the K-Pg Boundary in
367:
360:
332:
112:Period, the first period of the
1443:Amos, Jonathan (May 15, 2017).
721:Maastrichtian marine regression
648:which would have increased the
235:10–15 km (6.2–9.3 mi)
3025:Events that forced the climate
2140:Ellis, J; Schramm, DN (1995).
1869:Mullen, L (November 3, 2004).
1824:Mullen, L (October 20, 2004).
1782:Mullen, L (October 13, 2004).
1:
3015:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
2982:Lunar and Planetary Institute
2814:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
2086:10.1126/science.274.5291.1360
1753:T. rex and the Crater of Doom
1690:10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00159-X
1223:10.1126/science.208.4448.1095
1056:. Vintage. pp. 238–260.
250:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
89:of rock containing much more
2342:"The day the dinosaurs died"
1871:"Shiva: Another K–T impact?"
381:Location of Chicxulub crater
2874:Planar deformation features
1618:Livescience, March 09, 2014
1344:Penfield, Glen. Interview:
469:The Chicxulub crater is an
3061:
2977:Impact Field Studies Group
947:A geologic time scale 2004
629:
390:
170:Chicxulub impact structure
2543:
2466:
2460:Impact cratering on Earth
1894:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1851:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1809:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
515:who had been looking for
355:
174:
169:
2947:William Kenneth Hartmann
2613:Clearwater East and West
2561:Confirmed≥20 km diameter
2000:10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265
1950:(6): 168. Archived from
219:150 km (93 mi)
66:, formerly known as the
2864:Ordovician meteor event
2283:10.1126/science.aac7549
1682:2000E&PSL.180...13H
1391:10.1126/science.1177265
1279:10.1073/pnas.0400396101
1154:10.1126/science.1230492
1023:10.1126/science.1230492
785:Dinosaur Park Formation
777:Western Interior Seaway
693:(65.17 ± 0.64 Ma);
227:20 km (12 mi)
203:Impact crater/structure
2967:Eugene Merle Shoemaker
2844:Late Heavy Bombardment
1488:Becker, Luann (2002).
857:hypothesis (named for
802:environments, such as
684:. Among these are the
535:in surrounding areas.
473:buried underneath the
413:
278:Carbonaceous chondrite
51:
39:
3010:Earth Impact Database
2988:Traces of Catastrophe
2972:Earth Impact Database
2920:Ralph Belknap Baldwin
2177:10.1073/pnas.92.1.235
1875:Astrobiology Magazine
1831:Astrobiology Magazine
1789:Astrobiology Magazine
1320:Earth Impact Database
885:Sub-Paleogene surface
841:of 81 million years.
680:cometary impact with
671:Multiple impact event
659:were being misled by
420:, his son, geologist
400:
312:21.40000°N 89.51667°W
56:Cretaceous–Paleogene
45:
33:
2221:(11–12): 1507–1520.
896:References and notes
810:Supernova hypothesis
798:, those that prefer
68:Cretaceous–Tertiary
2274:2015Sci...350...76R
2227:2015GSAB..127.1507R
2168:1995PNAS...92..235E
2078:1996Sci...274.1360M
2072:(5291): 1360–1363.
2043:1998Geo....26..995L
1992:1997JGSoc.154..265M
1749:Alvarez, W (1997).
1720:1988Natur.333..841D
1647:2014NatGe...7..279O
1509:2002SciAm.286c..76B
1497:Scientific American
1424:on December 9, 2011
1383:2010Sci...327.1214S
1270:2004PNAS..101.3753K
1205:1980Sci...208.1095A
1199:(4448): 1095–1108.
1146:2013Sci...339..684R
1078:"Cretaceous Period"
1015:2013Sci...339..684R
890:Tanis (fossil site)
430:Helen Vaughn Michel
404:(left) and his son
317:21.40000; -89.51667
308: /
3020:Cretaceous geology
2884:Shock metamorphism
2789:Alvarez hypothesis
2393:Alvarez hypothesis
1826:"Multiple impacts"
1468:The New York Times
1052:Fortey, R (1999).
917:' (abbreviated as
495:Chicxulub impactor
464:Alvarez hypothesis
442:climate disruption
414:
118:radiometric dating
52:
40:
3040:Paleogene geology
3030:Extinction events
2997:
2996:
2937:Edward C. T. Chao
2426:
2425:
2126:978-0-520-24209-8
1768:978-0-691-01630-6
1714:(6176): 841–843.
1635:Nature Geoscience
1377:(5970): 1214–18.
1264:(11): 3753–3758.
1140:(6120): 684–687.
1063:978-0-375-70261-7
956:978-0-521-78142-8
901:Explanatory notes
754:continental shelf
739:mountain building
650:greenhouse effect
616:coccolithophorids
612:calcium carbonate
502:continental crust
475:Yucatán Peninsula
389:
388:
232:Impactor diameter
97:Period, the last
85:, usually a thin
16:(Redirected from
3052:
2962:Peter H. Schultz
2925:Daniel Barringer
2834:Impact structure
2555:
2549:
2453:
2446:
2439:
2430:
2418:Silverpit crater
2407:Chicxulub crater
2377:
2370:
2363:
2354:
2349:
2336:
2335:. Berkeley News.
2304:
2303:
2285:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2235:10.1130/B31167.1
2206:
2200:
2199:
2189:
2179:
2161:
2137:
2131:
2130:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2026:
2020:
2019:
1977:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1925:
1915:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1893:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1866:
1857:
1856:
1850:
1842:
1840:
1839:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1808:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1756:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1728:10.1038/333841a0
1703:
1694:
1693:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1655:10.1038/ngeo2095
1631:Matsui, Takafumi
1626:
1620:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1580:Basin, Mexico".
1576:
1570:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1551:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1494:
1490:"Repeated Blows"
1485:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1423:
1417:. Archived from
1368:
1359:
1353:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1311:
1302:
1301:
1291:
1281:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1216:
1188:
1182:
1181:
1131:
1122:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1080:. 15 April 2014.
1074:
1068:
1067:
1049:
1043:
1042:
998:
992:
991:
989:
988:
982:
975:
967:
961:
960:
942:
926:
911:
837:isotope, with a
832:
830:
829:
747:mid-ocean ridges
705:
704:(60–65 Ma).
697:Silverpit crater
694:
678:Shoemaker–Levy 9
598:
597:
596:
571:
570:
569:
393:Chicxulub crater
375:Chicxulub crater
371:
370:
364:
338:
336:
335:
323:
322:
320:
319:
318:
313:
309:
306:
305:
304:
301:
179:
165:Chicxulub crater
162:
158:Chicxulub crater
144:Chicxulub crater
21:
3060:
3059:
3055:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3000:
2999:
2998:
2993:
2942:Robert S. Dietz
2930:Barringer Medal
2908:
2819:Cryptoexplosion
2777:
2708:Puchezh-Katunki
2688:Nördlinger Ries
2556:
2550:
2541:
2507:Asia and Russia
2480:
2462:
2457:
2427:
2422:
2386:
2381:
2339:
2330:
2316:The KT Boundary
2312:
2307:
2268:(6256): 76–78.
2255:
2254:
2250:
2208:
2207:
2203:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2127:
2114:
2113:
2109:
2063:
2062:
2058:
2028:
2027:
2023:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1957:
1955:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1923:
1921:
1913:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1886:
1880:
1878:
1868:
1867:
1860:
1843:
1837:
1835:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1801:
1795:
1793:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1705:
1704:
1697:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1613:
1609:
1578:
1577:
1573:
1563:
1561:
1549:
1544:
1543:
1539:
1529:
1527:
1492:
1487:
1486:
1482:
1472:
1470:
1461:
1460:
1456:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1427:
1425:
1421:
1366:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1343:
1339:
1329:
1327:
1313:
1312:
1305:
1251:
1250:
1246:
1214:10.1.1.126.8496
1190:
1189:
1185:
1129:
1124:
1123:
1116:
1106:
1104:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1009:(6120): 684–7.
1000:
999:
995:
986:
984:
980:
973:
969:
968:
964:
957:
944:
943:
939:
935:
930:
929:
912:
908:
903:
898:
876:
867:
865:Multiple causes
847:
828:
826:
825:
824:
823:
820:iridium anomaly
812:
723:
703:
692:
673:
657:paleontologists
634:
628:
595:
592:
591:
590:
588:
586:sulfur trioxide
583:
579:
568:
565:
564:
563:
561:
529:gravity anomaly
521:Alan Hildebrand
450:mass extinction
444:and caused the
424:, and chemists
395:
385:
384:
383:
382:
379:
378:
377:
376:
372:
333:
331:
316:
314:
310:
307:
302:
299:
297:
295:
294:
249:
245:66.043 ± 0.011
198:
160:
155:
153:Proposed causes
129:mass extinction
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3058:
3056:
3048:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3035:Impact geology
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3002:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2922:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2889:Shocked quartz
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2849:Lechatelierite
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2824:Ejecta blanket
2821:
2816:
2811:
2809:Complex crater
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2603:Chesapeake Bay
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2488:
2486:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2478:
2473:
2467:
2464:
2463:
2458:
2456:
2455:
2448:
2441:
2433:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2404:
2402:Boltysh crater
2398:
2396:
2388:
2387:
2382:
2380:
2379:
2372:
2365:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2337:
2328:
2311:
2310:External links
2308:
2306:
2305:
2248:
2201:
2159:hep-ph/9303206
2152:(1): 235–238.
2132:
2125:
2117:The Dinosauria
2107:
2056:
2021:
1986:(2): 265–292.
1964:
1930:
1901:
1858:
1816:
1774:
1767:
1741:
1695:
1676:(1–2): 13–27.
1660:
1641:(4): 279–282.
1621:
1607:
1588:(3): 737–765.
1571:
1537:
1480:
1454:
1435:
1354:
1337:
1303:
1244:
1183:
1114:
1083:
1069:
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1044:
993:
962:
955:
936:
934:
931:
928:
927:
905:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
893:
892:
887:
882:
875:
872:
866:
863:
846:
843:
827:
818:explosion. An
811:
808:
781:coastal plains
775:, such as the
722:
719:
686:Boltysh crater
672:
669:
630:Main article:
627:
624:
593:
581:
577:
566:
525:shocked quartz
422:Walter Alvarez
406:Walter Alvarez
391:Main article:
387:
386:
380:
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373:
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365:
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172:
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166:
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156:
154:
151:
34:Badlands near
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3057:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3005:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2952:H. Jay Melosh
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2923:
2921:
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2915:
2911:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
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2870:
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2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2829:Impact crater
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
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2774:
2771:
2769:
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2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2733:Slate Islands
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2548:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2527:South America
2525:
2523:
2522:North America
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2483:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2471:Impact crater
2469:
2468:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2449:
2447:
2442:
2440:
2435:
2434:
2431:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2373:
2371:
2366:
2364:
2359:
2358:
2355:
2347:
2343:
2338:
2334:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2301:
2297:
2293:
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2279:
2275:
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2267:
2263:
2259:
2252:
2249:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2133:
2128:
2122:
2118:
2111:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2060:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2037:(11): 995–8.
2036:
2032:
2025:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1968:
1965:
1954:on 2008-10-12
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1931:
1919:
1912:
1905:
1902:
1897:
1891:
1876:
1872:
1865:
1863:
1859:
1854:
1848:
1833:
1832:
1827:
1820:
1817:
1812:
1806:
1791:
1790:
1785:
1778:
1775:
1770:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1754:
1745:
1742:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
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1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1611:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1582:Sedimentology
1575:
1572:
1559:
1555:
1548:
1541:
1538:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
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1469:
1465:
1458:
1455:
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1446:
1439:
1436:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1365:
1358:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1341:
1338:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1316:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1187:
1184:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1128:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1103:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1087:
1084:
1079:
1073:
1070:
1065:
1059:
1055:
1048:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
997:
994:
983:on 2013-07-17
979:
972:
966:
963:
958:
952:
948:
941:
938:
932:
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852:
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790:
786:
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778:
774:
769:
767:
763:
759:
755:
750:
748:
744:
740:
735:
732:
731:Maastrichtian
729:era. In some
728:
720:
718:
716:
711:
709:
702:
698:
691:
687:
683:
679:
670:
668:
666:
662:
658:
653:
651:
645:
642:
641:flood basalts
639:
633:
625:
623:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
602:
601:sulfuric acid
587:
575:
559:
554:
552:
547:
545:
541:
536:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
513:geophysicists
509:
507:
503:
498:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
471:impact crater
467:
465:
460:
458:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
434:concentration
431:
427:
423:
419:
412:, Italy, 1981
411:
407:
403:
399:
394:
363:
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351:
348:
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341:
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321:
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248:
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238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
201:
196:
195:oceanic basin
192:
188:
184:
181:Imaging from
178:
173:
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163:
157:
152:
150:
147:
145:
140:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
119:
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96:
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84:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
49:
44:
37:
32:
19:
2986:
2957:Graham Ryder
2879:Shatter cone
2869:Philippinite
2813:
2718:Saint Martin
2713:Rochechouart
2618:Gosses Bluff
2573:Amelia Creek
2476:Impact event
2413:Shiva crater
2345:
2320:
2265:
2261:
2251:
2218:
2214:
2204:
2149:
2145:
2135:
2116:
2110:
2069:
2065:
2059:
2034:
2030:
2024:
1983:
1979:
1967:
1956:. Retrieved
1952:the original
1947:
1943:
1933:
1922:. Retrieved
1917:
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773:epeiric seas
770:
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715:Shiva crater
712:
708:Tethys Ocean
674:
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638:Deccan Traps
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632:Deccan Traps
626:Deccan Traps
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18:K–T boundary
2753:Tookoonooka
2738:Steen River
2728:Siljan Ring
2658:Manicouagan
2643:Keurusselkä
2321:In Our Time
1530:January 28,
1315:"Chicxulub"
1107:October 28,
859:Jules Verne
796:vertebrates
661:sparse data
426:Frank Asaro
315: /
290:Coordinates
135:except for
3004:Categories
2894:Stishovite
2794:Australite
2773:Yarrabubba
2743:Strangways
2703:Presqu'île
2678:Montagnais
2648:Lappajärvi
2598:Charlevoix
2583:Beaverhead
2578:Araguainha
2532:By country
2502:Antarctica
2346:New Yorker
1958:2007-08-02
1924:2007-06-15
1881:2007-07-11
1838:2007-07-11
1796:2007-07-11
1473:4 November
1428:9 December
987:2013-12-18
933:References
793:freshwater
789:freshwater
743:regression
208:Confidence
95:Cretaceous
80:geological
36:Drumheller
3045:Volcanism
2859:Moldavite
2854:Meteorite
2839:Impactite
2768:Woodleigh
2763:Vredefort
2723:Shoemaker
2683:Morokweng
2668:Mistastin
2608:Chicxulub
2512:Australia
2492:Worldwide
2409:(primary)
2391:Proposed
2016:129654916
2008:0016-7649
1602:131038473
1564:19 August
1560:: 151–182
1399:0036-8075
1209:CiteSeerX
1162:0036-8075
855:Verneshot
845:Verneshot
839:half-life
835:plutonium
816:supernova
701:North Sea
665:sea level
608:acid rain
558:anhydrite
544:rock core
540:peak ring
517:petroleum
483:Chicxulub
457:dinosaurs
303:89°31′0″W
300:21°24′0″N
211:Confirmed
191:sinkholes
133:dinosaurs
110:Paleogene
83:signature
2913:Research
2758:Tunnunik
2653:Logancha
2623:Haughton
2593:Carswell
2537:Possible
2300:30612906
2292:26430116
2196:11607506
1525:11857903
1449:BBC News
1407:20203042
1348:. 1992,
1298:15004276
1239:16017767
1231:17783054
1170:23393261
1031:23393261
915:Tertiary
874:See also
762:ammonite
727:Mesozoic
695:and the
620:molluscs
551:tsunamis
533:tektites
487:asteroid
284:Location
216:Diameter
114:Cenozoic
103:Mesozoic
76:boundary
64:boundary
2904:Tektite
2899:Suevite
2804:Coesite
2799:Breccia
2748:Sudbury
2698:Popigai
2693:Obolon'
2673:Mjølnir
2638:Karakul
2628:Kamensk
2588:Boltysh
2568:Acraman
2395:craters
2324:at the
2270:Bibcode
2262:Science
2243:3463018
2223:Bibcode
2164:Bibcode
2102:1837900
2094:8910273
2074:Bibcode
2066:Science
2039:Bibcode
2031:Geology
1988:Bibcode
1759:130–146
1736:4351454
1716:Bibcode
1678:Bibcode
1643:Bibcode
1505:Bibcode
1415:2659741
1379:Bibcode
1371:Science
1266:Bibcode
1201:Bibcode
1193:Science
1178:6112274
1142:Bibcode
1134:Science
1039:6112274
1011:Bibcode
1003:Science
690:Ukraine
682:Jupiter
604:aerosol
438:iridium
350:Yucatán
328:Country
263:Drilled
255:Exposed
101:of the
91:iridium
78:, is a
48:Geulhem
2782:Topics
2663:Manson
2517:Europe
2497:Africa
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800:marine
766:albedo
758:marine
574:gypsum
531:, and
479:Mexico
410:Gubbio
340:Mexico
337:
272:Bolide
187:STS-99
99:period
2485:Lists
2296:S2CID
2239:S2CID
2187:42852
2154:arXiv
2098:S2CID
2012:S2CID
1914:(PDF)
1732:S2CID
1598:S2CID
1550:(PDF)
1493:(PDF)
1422:(PDF)
1411:S2CID
1367:(PDF)
1235:S2CID
1174:S2CID
1130:(PDF)
1035:S2CID
981:(PDF)
974:(PDF)
851:other
734:stage
576:(CaSO
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491:comet
454:avian
346:State
224:Depth
137:birds
2633:Kara
2288:PMID
2192:PMID
2121:ISBN
2090:PMID
2004:ISSN
1920:(50)
1896:link
1853:link
1811:link
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1532:2016
1521:PMID
1475:2017
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1403:PMID
1395:ISSN
1350:WHYY
1332:2008
1294:PMID
1258:PNAS
1227:PMID
1166:PMID
1158:ISSN
1109:2010
1102:NASA
1058:ISBN
1027:PMID
951:ISBN
618:and
580:·2(H
562:CaSO
527:, a
448:, a
428:and
402:Luis
274:type
183:NASA
127:, a
87:band
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2326:BBC
2318:on
2278:doi
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1996:doi
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