Kidney - Knowledge

1022: 1006: 510: 1492: 1800:, thereby expanding the extracellular fluid compartment and raising blood pressure. When renin levels are elevated, the concentrations of angiotensin II and aldosterone increase, leading to increased sodium chloride reabsorption, expansion of the extracellular fluid compartment, and an increase in blood pressure. Conversely, when renin levels are low, angiotensin II and aldosterone levels decrease, contracting the extracellular fluid compartment, and decreasing blood pressure. 57: 1054: 873: 1458: 1042: 2259: 2858: 2870: 2661:, the kidneys, like the heart, were left inside the mummified bodies, unlike other organs which were removed. Comparing this to the biblical statements, and to drawings of human body with the heart and two kidneys portraying a set of scales for weighing justice, it seems that the Egyptian beliefs had also connected the kidneys with judgement and perhaps with moral decisions. 1340: 2894: 1021: 2846: 2822: 2834: 2882: 76: 1830:) concentration in the blood. The respiratory system is the first line of defense when the body experiences and acid–base problem. It attempts to return the body pH to a value of 7.4 by controlling the respiratory rate. When the body is experiencing acidic conditions, it will increase the respiratory rate which in turn drives off CO 501:” is an adjective meaning “relating to the kidneys”, and its roots are French or late Latin. Whereas according to some opinions, "renal" should be replaced with "kidney" in scientific writings such as "kidney artery", other experts have advocated preserving the use of "renal" as appropriate including in "renal artery". 1503:

on the luminal cell membrane. Water is 55% reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. Glucose at normal plasma levels is completely reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. The mechanism for this is the Na/glucose cotransporter. A plasma level of 350 mg/dL will fully saturate the transporters and glucose will

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that eventually becomes urine. The adult human kidney generates approximately 180 liters of filtrate a day, most of which is reabsorbed. The normal range for a twenty four hour urine volume collection is 800 to 2,000 milliliters per day. The process is also known as hydrostatic filtration due to the

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have relatively large, elongated kidneys, each of which is divided into three or more distinct lobes. The lobes consists of several small, irregularly arranged, lobules, each centred on a branch of the ureter. Birds have small glomeruli, but about twice as many nephrons as similarly sized mammals.

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The pathologist will examine the specimen using light microscopy with multiple staining techniques (hematoxylin and eosin/H&E, PAS, trichrome, silver stain) on multiple level sections. Multiple immunofluorescence stains are performed to evaluate for antibody, protein and complement deposition.

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O to the left. On the luminal side of the cell there is a H pump and a H/K exchanger. These pumps move H against their gradient and therefore require ATP. These cells will remove H from the blood and move it to the filtrate which helps to increase the pH of the blood. On the basal side of the cell

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In humans, about 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and almost 70% of these genes are expressed in normal, adult kidneys. Just over 300 genes are more specifically expressed in the kidney, with only some 50 genes being highly specific for the kidney. Many of the corresponding

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Dialysis is a treatment that substitutes for the function of normal kidneys. Dialysis may be instituted when approximately 85%–90% of kidney function is lost, as indicated by a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of less than 15. Dialysis removes metabolic waste products as well as excess water and

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mechanism. This requires several independent nephron characteristics to operate: a tight hairpin configuration of the tubules, water and ion permeability in the descending limb of the loop, water impermeability in the ascending loop, and active ion transport out of most of the ascending limb. In

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consist of a number of lobules arranged in a broadly linear pattern. Each lobule contains a single branch of the ureter in its centre, into which the collecting ducts empty. Reptiles have relatively few nephrons compared with other amniotes of a similar size, possibly because of their lower

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The role of the renal biopsy is to diagnose renal disease in which the etiology is not clear based upon noninvasive means (clinical history, past medical history, medication history, physical exam, laboratory studies, imaging studies). In general, a renal pathologist will perform a detailed

2362:. Failure of one kidney to form occurs in approximately one in 750 live births. Failure of both kidneys to form used to be fatal; however, medical advances such as amnioinfusion therapy during pregnancy and peritoneal dialysis have made it possible to stay alive until a transplant can occur. 354:

is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each adult human kidney contains around 1 million nephrons, while a mouse kidney contains only about 12,500 nephrons. The kidneys also carry out functions independent of the nephrons. For example, they convert a precursor of

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Ideally, multiple core sections are obtained and evaluated for adequacy (presence of glomeruli) intraoperatively. A pathologist/pathology assistant divides the specimen(s) for submission for light microscopy, immunofluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy.

2595:. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney, in comparison with that of other vertebrates, include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids and a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla. The latter feature is due to the presence of elongated 992:. This becomes the ureter. At the hilum, the ureter and renal vein exit the kidney and the renal artery enters. Hilar fat and lymphatic tissue with lymph nodes surround these structures. The hilar fat is contiguous with a fat-filled cavity called the 1883:

is then able to move out into the blood which additionally raises the pH. The intercalated B cell responds very similarly, however, the membrane proteins are flipped from the intercalated A cells: the proton pumps are on the basal side and the

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The kidneys have two cells that help to maintain acid-base homeostasis: intercalated A and B cells. The intercalated A cells are stimulated when the body is experiencing acidic conditions. Under acidic conditions, the high concentration of

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sodium (thereby contributing to regulating blood pressure); and maintains many chemical levels within the body. Life expectancy is 5–10 years for those on dialysis; some live up to 30 years. Dialysis can occur via the blood (through a

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Finally, ultra-structural examination is performed with electron microscopy and may reveal the presence of electron-dense deposits or other characteristic abnormalities that may suggest an etiology for the patient's renal disease.

2700:, the priests were instructed to remove the kidneys and the adrenal gland covering the kidneys of the sheep, goat and cattle offerings, and to burn them on the altar, as the holy part of the "offering for God" never to be eaten. 2716:

s, receiving from all other systems, and therefore important in determining a person's health balance and temperament by the balance and mixture of the three 'Dosha's – the three health elements: Vatha (or Vata) – air, Pitta –

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Kidney stones have been identified and recorded about as long as written historical records exist. The urinary tract including the ureters, as well as their function to drain urine from the kidneys, has been described by

2543:, the kidney is unusually simple: it consists of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the archinephric duct. Invertebrates may possess excretory organs that are sometimes referred to as "kidneys", but, even in 4458: 2229:

Generally, humans can live normally with just one kidney, as one has more functioning renal tissue than is needed to survive. Only when the amount of functioning kidney tissue is greatly diminished does one develop

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treatment to break up the stones into smaller pieces, which are then passed through the urinary tract. One common symptom of kidney stones is a sharp to disabling pain in the middle and sides of the lower back or

541:, typically results in the right kidney being slightly lower and smaller than the left, and being placed slightly more to the middle than the left kidney. The left kidney is approximately at the vertebral level 2396:. The medical history takes into account present and past symptoms, especially those of kidney disease; recent infections; exposure to substances toxic to the kidney; and family history of kidney disease. 1393:

metabolism. The ability of mammals and some birds to concentrate wastes into a volume of urine much smaller than the volume of blood from which the wastes were extracted is dependent on an elaborate

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Secretion is the reverse of reabsorption: molecules are transported from the peritubular capillary through the interstitial fluid, then through the renal tubular cell and into the ultrafiltrate.

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and some amphibians, there is also a shorter duct, similar to the amniote ureter, which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the archinephric duct at the

1285:, the most abundant protein in urine with functions that prevent calcification and growth of bacteria. Specific proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the kidney with 2310:

Duplex kidneys, or double kidneys, occur in approximately 1% of the population. This occurrence normally causes no complications, but can occasionally cause urinary tract infections.

2434:(GFR) can be directly measured ("measured GFR", or mGFR) but this rarely done in everyday practice. Instead, special equations are used to calculate GFR ("estimated GFR", or eGFR). 3577: 2766:

and reflection, and a number of verses in the Bible (e.g. Ps. 7:9, Rev. 2:23) state that God searches out and inspects the kidneys, or "reins", of humans, together with the heart.

4327: 1912:(ADH), resulting in water reabsorption by the kidney and an increase in urine concentration. The two factors work together to return the plasma osmolality to its normal levels. 2292:) Dialysis is typically administered three times a week for several hours at free-standing dialysis centers, allowing recipients to lead an otherwise essentially normal life. 2945: 4450: 2118:(nephrolithiasis) are a relatively common and particularly painful disorder. A chronic condition can result in scars to the kidneys. The removal of kidney stones involves 1331:, proceeds through a series of three successive developmental phases: the pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros. The metanephros are primordia of the permanent kidney. 1035:

on the left side of scan (right side of body). Center: cross-section showing the kidneys below the liver and spleen. Right: further cross-section through the left kidney.

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between the convoluted tubules). It is only in mammals that the kidney takes on its classical "kidney" shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed

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morphological evaluation and integrate the morphologic findings with the clinical history and laboratory data, ultimately arriving at a pathological diagnosis. A renal

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According to studies in modern and ancient Hebrew, various body organs in humans and animals served also an emotional or logical role, today mostly attributed to the

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Modern Ayurveda practitioners, a practice which is characterized as pseudoscience, have attempted to revive these methods in medical procedures as part of Ayurveda

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Emamian SA, Nielsen MB, Pedersen JF, Ytte L (January 1993). "Kidney dimensions at sonography: correlation with age, sex, and habitus in 665 adult volunteers".

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are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. The collecting ducts from each cluster of nephrons usually drain into an

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be lost in the urine. A plasma glucose level of approximately 160 is sufficient to allow glucosuria, which is an important clinical clue to diabetes mellitus.

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and decreases the H concentration, therefore increasing the pH. In basic conditions, the respiratory rate will slow down so that the body holds onto more CO

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Uhlén M, Fagerberg L, Hallström BM, Lindskog C, Oksvold P, Mardinoglu A, et al. (January 2015). "Proteomics. Tissue-based map of the human proteome".

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is a physician who has undergone general training in anatomic pathology and additional specially training in the interpretation of renal biopsy specimens.

3220: 1373:. It processes the blood supplied to it via filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion; the consequence of those processes is the production of 5681: 1095:, which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. The interlobar arteries then supply blood to the 388:

are estimated between 5 and 7 million. Procedures used in the management of kidney disease include chemical and microscopic examination of the urine (

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is the amount of plasma that is actually filtered through the kidney. This can be defined using the equation. The kidney is a very complex organ and

4661: 1478:, is the process by which cells and large proteins are retained while materials of smaller molecular weights are filtered from the blood to make an 1234: 1281:

kidney specific proteins are expressed in the cell membrane and function as transporter proteins. The highest expressed kidney specific protein is

4067: 1888:/Cl exchanger and K/Cl co-transporter are on the luminal side. They function the same, but now release protons into the blood to decrease the pH. 3241: 5028: 5001: 4976: 4950: 4595: 4365: 4183: 4032: 4005: 3980: 3642: 3571: 3534: 3509: 3151: 3110: 3047: 3009: 189: 4937: 5216: 4829: 380:(CKD) has been recognized as a leading public health problem worldwide. The global estimated prevalence of CKD is 13.4%, and patients with 1190:, the urine-producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a nephron is the 4491: 3648: 3551: 4613:"The morphology and attachment of Protopolystoma xenopodis (Monogenea: Polystomatidae) infecting the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis" 4038: 3015: 1499:

Reabsorption is the transport of molecules from this ultrafiltrate and into the peritubular capillary. It is accomplished via selective

4323: 4777: 2532:. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult. 1041: 2969: 1425:. The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs, particularly those of the 996:. The renal sinus collectively contains the renal pelvis and calyces and separates these structures from the renal medullary tissue. 5153: 4302: 3606: 3355: 1875:/Cl exchanger and a Cl/K co-transporter (facilitated diffusion). When the reaction is pushed to the left it also increases the HCO 5483: 1822:

around a value of 7.4. The lungs are the part of respiratory system which helps to maintain acid–base homeostasis by regulating

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Molina DK, DiMaio VJ (September 2015). "Normal Organ Weights in Women: Part II-The Brain, Lungs, Liver, Spleen, and Kidneys".

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Molina DK, DiMaio VJ (December 2012). "Normal organ weights in men: part II – the brain, lungs, liver, spleen, and kidneys".

3259: 1163: 5381: 4561: 4424: 2549:, these are never homologous with the kidneys of vertebrates, and are more accurately referred to by other names, such as 2373: 1394: 208: 2426:

can evaluate for pH, protein, glucose, and the presence of blood. Microscopic analysis can also identify the presence of

1785: 1767: 5435: 5341: 4854: 4880:"A study on Tailabindu pariksha – An ancient Ayurvedic method of urine examination as a diagnostic and prognostic tool" 3669:

Cheng, Xiaofeng; Zhang, Yongsheng; Chen, Ruixi; Qian, Shenghui; Lv, Haijun; Liu, Xiuli; Zeng, Shaoqun (December 2022).

509: 314:: one-fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys is filtered. Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-free 5693: 2599:; these are much shorter in birds, and not truly present in other vertebrates (although the nephron often has a short 5473: 2450: 2431: 2247: 1446: 1418: 1229: 1151: 397: 1815: 1809: 1282: 5766: 5668: 5645: 5552: 4964: 2336: 2235: 2204: 2035: 1905: 1763: 1250: 613: 570: 491: 385: 5500: 4861: 3216: 1959:

that deals with kidney function and disease states related to renal malfunction and their management including

1479: 1122:. As with the arteriole distribution, the veins follow the same pattern: the interlobular provide blood to the 537:

position at a slightly oblique angle. The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity, caused by the position of the

172: 4451:"Diagnostic Approach to the Patient With Acute Kidney Injury (Acute Kidney Failure) or Chronic Kidney Disease" 2169:. Other frequent features of the nephrotic syndrome include swelling, low serum albumin, and high cholesterol. 1351:

located after the (dark red) distal convoluted tubule and before the large (gray) collecting duct (mislabeled

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has been used to better understand kidney function at several scales, including fluid uptake and secretion.

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Examples of substances that are reabsorbed in the kidneys, and the hormones that influence those processes.

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Nahon I, Waddington G, Dorey G, Adams R (2011). "The history of urologic surgery: from reeds to robotics".

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M. Cecilia Cirio; Eric D. de Groh; Mark P. de Caestecker; Alan J. Davidson; Neil A. Hukriede (April 2014).

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The first to examine the ureter through an internal approach, called ureteroscopy, rather than surgery was

5601: 5505: 5288: 4676: 4662:"Kidney mass and relative medullary thickness of rodents in relation to habitat, body size, and phylogeny" 3169:"Nomenclature in nephrology: preserving 'renal' and 'nephro' in the glossary of kidney health and disease" 2750: 2632: 2243: 2231: 2220: 2192: 2148: 2110: 1675: 1260: 1255: 1031:

of the abdomen showing the position of the kidneys. The left cross-section in the upper abdomen shows the

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Novick AC, Gill IS, Klein EA, Rackley R, Ross JH, Jones JS (2006). "Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction".

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is the volume of plasma from which the substance is completely cleared from the blood per unit time. The

1410: 1170:; the function of this is yet unclear. Sensory input from the kidney travels to the T10–11 levels of the 5703: 5356: 5196: 2745: 2442: 2281: 2199: 1964: 1500: 1491: 1320: 299: 250: 62: 4059: 3283:"Normal kidney size and its influencing factors - a 64-slice MDCT study of 1.040 asymptomatic patients" 635:

The superior pole of the right kidney is adjacent to the liver. For the left kidney, it is next to the

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Haschek, Wanda M.; Rousseaux, Colin G.; Wallig, Matthew A.; Bolon, Brad; Ochoa, Ricardo (2013-05-01).

2453:, should always be considered as supplementary imaging modalities in the assessment of renal disease. 1682:. In addition to transporting the ultrafiltrate, the collecting duct also takes part in reabsorption. 5565: 3925: 3167:

Kalantar-Zadeh K, McCullough PA, Agarwal SK, Beddhu S, Boaz M, Bruchfeld A, et al. (June 2021).

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Glodny B, Unterholzner V, Taferner B, Hofmann KJ, Rehder P, Strasak A, Petersen J (December 2009).

3245: 2783: 2635:. Kidney morphology, often indexed as the relative medullary thickness, is associated with habitat 2445:

is essential in the diagnosis and management of kidney-related diseases. Other modalities, such as

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Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction or UPJO; although most cases are congenital, some are acquired.

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that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla. Each arcuate artery supplies several

424:; one (or both sequentially) of these are almost always used when renal function drops below 15%. 5713: 5396: 5171: 4933: 4759: 4702: 4385: 4231: 3894: 3444: 3401: 3332:

Dragomir A, Hjortberg M, Romans GM. Bålens ytanatomy [Superficial anatomy of the trunk].

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The two organ systems that help regulate the body's acid–base balance are the kidneys and lungs.

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by the vessels carrying the blood supply to the nephron is essential for enabling this function.

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Habuka M, Fagerberg L, Hallström BM, Kampf C, Edlund K, Sivertsson Å, et al. (2014-12-31).

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Clapp WL (2009). "Renal Anatomy". In Zhou XJ, Laszik Z, Nadasdy T, D'Agati VD, Silva FG (eds.).

2712:, the kidneys were considered the beginning of the excursion channels system, the 'head' of the 2677:. The kidney is mentioned in several biblical verses in conjunction with the heart, much as the 1784:

concentration. Renin is the first in a series of important chemical messengers that make up the

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Glucose (100%), amino acids (100%), bicarbonate (90%), Na (65%), Cl (65%), phosphate (65%) and H

56: 3914:"The kidney transcriptome and proteome defined by transcriptomics and antibody-based profiling" 3728:"Mechanism of the antidiuretic effect associated with interruption of parasympathetic pathways" 3037: 2857: 2725:. The temperament and health of a person can then be seen in the resulting color of the urine. 5708: 5510: 5325: 5159: 5149: 5123: 5088: 4997: 4972: 4911: 4751: 4694: 4642: 4591: 4549: 4479: 4361: 4223: 4179: 4122: 4028: 4001: 3976: 3953: 3886: 3814: 3796: 3757: 3708: 3690: 3638: 3632: 3602: 3567: 3530: 3505: 3479: 3436: 3393: 3314: 3198: 3147: 3116: 3106: 3043: 3005: 2910: 2869: 2604: 2313: 1956: 1897: 1711: 1347:, shown here, is the functional unit of the kidneys. Its parts are labelled except the (gray) 1074: 922: 249:, usually without signs of external lobulation. They are located on the left and right in the 4734:

Salem ME, Eknoyan G (1999). "The kidney in ancient Egyptian medicine: where does it stand?".

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affects patients later in life. Approximately one in 1000 people will develop this condition

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is the enlargement of one or both of the kidneys caused by obstruction of the flow of urine.

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Section for human anatomy at the Department of Medical Biology, Uppsala University, Sweden

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that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a

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in adult human. Each renal artery branches into segmental arteries, dividing further into

1084: 654: 534: 514: 487: 439: 413: 393: 284: 242: 4294: 3671:"Anatomical Evidence for Parasympathetic Innervation of the Renal Vasculature and Pelvis" 2821: 3929: 3347: 2003:, whereas both are often called "kidney doctors". There are overlapping areas that both 1896:

The kidneys help maintain the water and salt level of the body. Any significant rise in

1788:. Changes in renin ultimately alter the output of this system, principally the hormones 1776:

predominantly depends upon the kidney. This primarily occurs through maintenance of the

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Maton A, Hopkins J, McLaughlin CW, Johnson S, Warner MQ, LaHart D, Wright JD (1993).

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61.a) states that one of the two kidneys counsels what is good, and the other evil.

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among species of mammals and diet (e.g., carnivores have only long loops of Henle).

1670:: the ultrafiltrate passes out of the nephron and travels through a tube called the 1507:

Amino acids are reabsorbed by sodium dependent transporters in the proximal tubule.

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into the urine. The microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the

1150:, whose fibers course along the renal arteries to reach each kidney. Input from the 5560: 5542: 5465: 5386: 5336: 5271: 5266: 5256: 4263: 3093:

Lv JC, Zhang LX (2019). "Prevalence and Disease Burden of Chronic Kidney Disease".

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Zhou, Xin J.; Laszik, Zoltan G.; Nadasdy, Tibor; D'Agati, Vivette D. (2017-03-02).

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approaches within the urinary system employed during the preceding two millennia.

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were understood to be the "seat" of emotion – grief, joy and pain. Similarly, the

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is far less common, but more severe, than the dominant condition. It is apparent

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Sangu PK, Kumar VM, Shekhar MS, Chagam MK, Goli PP, Tirupati PK (January 2011).

3102: 3097:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 1165. pp. 3–15. 2915: 2803: 2493: 2489: 2463: 2419: 2131: 2077: 1793: 1751: 1747: 1719: 1438: 1414: 1406: 1302: 1215: 1171: 1167: 993: 981: 934: 930: 906: 894: 593: 425: 323: 303: 4628: 4558: 4534: 4412: 3184: 1714:(low levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation. It stimulates 17: 5371: 5300: 5163: 4156: 3792: 3475: 2763: 2693: 2624: 2423: 2411: 2403: 2285: 2119: 2031: 2016: 2008: 1996: 1992: 1952: 1723: 1699: 1637: 1382: 1366: 1218:

structure of the kidney. The adult human kidney contains at least 26 distinct

1131: 962: 950: 890: 836: in) on the right side in adults. Median renal volumes were 146 cm ( 625: 601: 569:. Each kidney, with its adrenal gland is surrounded by two layers of fat: the 565:. The upper parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the 11th and 12th 479: 443: 389: 360: 331: 295: 291: 272: 124: 5008:

International Association for the History of Nephrology Congress, Reprint of

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Various calculations and methods are used to try to measure kidney function.

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Na is reabsorbed in exchange for K, and H, which is regulated by aldosterone.

201: 5570: 5450: 4896: 3882: 2791: 2697: 2566: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2505: 2050: 1739: 1727: 1386: 1339: 1298: 1219: 1211: 1178:. Thus, pain in the flank region may be referred from corresponding kidney. 356: 347: 343: 5127: 5092: 4915: 4755: 4698: 4646: 4553: 4227: 4000:(13th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 1129. 3957: 3890: 3818: 3712: 3686: 3440: 3397: 3318: 3299: 3202: 3120: 1590:

Na (10–20%), K, Cl; indirectly induces para cellular reabsorption of Mg, Ca

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is a deficiency of the tryptophan amino acid transporter, which results in

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ie Deut 3:4,9,10,15... or the Babylonian Talmud, Bechorot (39a) Ch6:Tr2...

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Kalantar-Zadeh K, Jafar TH, Nitsch D, Neuen BL, Perkovic V (August 2021).

4126: 3826: 3761: 3483: 2806:, was first described in 1941. Such an approach differed greatly from the 2250:

has fallen very low or if the renal dysfunction leads to severe symptoms.

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is infection of the kidneys and is frequently caused by complication of a

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Although the kidney cannot directly sense blood, long-term regulation of

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was translated. Kidneys were once popularly regarded as the seat of the

585: 549:, and the right is slightly lower. The right kidney sits just below the 80:

View of the kidneys from behind, showing their blood supply and drainage

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Secretion and reabsorption of various substances throughout the nephron

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This article is about human kidneys. For kidneys of other mammals, see

4747: 3743: 961:. Grossly, these structures take the shape of eight to 18 cone-shaped 953:, of the human kidney is divided into two major structures: the outer 498: 5593: 2744:

is related to the English word "reins", a synonym for the kidneys in

2682: 2678: 2592: 2529: 2492:

persists into the adult, albeit usually fused with the more advanced

1976: 1781: 1743: 902: 636: 605: 558: 319: 307: 276: 107: 2798:, which occurred in 1964. The insertion of a drainage tube into the 808:

A Danish study measured the median renal length to be 11.2 cm (

75: 4690: 4590:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 367–376. 5197:

Electron microscopic images of the kidney (Dr. Jastrow's EM-Atlas)

2776: 2759: 2722: 2670: 2166: 1980: 1703: 1490: 1462: 1430: 1374: 1338: 1032: 871: 554: 538: 371: 315: 280: 226: 148: 131: 66: 4971:(Second ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 60. 4449:

Post TW, Rose BD (December 2012). Curhan GC, Sheridan AM (eds.).

4105:

Weinstein AM (1994). "Mathematical models of tubular transport".

3777:"Kidney regeneration: common themes from the embryo to the adult" 1580:

Reabsorbs via medullary hypertonicity and makes urine hypertonic.

4024:

Seldin and Giebisch's The Kidney: Physiology and Pathophysiology

4021:

Alpern, Robert J.; Caplan, Michael; Moe, Orson W. (2012-12-31).

2718: 2584: 2520:

of amniotes. However, the situation is not always so simple; in

2501: 2415: 2041:

Medical terms related to the kidneys commonly use terms such as

1378: 557:. The left kidney sits below the diaphragm and posterior to the 290:

The kidney participates in the control of the volume of various

119: 5205: 3597:

Martini, Frederic; Tallitsch, Robert B.; Nath, Judi L. (2017).

2732:. These procedures have been called "nonsensical" by skeptics. 5057:"The history of urinary stones: in parallel with civilization" 1975:

that deals with kidney structure abnormalities such as kidney

969:. Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called 566: 4857:'s Report 12 of the Council of Scientific Affairs (A-97) and 4660:

al-Kahtani MA, Zuleta C, Caviedes-Vidal E, Garland T (2004).

4352:. Vol. 8. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. pp. S102–S108. 2388:

Many renal diseases are diagnosed on the basis of a detailed

608:

leave. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the

4143:

Thomas SR (2005). "Modelling and simulation of the kidney".

2500:

is the mesonephros restricted to the embryo. The kidneys of

2026:. Some causes are acquired over the course of life, such as 1365:

The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by

446:

is the medical specialty which addresses diseases of kidney

4778:"Body Part Metaphors in Biblical Hebrew by David Steinberg" 3558:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 195–203, 3142:

Cotran RS, Kumar V, Fausto N, Robbins SL, Abbas AK (2005).

1819: 4992:

Eknoyan G, Marketos SG, De Santo NG, eds. (January 1997).

1202:

is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single

4996:. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. p. 235. 3634:

The kidney: from normal development to congenital disease

3039:

Haschek and Rousseaux's Handbook of Toxicologic Pathology

2623:

Kidneys of various animals show evidence of evolutionary

3841:"The human proteome in kidney – The Human Protein Atlas" 1908:. An increase in osmolality causes the gland to secrete 1838:

and increases the H concentration and decreases the pH.

1666:

The last step in the processing of the ultrafiltrate is

1599:

O and the urine becomes less concentrated as it ascends.

1194:, which is located in the cortex. This is followed by a 5024:

intertextual.bible/text/revelation-2.23-berakhot-119.29

3421:

The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology

3378:

The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology

624:. The anterior (front) surface of these tissues is the 1293:

expressed in glomeruli, Solute carrier family protein

1047:

Image showing the structures that the kidney lies near

267:

inches) in length. They receive blood from the paired

65:

behind the abdomen, and act to filter blood to create

4969:

The Patient as Person: Explorations in Medical Ethics

3502:

Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approach

2970:"Kidneys: Anatomy, Function, Health & Conditions" 2376:

occurs in approximately one in every 2400 live births

1780:

compartment, the size of which depends on the plasma

1483:

hydrostatic pressure exerted on the capillary walls.

592:

border. A recessed area on the concave border is the

517:

with positions of the organs. The kidneys are at the

27:

Organ that filters blood and produces urine in humans

4178:. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. 1461:

Four main processes are involved in the creation of

5659: 5610: 5592: 5551: 5464: 5416: 5407: 5324: 5249: 5240: 4518:"Ultrasonography of the Kidney: A Pictorial Review" 4516:Hansen KL, Nielsen MB, Ewertsen C (December 2015). 2946:

List of distinct cell types in the adult human body

2075:. For example, surgical removal of the kidney is a 1110:Blood drains from the kidneys, ultimately into the 584:The human kidney is a bean-shaped structure with a 573:present between renal fascia and renal capsule and 207: 195: 183: 171: 159: 147: 142: 130: 118: 106: 90: 85: 49: 4413:"Chronic Kidney Disease: Detection and Evaluation" 4171: 2802:, bypassing the uterers and urinary tract, called 999:The kidneys possess no overtly moving structures. 241:are two reddish-brown bean-shaped blood-filtering 5144:Barrett KE, Barman SM, Yuan JX, Brooks H (2019). 4095:2013. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2013. Print. 2081:, while a reduction in kidney function is called 1276:Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression 1083:, left and right, which branch directly from the 470:addresses diseases of kidney (and urinary tract) 253:, and in adult humans are about 12 centimetres ( 4444: 4442: 1850:to move into the cell and push the reaction HCO 1015:with a pole to pole measurement of 9.34 cm 850: cu in) on the left and 134 cm ( 525:In humans, the kidneys are located high in the 5050: 5048: 5046: 5044: 4324:"Kidneys Fail, Girl Survives with Spare Parts" 3998:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 3144:Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease 2591:The human kidney is fairly typical of that of 2322:occurs in approximately one in 400 live births 2316:occurs in approximately one in 100 live births 1678:, and then to the ureters where it is renamed 1087:. The kidneys receive approximately 20–25% of 639:. Both, therefore, move down upon inhalation. 245:that are a multilobar, multipapillary form of 5217: 4851:List of topics characterized as pseudoscience 4510: 4508: 3675:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 2790:who is the first published use of a flexible 2348:Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease 2056:, meaning related to the kidney, is from the 822: in) on the left side and 10.9 cm ( 8: 2342:Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease 1063:specimen showing the position of the kidneys 628:, while the posterior (rear) surface is the 4611:Theunissen M, Tiedt L, Du Preez LH (2014). 4145:Journal of Biological Physics and Chemistry 3065:Principles of Renal Physiology, 5th edition 2161:has been damaged so that a large amount of 5413: 5246: 5224: 5210: 5202: 5176:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4087: 4085: 3973:Human Embryology and Developmental Biology 3004:. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. 2692:In the sacrifices offered at the biblical 1162:. The kidney also receives input from the 74: 55: 5082: 5072: 4934:"A Few Thoughts on Ayurvedic Mumbo-Jumbo" 4905: 4895: 4680: 4636: 4543: 4533: 4375: 4350:Operative Urology at the Cleveland Clinic 3947: 3937: 3808: 3751: 3702: 3556:The Design of Mammals: A Scaling Approach 3308: 3298: 3192: 3080:Junqueira's Basic Histology, 14th edition 5055:Tefekli A, Cezayirli F (November 2013). 4953:NGO and owner of the QuackWatch website. 3529:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 3495: 3493: 3095:Renal Fibrosis: Mechanisms and Therapies 2257: 1636:ADH acts on the V2 receptor and inserts 1517: 1456: 1305:expressed in the collecting duct cells. 1235:Kidney proximal tubule brush border cell 649: 641: 508: 34:. For kidneys of other vertebrates, see 3637:. Boston: Academic Press. p. 154. 3626: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3618: 2961: 2817: 2754:3.5), which was also the time when the 2535:In the most primitive vertebrates, the 2307:Congenital obstruction of urinary tract 1904:, which communicates directly with the 1718:(production of red blood cells) in the 1377:. These include the nitrogenous wastes 1001: 980:, of each pyramid empties urine into a 5169: 4393: 4383: 4138: 4136: 3601:(9th ed.). Pearson. p. 689. 3464:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology 1846:in the blood creates a gradient for CO 1405:The kidney participates in whole-body 1166:, by way of the renal branches of the 334:. Examples of substances secreted are 224: 46: 5146:Ganong's review of medical physiology 4951:National Council Against Health Fraud 4669:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 4581: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4427:from the original on 26 February 2021 4070:from the original on 21 November 2022 3732:The Journal of Clinical Investigation 3242:"Kidneys Location Stock Illustration" 3217:"HowStuffWorks How Your Kidney Works" 1474:Filtration, which takes place at the 1011:Normal adult right kidney as seen on 7: 4832:from the original on 9 November 2019 4295:"How many people have four kidneys?" 3975:(3rd ed.). Saint Louis: Mosby. 3550:Prothero, John William, ed. (2015), 3146:. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Saunders. 2488:In the majority of vertebrates, the 1730:, promotes intestinal absorption of 1547:will inhibit phosphate reabsorption. 4868:('The Skeptics Dictionary' website) 3726:Schrier RW, Berl T (October 1972). 2708:In ancient India, according to the 1319:The mammalian kidney develops from 1174:and is sensed in the corresponding 1079:The kidneys receive blood from the 988:, and major calyces empty into the 3631:Bard J, Vize PD, Woolf AS (2003). 3527:Silva's Diagnostic Renal Pathology 3001:Silva's Diagnostic Renal Pathology 2410:. The most common blood tests are 412:to evaluate for abnormal anatomy. 25: 5192:Kidney at the Human Protein Atlas 2786:in 1929. This was improved on by 1879:concentration in the cell and HCO 1690:The kidneys secrete a variety of 1261:Collecting duct intercalated cell 4780:. March 22, 2003. Archived from 4411:Gaitonde DY (15 December 2017). 4119:10.1146/annurev.physiol.56.1.691 4027:. Academic Press. p. 1405. 3042:. Academic Press. p. 1678. 2892: 2880: 2868: 2856: 2844: 2832: 2820: 1301:expressed in distal tubules and 1158:in the kidney, thereby reducing 1052: 1040: 1020: 1004: 864: cu in) on the right. 612:, which is itself surrounded by 5120:10.7257/1053-816X.2011.31.3.173 5031:from the original on 2022-12-15 4940:from the original on 2020-09-29 4514:Content initially copied from: 4494:from the original on 2019-05-01 4461:from the original on 2015-11-10 4330:from the original on 2010-05-21 4305:from the original on 2016-08-17 4274:from the original on 2017-09-26 4245:from the original on 2022-05-17 4041:from the original on 2023-07-22 3851:from the original on 2017-09-22 3651:from the original on 2023-08-17 3580:from the original on 2018-06-17 3358:from the original on 2022-05-31 3223:from the original on 2012-11-05 3018:from the original on 2023-04-04 1595:This region is impermeable to H 1297:expressed in proximal tubules, 1240:Loop of Henle thin segment cell 1226:Kidney glomerulus parietal cell 1222:. Distinct cell types include: 306:concentrations, and removal of 279:, a tube that carries excreted 275:. Each kidney is attached to a 5576:Extraglomerular mesangial cell 5456:Intraglomerular mesangial cell 5010:American Journal of Nephrology 4736:American Journal of Nephrology 4326:. Abcnews.go.com. 2010-05-18. 4093:First Aid for the USMLE Step 1 2696:and later on at the temple in 2627:and have long been studied in 2569:of the family Polystomatidae. 2193:Stage 5 Chronic Kidney Disease 2063:, meaning kidneys; the prefix 1606:Early distal convoluted tubule 1256:Collecting duct principal cell 1164:parasympathetic nervous system 561:. On top of each kidney is an 271:; blood exits into the paired 1: 4586:Romer AS, Parsons TS (1977). 4220:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00519-5 2374:Multicystic dysplastic kidney 1587:Thick ascending loop of Henle 1568:Thin descending loop of Henle 1395:countercurrent multiplication 949:The functional substance, or 396:by calculating the estimated 5436:Glomerular basement membrane 5138:General and cited references 4855:American Medical Association 4358:10.1007/978-1-59745-016-4_16 3939:10.1371/journal.pone.0116125 3564:10.1017/CBO9781316275108.016 3433:10.1097/PAF.0000000000000175 3390:10.1097/PAF.0b013e31823d29ad 1103:arteries that feed into the 665: 660: 5148:(26th ed.). New York. 4107:Annual Review of Physiology 3103:10.1007/978-981-13-8871-2_1 1955:is the subspeciality under 1710:is released in response to 1614:PTH causes Ca reabsorption. 1270:Gene and protein expression 1107:that supply the glomeruli. 984:; minor calyces empty into 428:is frequently used to cure 310:. Filtration occurs in the 5783: 5474:Proximal convoluted tubule 4535:10.3390/diagnostics6010002 4268:National Kidney Foundation 3185:10.1007/s40620-021-01011-3 2779:in the second century AD. 2481: 2432:glomerular filtration rate 2268: 2248:glomerular filtration rate 2214: 1945: 1919: 1807: 1761: 1447:atrial natriuretic peptide 1419:extracellular fluid volume 1358: 1312: 1273: 1230:Kidney glomerulus podocyte 1152:sympathetic nervous system 1072: 600:enters the kidney and the 529:, one on each side of the 398:glomerular filtration rate 29: 5669:Internal urethral orifice 5646:Median umbilical ligament 5553:Juxtaglomerular apparatus 5061:TheScientificWorldJournal 4802:Leviticus 3: 4, 10 and 15 4157:10.4024/230503.jbpc.05.02 3793:10.1007/S00467-013-2597-2 3476:10.2214/ajr.160.1.8416654 2710:Ayurvedic medical systems 2337:Polycystic kidney disease 2328:(Syndromic Wilm's tumour) 2236:Renal replacement therapy 2211:Kidney injury and failure 2205:Renovascular hypertension 2036:polycystic kidney disease 2022:There are many causes of 2011:can provide care such as 1906:posterior pituitary gland 1764:Blood pressure regulation 1758:Blood pressure regulation 1646: 1265:Interstitial kidney cells 1251:Kidney distal tubule cell 1130:, which come to form the 644: 492:urinary tract obstruction 386:renal replacement therapy 219: 73: 54: 5501:Distal convoluted tubule 4629:10.1051/parasite/2014020 4201:"Chronic kidney disease" 4174:Human Biology and Health 2246:, is indicated when the 2165:in the blood enters the 1892:Regulation of osmolality 1786:renin–angiotensin system 1768:Renin–angiotensin system 1726:, the activated form of 1521:Location of Reabsorption 1059:Cross-section through a 513:Image showing the human 5377:Peritubular capillaries 5012:; v. 14, no. 4–6, 1994. 4994:History of Nephrology 2 4897:10.4103/0974-8520.85735 4826:www.ayurvedacollege.com 4293:Sample I (2008-02-19). 3883:10.1126/science.1260419 3067:. Springer. p. 21. 2704:India: Ayurvedic system 2619:Evolutionary adaptation 2370:Unilateral small kidney 2177:urinary tract infection 1971:is the specialty under 1674:, which is part of the 1400:countercurrent exchange 1134:which exit the kidney. 61:The kidneys lie in the 40:Kidney (disambiguation) 5602:Ureteropelvic junction 5506:Collecting duct system 5289:medullary interstitium 4060:"Urine 24-hour volume" 3687:10.1681/ASN.2021111518 3336:(Report) (in Swedish). 3300:10.1186/1471-2490-9-19 2751:Merry Wives of Windsor 2633:comparative physiology 2422:. Urine tests such as 2266: 2244:kidney transplantation 2232:chronic kidney disease 2221:Chronic kidney disease 2149:Minimal change disease 2111:Interstitial nephritis 1936:mathematical modelling 1818:is the maintenance of 1676:collecting duct system 1496: 1466: 1356: 946: 919:Superior renal capsule 915:Inferior renal capsule 522: 418:kidney transplantation 378:Chronic kidney disease 221:Anatomical terminology 38:. For other uses, see 5566:Juxtaglomerular cells 4963:Ramsey P, Jonsen AR, 3504:. Elsevier/Saunders. 3173:Journal of Nephrology 3082:. Lange. p. 393. 2746:Shakespearean English 2736:Medieval Christianity 2443:Renal ultrasonography 2282:arteriovenous fistula 2261: 2200:Renal artery stenosis 1942:Clinical significance 1816:Acid–base homeostasis 1810:Acid–base homeostasis 1532:Early proximal tubule 1494: 1460: 1342: 1321:intermediate mesoderm 1274:Further information: 1118:) that converge into 875: 553:and posterior to the 512: 450:: these include CKD, 363:; and synthesize the 251:retroperitoneal space 63:retroperitoneal space 3845:www.proteinatlas.org 3781:Pediatric Nephrology 3270:on 10 February 2008. 2601:intermediate segment 2561:harbour specialized 2484:Kidney (vertebrates) 2394:physical examination 2188:Acute kidney failure 2137:Renal cell carcinoma 2095:Diabetic nephropathy 2028:diabetic nephropathy 1910:antidiuretic hormone 1443:antidiuretic hormone 1245:Thick ascending limb 1214:is the study of the 1146:communicate via the 1013:abdominal ultrasound 630:transversalis fascia 430:renal cell carcinoma 359:to its active form, 36:kidney (vertebrates) 5729:Lacunae of Morgagni 5674:Urethral sphincters 5074:10.1155/2013/423964 4853:, according to the 4588:The Vertebrate Body 3971:Carlson BM (2004). 3930:2014PLoSO...9k6125H 3078:Mescher AL (2016). 2643:Society and culture 2402:is tested by using 2332:Nutcracker syndrome 2290:peritoneal dialysis 2264:peritoneal dialysis 2217:Acute kidney injury 2030:whereas others are 2015:and kidney related 1932:filtration fraction 1900:is detected by the 1778:extracellular fluid 1640:on the luminal side 1524:Reabsorbed nutrient 1105:afferent arterioles 1093:interlobar arteries 883:Interlobular artery 460:acute kidney injury 456:nephrotic syndromes 4864:2016-08-10 at the 4859:claims by skeptics 4564:2017-10-16 at the 4214:(10302): 786–802. 2756:King James Version 2605:reniculate kidneys 2557:, kidneys and the 2522:cartilaginous fish 2430:and crystals. The 2296:Congenital disease 2284:), or through the 2267: 2155:nephrotic syndrome 2100:Glomerulonephritis 1983:and problems with 1916:Measuring function 1621:Collecting tubules 1497: 1467: 1453:Formation of urine 1398:addition, passive 1357: 1325:Kidney development 1315:Kidney development 1120:interlobular veins 1112:inferior vena cava 947: 523: 420:are used to treat 392:), measurement of 5749: 5748: 5588: 5587: 5584: 5583: 5511:Connecting tubule 5003:978-3-8055-6499-1 4978:978-0-300-09396-4 4949:M.D, head of the 4784:on March 22, 2003 4748:10.1159/000013440 4597:978-0-03-910284-5 4367:978-1-58829-081-6 4185:978-0-13-981176-0 4034:978-0-12-381463-0 4007:978-0-323-38930-3 3982:978-0-323-03649-8 3877:(6220): 1260419. 3744:10.1172/JCI107079 3738:(10): 2613–2620. 3681:(12): 2194–2210. 3644:978-0-12-722441-1 3573:978-1-107-11047-2 3536:978-0-521-87702-2 3511:978-1-4160-2328-9 3500:Boron WF (2004). 3153:978-0-7216-0187-8 3112:978-981-13-8871-2 3049:978-0-12-415765-1 3011:978-1-316-61398-6 2911:Artificial kidney 2814:Additional images 2510:archinephric duct 2314:Duplicated ureter 2238:, in the form of 2083:renal dysfunction 2071:word for kidney, 1957:Internal Medicine 1898:plasma osmolality 1804:Acid–base balance 1686:Hormone secretion 1651: 1650: 1411:acid–base balance 1349:connecting tubule 1126:then back to the 1075:Renal circulation 923:Interlobular vein 806: 805: 400:(eGFR) using the 300:acid-base balance 247:mammalian kidneys 235: 234: 230: 16:(Redirected from 5774: 5767:Endocrine system 5623:Vesical arteries 5446:Filtration slits 5431:Bowman's capsule 5414: 5247: 5226: 5219: 5212: 5203: 5181: 5175: 5167: 5132: 5131: 5108:Urologic Nursing 5103: 5097: 5096: 5086: 5076: 5052: 5039: 5038: 5037: 5036: 5019: 5013: 5007: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4960: 4954: 4948: 4946: 4945: 4926: 4920: 4919: 4909: 4899: 4875: 4869: 4848: 4842: 4841: 4839: 4837: 4828:. 7 April 2010. 4818: 4812: 4809: 4803: 4800: 4794: 4793: 4791: 4789: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4731: 4725: 4724: 4722: 4721: 4715: 4709:. Archived from 4684: 4666: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4640: 4608: 4602: 4601: 4583: 4568: 4557: 4547: 4537: 4512: 4503: 4502: 4500: 4499: 4484:Kidney Int Suppl 4476: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4455:www.uptodate.com 4446: 4437: 4436: 4434: 4432: 4417:Am Fam Physician 4408: 4402: 4401: 4395: 4391: 4389: 4381: 4379: 4345: 4339: 4338: 4336: 4335: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4311: 4310: 4290: 4284: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4251: 4250: 4244: 4205: 4196: 4190: 4189: 4177: 4167: 4161: 4160: 4140: 4131: 4130: 4102: 4096: 4089: 4080: 4079: 4077: 4075: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4047: 4046: 4018: 4012: 4011: 3996:Hall JE (2016). 3993: 3987: 3986: 3968: 3962: 3961: 3951: 3941: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3866: 3860: 3859: 3857: 3856: 3837: 3831: 3830: 3812: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3755: 3723: 3717: 3716: 3706: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3657: 3656: 3628: 3613: 3612: 3594: 3588: 3587: 3586: 3585: 3552:"Urinary system" 3547: 3541: 3540: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3497: 3488: 3487: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3416: 3410: 3409: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3364: 3363: 3344: 3338: 3337: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3312: 3302: 3278: 3272: 3271: 3266:. Archived from 3264:BioPortfolio Ltd 3256: 3250: 3249: 3244:. Archived from 3238: 3232: 3231: 3229: 3228: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3196: 3164: 3158: 3157: 3139: 3133: 3132: 3090: 3084: 3083: 3075: 3069: 3068: 3063:Lote CJ (2012). 3060: 3054: 3053: 3033: 3027: 3026: 3024: 3023: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2986: 2985: 2976:. Archived from 2974:Cleveland Clinic 2966: 2941:World Kidney Day 2931:Organ harvesting 2896: 2884: 2872: 2860: 2848: 2836: 2824: 2675:endocrine system 2320:Horseshoe kidney 2089:Acquired Disease 2073:nephros (νεφρός) 1746:which regulates 1553:stimulates Na, H 1518: 1449:, among others. 1427:endocrine system 1417:concentrations, 1361:Renal physiology 1207: 1160:renal blood flow 1156:vasoconstriction 1128:interlobar veins 1097:arcuate arteries 1056: 1044: 1024: 1008: 863: 862: 858: 855: 849: 848: 844: 841: 835: 834: 830: 827: 821: 820: 816: 813: 801: 800: 796: 793: 787: 786: 782: 779: 770: 769: 765: 762: 756: 755: 751: 748: 734: 733: 729: 726: 720: 719: 715: 712: 703: 702: 698: 695: 689: 688: 684: 681: 642: 577:superior to the 527:abdominal cavity 474:: these include 438:is the study of 436:Renal physiology 402:serum creatinine 266: 265: 261: 258: 227:edit on Wikidata 166:νεφρός (nephros) 101:endocrine system 78: 59: 47: 32:mammalian kidney 21: 5782: 5781: 5777: 5776: 5775: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5752: 5751: 5750: 5745: 5724:navicular fossa 5655: 5641:Detrusor muscle 5606: 5580: 5547: 5494:Thick ascending 5460: 5418:Renal corpuscle 5403: 5320: 5306:Cortical lobule 5236: 5232:Anatomy of the 5230: 5188: 5168: 5156: 5143: 5140: 5135: 5105: 5104: 5100: 5054: 5053: 5042: 5034: 5032: 5021: 5020: 5016: 5004: 4991: 4990: 4986: 4979: 4962: 4961: 4957: 4943: 4941: 4928: 4927: 4923: 4877: 4876: 4872: 4866:Wayback Machine 4849: 4845: 4835: 4833: 4820: 4819: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4787: 4785: 4776: 4775: 4771: 4733: 4732: 4728: 4719: 4717: 4713: 4682:10.1.1.407.8690 4664: 4659: 4658: 4654: 4610: 4609: 4605: 4598: 4585: 4584: 4571: 4566:Wayback Machine 4515: 4513: 4506: 4497: 4495: 4490:: 1–150. 2013. 4478: 4477: 4473: 4464: 4462: 4448: 4447: 4440: 4430: 4428: 4423:(96): 776–783. 4410: 4409: 4405: 4392: 4382: 4368: 4347: 4346: 4342: 4333: 4331: 4322: 4321: 4317: 4308: 4306: 4292: 4291: 4287: 4277: 4275: 4262: 4261: 4257: 4248: 4246: 4242: 4203: 4198: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4169: 4168: 4164: 4142: 4141: 4134: 4104: 4103: 4099: 4090: 4083: 4073: 4071: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4044: 4042: 4035: 4020: 4019: 4015: 4008: 3995: 3994: 3990: 3983: 3970: 3969: 3965: 3924:(12): e116125. 3911: 3910: 3906: 3868: 3867: 3863: 3854: 3852: 3839: 3838: 3834: 3774: 3773: 3769: 3725: 3724: 3720: 3668: 3667: 3663: 3654: 3652: 3645: 3630: 3629: 3616: 3609: 3596: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3581: 3574: 3549: 3548: 3544: 3537: 3524: 3523: 3519: 3512: 3499: 3498: 3491: 3461: 3460: 3456: 3418: 3417: 3413: 3375: 3374: 3370: 3361: 3359: 3346: 3345: 3341: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3258: 3257: 3253: 3240: 3239: 3235: 3226: 3224: 3215: 3214: 3210: 3166: 3165: 3161: 3154: 3141: 3140: 3136: 3113: 3092: 3091: 3087: 3077: 3076: 3072: 3062: 3061: 3057: 3050: 3035: 3034: 3030: 3021: 3019: 3012: 2997: 2996: 2992: 2983: 2981: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2954: 2907: 2900: 2897: 2888: 2885: 2876: 2873: 2864: 2861: 2852: 2849: 2840: 2837: 2828: 2825: 2816: 2772: 2740:The Latin term 2738: 2706: 2667: 2655: 2650: 2645: 2621: 2572:The kidneys of 2559:urinary bladder 2486: 2480: 2459: 2440: 2400:Kidney function 2390:medical history 2386: 2366:Renal dysplasia 2298: 2273: 2271:Kidney dialysis 2262:A depiction of 2256: 2227: 2215:Main articles: 2213: 2144:Lupus nephritis 2091: 2045:and the prefix 1965:transplantation 1950: 1944: 1928:Renal clearance 1924: 1922:Kidney function 1918: 1894: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1812: 1806: 1798:sodium chloride 1770: 1762:Main articles: 1760: 1688: 1672:collecting duct 1664: 1656: 1627: 1598: 1574: 1560: 1556: 1538: 1509:Hartnup disease 1489: 1476:renal corpuscle 1472: 1455: 1381:, from protein 1363: 1337: 1317: 1311: 1278: 1272: 1204:collecting duct 1192:renal corpuscle 1186: 1184: 1142:The kidney and 1140: 1085:abdominal aorta 1077: 1071: 1064: 1057: 1048: 1045: 1036: 1025: 1016: 1009: 945: 870: 860: 856: 853: 851: 846: 842: 839: 837: 832: 828: 825: 823: 818: 814: 811: 809: 798: 794: 791: 789: 784: 780: 777: 775: 774:35–190 g ( 767: 763: 760: 758: 753: 749: 746: 744: 743:40–175 g ( 731: 727: 724: 722: 717: 713: 710: 708: 707:80–175 g ( 700: 696: 693: 691: 686: 682: 679: 677: 676:80–160 g ( 655:reference range 535:retroperitoneal 533:, and lie in a 519:vertebral level 507: 488:ureteral stones 440:kidney function 394:kidney function 263: 259: 256: 254: 237:In humans, the 231: 81: 69: 43: 28: 23: 22: 18:Kidney Diseases 15: 12: 11: 5: 5780: 5778: 5770: 5769: 5764: 5754: 5753: 5747: 5746: 5744: 5743: 5741:Urinary meatus 5738: 5737: 5736: 5734:urethral gland 5731: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5698: 5697: 5696: 5691: 5690: 5689: 5684: 5671: 5665: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5637: 5636: 5633:Vaginal artery 5630: 5625: 5616: 5614: 5608: 5607: 5605: 5604: 5598: 5596: 5590: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5582: 5581: 5579: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5557: 5555: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5519: 5518: 5516:Papillary duct 5513: 5503: 5498: 5497: 5496: 5491: 5489:Thin ascending 5486: 5476: 5470: 5468: 5462: 5461: 5459: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5422: 5420: 5411: 5405: 5404: 5402: 5401: 5400: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5366: 5365: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5330: 5328: 5322: 5321: 5319: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5292: 5291: 5286: 5276: 5275: 5274: 5264: 5259: 5253: 5251: 5244: 5238: 5237: 5234:urinary system 5231: 5229: 5228: 5221: 5214: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5194: 5187: 5186:External links 5184: 5183: 5182: 5154: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5133: 5114:(3): 173–180. 5098: 5040: 5014: 5002: 4984: 4977: 4955: 4921: 4870: 4843: 4813: 4804: 4795: 4769: 4742:(2): 140–147. 4726: 4691:10.1086/420941 4675:(3): 346–365. 4652: 4603: 4596: 4569: 4504: 4471: 4438: 4403: 4394:|journal= 4366: 4340: 4315: 4285: 4270:. 2015-12-24. 4255: 4191: 4184: 4162: 4151:(2/3): 70–83. 4132: 4097: 4081: 4051: 4033: 4013: 4006: 3988: 3981: 3963: 3904: 3861: 3832: 3767: 3718: 3661: 3643: 3614: 3607: 3589: 3572: 3542: 3535: 3517: 3510: 3489: 3454: 3427:(3): 182–187. 3411: 3384:(4): 368–372. 3368: 3348:"Renal system" 3339: 3324: 3273: 3251: 3248:on 2013-09-27. 3233: 3219:. 2001-01-10. 3208: 3179:(3): 639–648. 3159: 3152: 3134: 3111: 3085: 3070: 3055: 3048: 3028: 3010: 2990: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2953: 2950: 2949: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2926:Organ donation 2923: 2918: 2913: 2906: 2903: 2902: 2901: 2898: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2879: 2877: 2874: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2855: 2853: 2850: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2831: 2829: 2826: 2819: 2815: 2812: 2771: 2768: 2737: 2734: 2721:, and Kapha – 2705: 2702: 2666: 2663: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2620: 2617: 2597:loops of Henle 2579:metabolic rate 2482:Main article: 2479: 2476: 2458: 2455: 2439: 2436: 2385: 2382: 2381: 2380: 2377: 2371: 2368: 2363: 2360:Renal agenesis 2357: 2356: 2355: 2345: 2334: 2329: 2326:Nephroblastoma 2323: 2317: 2311: 2308: 2305: 2303:hydronephrosis 2297: 2294: 2269:Main article: 2255: 2252: 2225:Kidney failure 2212: 2209: 2208: 2207: 2202: 2197: 2196: 2195: 2190: 2183:Kidney failure 2180: 2173:Pyelonephritis 2170: 2151: 2146: 2141: 2140: 2139: 2134: 2124: 2113: 2108: 2105:Hydronephrosis 2102: 2097: 2090: 2087: 2024:kidney disease 1948:Kidney disease 1946:Main article: 1943: 1940: 1920:Main article: 1917: 1914: 1893: 1890: 1885: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1871:there is a HCO 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1824:carbon dioxide 1808:Main article: 1805: 1802: 1790:angiotensin II 1774:blood pressure 1759: 1756: 1742:. Renin is an 1734:and the renal 1716:erythropoiesis 1708:Erythropoietin 1696:erythropoietin 1687: 1684: 1663: 1660: 1655: 1652: 1649: 1648: 1644: 1643: 1642: 1641: 1634: 1629: 1625: 1622: 1618: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1610: 1607: 1603: 1602: 1601: 1600: 1596: 1591: 1588: 1584: 1583: 1582: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1565: 1564: 1563: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1548: 1540: 1536: 1533: 1529: 1528: 1525: 1522: 1488: 1485: 1471: 1468: 1454: 1451: 1435:angiotensin II 1423:blood pressure 1359:Main article: 1336: 1333: 1327:, also called 1313:Main article: 1310: 1307: 1271: 1268: 1267: 1266: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1242: 1237: 1232: 1227: 1183: 1180: 1144:nervous system 1139: 1136: 1089:cardiac output 1081:renal arteries 1073:Main article: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1065: 1058: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1039: 1037: 1026: 1019: 1017: 1010: 1003: 957:and the inner 876: 869: 866: 804: 803: 772: 741: 737: 736: 705: 674: 670: 669: 664: 658: 657: 648: 521:of T12 to L3. 506: 503: 464:pyelonephritis 422:kidney failure 382:kidney failure 368:erythropoietin 269:renal arteries 233: 232: 223: 217: 216: 211: 205: 204: 199: 193: 192: 187: 181: 180: 175: 169: 168: 163: 157: 156: 151: 145: 144: 140: 139: 134: 128: 127: 122: 116: 115: 110: 104: 103: 97:Urinary system 94: 88: 87: 83: 82: 79: 71: 70: 60: 52: 51: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5779: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5759: 5757: 5742: 5739: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5704:pre-prostatic 5702: 5701: 5700:Male urethra 5699: 5695: 5692: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5676: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5658: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5628:Vesical veins 5626: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5609: 5603: 5600: 5599: 5597: 5595: 5591: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5554: 5550: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5528:Renal papilla 5526: 5524: 5523:Tubular fluid 5521: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5508: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5481: 5480: 5479:Loop of Henle 5477: 5475: 5472: 5471: 5469: 5467: 5463: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5419: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5406: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5369: 5367: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5334: 5332: 5331: 5329: 5327: 5323: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5311:Medullary ray 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5281: 5280: 5277: 5273: 5270: 5269: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5227: 5222: 5220: 5215: 5213: 5208: 5207: 5204: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5189: 5185: 5179: 5173: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5155:9781260122404 5151: 5147: 5142: 5141: 5137: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5102: 5099: 5094: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5051: 5049: 5047: 5045: 5041: 5030: 5026: 5025: 5018: 5015: 5011: 5005: 4999: 4995: 4988: 4985: 4980: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4959: 4956: 4952: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4925: 4922: 4917: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4874: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4847: 4844: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4817: 4814: 4808: 4805: 4799: 4796: 4783: 4779: 4773: 4770: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4730: 4727: 4716:on 2010-06-17 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4663: 4656: 4653: 4648: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4607: 4604: 4599: 4593: 4589: 4582: 4580: 4578: 4576: 4574: 4570: 4567: 4563: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4511: 4509: 4505: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4475: 4472: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4445: 4443: 4439: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4407: 4404: 4399: 4387: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4344: 4341: 4329: 4325: 4319: 4316: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4289: 4286: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4259: 4256: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4195: 4192: 4187: 4181: 4176: 4175: 4166: 4163: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4139: 4137: 4133: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4101: 4098: 4094: 4088: 4086: 4082: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4055: 4052: 4040: 4036: 4030: 4026: 4025: 4017: 4014: 4009: 4003: 3999: 3992: 3989: 3984: 3978: 3974: 3967: 3964: 3959: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3908: 3905: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3865: 3862: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3836: 3833: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3787:(4): 553–64. 3786: 3782: 3778: 3771: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3719: 3714: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3662: 3650: 3646: 3640: 3636: 3635: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3619: 3615: 3610: 3608:9780134320762 3604: 3600: 3599:Human Anatomy 3593: 3590: 3579: 3575: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3546: 3543: 3538: 3532: 3528: 3521: 3518: 3513: 3507: 3503: 3496: 3494: 3490: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3455: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3415: 3412: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3372: 3369: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3343: 3340: 3335: 3328: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3277: 3274: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3247: 3243: 3237: 3234: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3209: 3204: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3163: 3160: 3155: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3135: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3089: 3086: 3081: 3074: 3071: 3066: 3059: 3056: 3051: 3045: 3041: 3040: 3032: 3029: 3017: 3013: 3007: 3003: 3002: 2994: 2991: 2980:on 2023-06-29 2979: 2975: 2971: 2965: 2962: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2944: 2942: 2939: 2937: 2936:Pelvic kidney 2934: 2932: 2929: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2908: 2904: 2895: 2890: 2883: 2878: 2871: 2866: 2859: 2854: 2847: 2842: 2835: 2830: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2808:open surgical 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2784:Hampton Young 2780: 2778: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2752: 2747: 2743: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2730:Urine therapy 2726: 2724: 2720: 2715: 2711: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2690: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2659:ancient Egypt 2652: 2647: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2629:ecophysiology 2626: 2618: 2616: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2589: 2586: 2582: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2533: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2485: 2478:Other animals 2477: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2465: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2428:urinary casts 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2383: 2378: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2361: 2358: 2353: 2349: 2346: 2343: 2340: 2339: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2321: 2318: 2315: 2312: 2309: 2306: 2304: 2300: 2299: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2272: 2265: 2260: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2210: 2206: 2203: 2201: 2198: 2194: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2185: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2150: 2147: 2145: 2142: 2138: 2135: 2133: 2130: 2129: 2128: 2127:Kidney tumour 2125: 2121: 2117: 2116:Kidney stones 2114: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2101: 2098: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2088: 2086: 2084: 2080: 2079: 2074: 2070: 2069:Ancient Greek 2066: 2062: 2059: 2055: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2013:kidney stones 2010: 2006: 2005:nephrologists 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1989:Nephrologists 1986: 1985:urinary tract 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1949: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1923: 1915: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1891: 1889: 1839: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1811: 1803: 1801: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1769: 1765: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1661: 1659: 1653: 1645: 1639: 1635: 1632: 1631: 1630: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1613: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1579: 1578: 1577: 1570: 1567: 1566: 1561:reabsorption. 1552: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1541: 1534: 1531: 1530: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1505: 1502: 1493: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1480:ultrafiltrate 1477: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1409:, regulating 1408: 1403: 1401: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1362: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1341: 1334: 1332: 1330: 1329:nephrogenesis 1326: 1322: 1316: 1308: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1277: 1269: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1236: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1225: 1224: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1208: 1205: 1201: 1200:medullary ray 1197: 1193: 1189: 1181: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1137: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1124:arcuate veins 1121: 1117: 1113: 1108: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1076: 1068: 1062: 1055: 1050: 1043: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1023: 1018: 1014: 1007: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 991: 987: 986:major calyces 983: 979: 974: 972: 971:renal columns 968: 967:renal pyramid 964: 960: 959:renal medulla 956: 952: 944: 940: 939:Renal papilla 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 911:Renal capsule 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 879:Renal pyramid 874: 868:Gross anatomy 867: 865: 773: 742: 739: 738: 706: 675: 672: 671: 668: 663: 659: 656: 652: 647: 643: 640: 638: 633: 631: 627: 623: 622:pararenal fat 619: 615: 614:perirenal fat 611: 610:renal capsule 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 582: 580: 576: 575:pararenal fat 572: 571:perirenal fat 568: 564: 563:adrenal gland 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 520: 516: 511: 504: 502: 500: 495: 493: 489: 485: 484:kidney stones 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 406:kidney biopsy 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 373: 369: 366: 362: 358: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 288: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 252: 248: 244: 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