957:
65:
976:. The family tree shows the relationship of the languages within a family, much as a family tree of an individual shows their relationship with their relatives. There are criticisms to the family tree model. Critics focus mainly on the claim that the internal structure of the trees is subject to variation based on the criteria of classification. Even among those who support the family tree model, there are debates over which languages should be included in a language family. For example, within the dubious
663:, are descendant from a single ancestral language. If that is true, it would mean all languages (other than pidgins, creoles, and sign languages) are genetically related, but in many cases, the relationships may be too remote to be detectable. Alternative explanations for some basic observed commonalities between languages include developmental theories, related to the biological development of the capacity for language as the child grows from newborn.
1191:. Pidgins are an example of linguistic and cultural expansion caused by language contact. However, language contact can also lead to cultural divisions. In some cases, two different language speaking groups can feel territorial towards their language and do not want any changes to be made to it. This causes language boundaries and groups in contact are not willing to make any compromises to accommodate the other language.
1022:
677:
538:: i.e., words in related languages that are derived from the same word in the shared ancestral language. Pairs of words that have similar pronunciations and meanings in the two languages are often good candidates for hypothetical cognates. The researcher must rule out the possibility that the two words are similar merely due to chance, or due to one having
759:, the common ancestor of the Indo-European family. Within a large family, subfamilies can be identified through "shared innovations": members of a subfamily will share features that represent retentions from their more recent common ancestor, but were not present in the overall proto-language of the larger family.
209:. These supposed relationships were later discovered to be derived through language contact and thus they are not truly related. Eventually though, high amounts of language contact and inconsistent changes will render it essentially impossible to derive any more relationships; even the oldest language family,
1135:
that are far more likely to be areal features than traceable to a common proto-language. But legitimate uncertainty about whether shared innovations are areal features, coincidence, or inheritance from a common ancestor, leads to disagreement over the proper subdivisions of any large language family.
1186:
Language contact can lead to the development of new languages from the mixture of two or more languages for the purposes of interactions between two groups who speak different languages. Languages that arise in order for two groups to communicate with each other to engage in commercial trade or that
1089:
is a geographic area having several languages that feature common linguistic structures. The similarities between those languages are caused by language contact, not by chance or common origin, and are not recognized as criteria that define a language family. An example of a sprachbund would be the
596:
in this way. However, such influence does not constitute (and is not a measure of) a genetic relationship between the languages concerned. Linguistic interference can occur between languages that are genetically closely related, between languages that are distantly related (like
English and French,
547:
have been eliminated as possible explanations for similarities in sound and meaning of words, the remaining explanation is common origin: it is inferred that the similarities occurred due to descent from a common ancestor, and the words are actually cognates, implying the languages must be related.
999:
to group language varieties; unlike in the tree model, these groups can overlap. While the tree model implies a lack of contact between languages after derivation from an ancestral form, the wave model emphasizes the relationship between languages that remain in contact, which is more realistic.
448:
There is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the putative phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically (by ancestry) as opposed to
1182:
have developed in isolation and appear to have no relatives at all. Nonetheless, such cases are relatively rare and most well-attested languages can be unambiguously classified as belonging to one language family or another, even if this family's relation to other families is not known.
829:
in which there are no clear-cut borders that make it possible to unequivocally identify, define, or count individual languages within the family. However, when the differences between the speech of different regions at the extremes of the continuum are so great that there is no
912:, spoken in Roman times, may have been an ancestor of Basque, but it could also have been a sister language to the ancestor of Basque. In the latter case, Basque and Aquitanian would form a small family together. Ancestors are not considered to be distinct members of a family.
930:) being the root from which all languages in the family stem. The common ancestor of a language family is seldom known directly since most languages have a relatively short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many features of a proto-language by applying the
542:
the words from the other (or from a language related to the other). Chance resemblance is ruled out by the existence of large collections of pairs of words between the two languages showing similar patterns of phonetic similarity. Once coincidental similarity and
634:
are languages that cannot be proven to be genealogically related to any other modern language. As a corollary, every language isolate also forms its own language family — a genetic family which happens to consist of just one language. One often cited example is
1122:
greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, since
English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar unique innovations in
907:
is an absolute isolate: it has not been shown to be related to any other modern language despite numerous attempts. A language may be said to be an isolate currently but not historically if related but now extinct relatives are attested. The
841:
A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations. Thus, different sources, especially over time, can give wildly different numbers of languages within a certain family.
174:— languages that are not related to any other language — are occasionally referred to as families that contain one language. Inversely, there is no upper bound to the number of languages a family can contain. Some families, such as the
1162:, which over time may diverge into distinct languages. However, linguistic ancestry is less clear-cut than familiar biological ancestry, in which species do not crossbreed. It is more like the evolution of microbes, with extensive
1097:
Shared innovations, acquired by borrowing or other means, are not considered genetic and have no bearing with the language family concept. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by
887:
A language isolate is classified based on the fact that enough is known about the isolate to compare it genetically to other languages but no common ancestry or relationship is found with any other known language.
518:
In other cases, genetic relationships between languages are not directly attested. For instance, the
Romance languages and the North Germanic languages are also related to each other, being subfamilies of the
527:; however, no direct evidence of Proto-Indo-European or its divergence into its descendant languages survives. In cases such as these, genetic relationships are established through use of the
884:. In general, it is assumed that language isolates have relatives or had relatives at some point in their history but at a time depth too great for linguistic comparison to recover them.
628:
Mixed languages, pidgins and creole languages constitute special genetic types of languages. They do not descend linearly or directly from a single language and have no single ancestor.
437:, or one is descended from the other. The term and the process of language evolution are independent of, and not reliant on, the terminology, understanding, and theories related to
876:
Most of the world's languages are known to be related to others. Those that have no known relatives (or for which family relationships are only tentatively proposed) are called
2646:(rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). . Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996).
1984:"How hopeless is genealogical linguistics, and how advanced is areal linguistics? — Review of Aikhenvald & Dixon (2001): Areal diffusion and genetic inheritance"
185:
are one of the strongest pieces of evidence that can be used to identify a genetic relationship because of their predictable and consistent nature, and through the
4717:
1550:
534:
In order to test the hypothesis that two languages are related, the comparative method begins with the collection of pairs of words that are hypothesized to be
515:. Latin and ancient Norse are both attested in written records, as are many intermediate stages between those ancestral languages and their modern descendants.
807:
is sometimes applied to proposed groupings of language families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted
2819:
743:. Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, sometimes referred to as "branches" or "subfamilies" of the family; for instance, the
2595:(Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington, D.C.: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
843:
2717:
331:
5.0 (2024) lists the following as the largest families, of 7,788 languages (other than sign languages, pidgins, and unclassifiable languages):
2040:
1686:
1652:
1590:
4342:
2452:
163:
family, which includes many other languages native to Europe and South Asia, all believed to have descended from a common ancestor known as
4232:
3813:
1420:
2430:
794:
to that fourth branch, then the two sister languages are more closely related to each other than to that common ancestral proto-language.
880:, essentially language families consisting of a single language. There are an estimated 129 language isolates known today. An example is
3314:
899:
within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate, but the meaning of the word "isolate" in such cases is usually clarified with a
4499:
2025:
733:
unit; all its members derive from a common ancestor, and all descendants of that ancestor are included in the family. Thus, the term
2707:
2699:
2666:
2651:
2636:
2614:
2582:
2385:
1061:
948:. Proto-Indo-European is not attested by written records and so is conjectured to have been spoken before the invention of writing.
716:
4475:
3714:
1039:
694:
4840:
3633:
3569:
2812:
1361:
283:
4246:
3997:
3488:
366:
265:
116:. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, with different
1043:
903:. For instance, Albanian and Armenian may be referred to as an "Indo-European isolate". By contrast, so far as is known, the
698:
4359:
3494:
770:
to a certain level, but there is little consensus on how to do so. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into
639:, which forms a language family on its own; but there are many other examples outside Europe. On the global scale, the site
2631:. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
4712:
3319:
3105:
3099:
3023:
520:
4406:
3694:
1410:
786:. The closer the branches are to each other, the more closely the languages will be related. This means if a branch of a
335:
4722:
4707:
3707:
3465:
3426:
944:
4481:
3339:
2415:
Georg, Stefan, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis
Manaster Ramer, and Paul J. Sidwell. Telling General Linguists about Altaic.
846:, for example, range from one language (a language isolate with dialects) to nearly twenty—until the classification of
38:
4850:
4702:
4696:
3754:
3672:
3645:
3349:
4268:
3726:
3384:
3344:
3334:
4845:
3929:
3524:
3354:
3040:
2805:
4487:
4463:
4438:
4411:
4394:
3302:
2873:
2403:
Polygenesis, Convergence, and
Entropy: An Alternative Model of Linguistic Evolution Applied to Semitic Linguistics
1228:
1032:
687:
4680:
3404:
3359:
3329:
2828:
2131:
2057:
1545:
1525:
1258:
939:
222:
4159:
3991:
3046:
2862:
1314:
4727:
4534:
4171:
3053:
1585:
1294:
492:
64:
433:, and belong to the same language family, if both are descended from a common ancestor through the process of
1782:"Which way to the dawn of speech?: Reanalyzing half a century of debates and data in light of speech science"
3732:
3657:
3060:
3010:
2574:
1751:"Review of Robbeets, Martine (2015): Diachrony of verb morphology. Japanese and the Transeurasian languages"
1495:
1332:
1249:
1119:
956:
851:
748:
384:
347:
307:
277:
249:
27 (2024) lists the following families that contain at least 1% of the 7,164 known languages in the world:
4746:
4594:
4389:
4384:
4165:
4118:
3748:
3665:
3324:
3308:
3116:
3017:
2880:
2856:
1530:
1343:
1305:
1218:
1001:
977:
831:
808:
598:
378:
372:
359:
353:
341:
301:
295:
271:
259:
175:
93:
3082:
1323:
4792:
4690:
4379:
4182:
3972:
3961:
3923:
3530:
3504:
3409:
3399:
2998:
2849:
1580:
1477:
1397:
1209:
1163:
1005:
463:
In some cases, the shared derivation of a group of related languages from a common ancestor is directly
289:
253:
210:
4493:
4218:
2021:
751:
family. Subfamilies share a more recent common ancestor than the common ancestor of the larger family;
4767:
4652:
4524:
4332:
4305:
4288:
4256:
4154:
3868:
3793:
3720:
3499:
3476:
3448:
3379:
3290:
3071:
2714:
2224:
2147:
2077:
1565:
1500:
1466:
1370:
900:
652:
512:
4544:
4448:
4348:
4337:
4299:
4278:
4176:
4135:
3910:
3892:
3886:
3861:
3854:
3847:
3760:
3743:
3482:
3148:
3135:
3029:
2979:
2836:
1505:
1276:
1091:
909:
756:
524:
480:
396:
390:
319:
164:
144:
942:. For example, the reconstructible common ancestor of the Indo-European language family is called
523:, since both Latin and Old Norse are believed to be descended from an even more ancient language,
4458:
4453:
4443:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4400:
4369:
4364:
4317:
4311:
4262:
4207:
4130:
4014:
3978:
3939:
3881:
3688:
3683:
3394:
3153:
3122:
3088:
3076:
3035:
2910:
2746:(Vol. 1–20). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).
2242:
2165:
2095:
1918:
1555:
1124:
931:
763:
744:
528:
508:
504:
458:
402:
198:
194:
186:
105:
4555:
4518:
2440:. Senri Ethnological Studies. Vol. 98. Ōsaka: National Museum of Ethnology. pp. 59–89.
2539:
1158:
The concept of language families is based on the historical observation that languages develop
17:
4560:
4549:
4529:
4469:
4374:
4354:
4293:
4273:
3984:
3945:
3916:
3904:
3841:
3787:
3765:
3738:
3678:
3651:
3470:
3431:
3421:
3389:
3262:
3188:
3170:
3164:
3066:
2984:
2898:
2867:
2703:
2695:
2685:
When
Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge
2662:
2647:
2632:
2610:
2578:
2521:
2503:
2438:
Let's Talk about Trees: Genetic
Relationships of Languages and Their Phylogenic Representation
2381:
2356:
2260:
2183:
2113:
2036:
1979:
1910:
1682:
1676:
1648:
1642:
1406:
1238:
935:
896:
892:
855:
847:
826:
825:
Some close-knit language families, and many branches within larger families, take the form of
820:
593:
561:
484:
468:
464:
409:
Language counts can vary significantly depending on what is considered a dialect; for example
313:
148:
128:
101:
964:
A common visual representation of a language family is given by a genetic language tree. The
4777:
4637:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4576:
4570:
4565:
4539:
4432:
4327:
4251:
4189:
4141:
4076:
4069:
4062:
4055:
4048:
4037:
4021:
3956:
3951:
3934:
3875:
3769:
3701:
3612:
3579:
3557:
3547:
3443:
3415:
3364:
3285:
3269:
3255:
3237:
3230:
3216:
3176:
3158:
3142:
3128:
2950:
2933:
2602:(Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. GlĂĽckstadt: J.J. Augustin.
2511:
2495:
2431:"Freeing the Comparative Method from the tree model: A framework for Historical Glottometry"
2346:
2317:
2250:
2232:
2209:
2201:
2173:
2155:
2103:
2085:
1995:
1900:
1890:
1801:
1793:
1762:
1520:
1510:
1448:
1352:
1285:
1267:
1167:
1132:
1128:
1111:
1099:
877:
871:
859:
631:
610:
589:
577:
569:
557:
500:
476:
472:
206:
202:
190:
171:
152:
140:
132:
117:
4772:
4647:
4632:
4601:
4322:
4283:
4148:
4094:
3966:
3828:
3594:
3589:
3454:
3369:
3250:
3243:
3223:
3205:
3110:
3093:
2892:
2721:
2482:"Networks of lexical borrowing and lateral gene transfer in language and genome evolution"
2309:
1617:
1431:
1388:
1171:
1149:
904:
881:
791:
656:
636:
622:
573:
565:
496:
488:
434:
234:
136:
121:
1004:
is an application of the wave model, meant to identify and evaluate genetic relations in
2228:
2151:
2081:
1170:, which in extreme cases may lead to languages with no single ancestor, whether they be
227:
Estimates of the number of language families in the world may vary widely. According to
4782:
4642:
4611:
4582:
4213:
4099:
4082:
4032:
4027:
3898:
3835:
3605:
3599:
3519:
3514:
3460:
3437:
3182:
3004:
2961:
2944:
2938:
2916:
2904:
2516:
2481:
2255:
2205:
2108:
2065:
2061:
1821:
1806:
1781:
1560:
1515:
1439:
1175:
1145:
1107:
921:
787:
752:
614:
585:
189:
can be used to reconstruct proto-languages. However, languages can also change through
81:
2730:
Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples
2312:. Monogenesis or Polygenesis: A Single Ancestral Language for All Humanity? Ch. 58 of
1724:
4834:
4666:
4606:
4588:
4104:
4088:
4042:
3799:
3619:
3584:
3574:
3552:
3509:
3374:
2955:
2887:
2725:
2178:
2135:
1922:
1849:
1540:
1457:
1179:
1115:
927:
660:
410:
238:
160:
2480:
List, Johann-Mattis; Nelson-Sathi, Shijulal; Geisler, Hans; Martin, William (2014).
241:(2019) identifies a total of 406 independent language families, including isolates.
3563:
2792:
926:
A proto-language can be thought of as a mother language (not to be confused with a
182:
181:
Language families can be identified from shared characteristics amongst languages.
156:
1200:
Background colors used on
Knowledge (XXG) for various language families and groups
1118:". However, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the
68:
2005 map of the contemporary distribution of the world's primary language families
2402:
2375:
651:
One controversial theory concerning the genetic relationships among languages is
1021:
799:
676:
441:
in the biological sense, so, to avoid confusion, some linguists prefer the term
97:
2140:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3210:
2780:
1936:
1854:
1826:
1610:
1575:
1570:
1086:
1080:
992:
969:
965:
643:
counts a total of 423 language families in the world, including 184 isolates.
609:
Some exceptions to the simple genetic relationship model of languages include
245:
229:
170:
A language family is usually said to contain at least two languages, although
89:
2507:
2360:
1914:
2797:
2486:
2297:
2237:
2160:
2090:
1535:
973:
938:. This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families in the
755:, the common ancestor of the Germanic subfamily, was itself a descendant of
730:
640:
327:
2525:
2499:
2351:
2334:
2264:
2117:
1797:
1766:
995:
has been proposed as an alternative to the tree model. The wave model uses
2764:
2187:
1999:
2293:
1954:
996:
985:
581:
544:
539:
438:
205:
share a great deal of similarities that lead several scholars to believe
77:
2246:
2099:
2607:
American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native
America
2169:
1905:
1895:
1878:
1188:
1159:
1046: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
981:
701: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
535:
2622:
The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment
2573:. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Vol. 1. Washington:
4787:
4685:
1678:
Historical Linguistics and the Comparative Study of African Languages
1435:
1153:
835:
618:
2786:
1750:
1983:
2715:
Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages
1613:
1166:. Quite distantly related languages may affect each other through
1103:
955:
838:, the continuum cannot meaningfully be seen as a single language.
739:
193:
which can falsely suggest genetic relationships. For example, the
63:
2320:
and Kathleen Rita Gibson. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. 558–72. Print.
934:, a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th century linguist
59:
Group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor
2335:"Language Isolates and Their History, or, What's Weird, Anyway?"
467:
in the historical record. For example, this is the case for the
4806:
Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
2801:
2026:"Trees, Waves and Linkages: Models of Language Diversification"
891:
A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as
2770:
1714:, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International, 2013.
1708:
Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.).
1015:
670:
960:
An example of a language tree, containing the Mayan languages
2787:
Comparative Swadesh list tables of various language families
2670:
1709:
655:, the idea that all known languages, with the exceptions of
1883:
Anuario del Seminario de FilologĂa Vasca "Julio de Urquijo"
778:. A top-level (i.e., the largest) family is often called a
601:) and between languages that have no genetic relationship.
80:
related through descent from a common ancestor, called the
421:
also disagree as to which languages belong in the family.
2775:
2728:, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds,
2644:
Native languages and language families of North America
2620:
Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979).
42:
2540:"Languages in Contact | Linguistic Society of America"
1879:"How Many Language Families are there in the World?"
4760:
4737:
4665:
4509:
4231:
4199:
4117:
4006:
3812:
3779:
3632:
3540:
3284:
3198:
2975:
2926:
2835:
413:counts only 27 Otomanguean languages, although he,
155:, and many others, all of which are descended from
127:One well-known example of a language family is the
2339:Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society
159:. The Romance family itself is part of the larger
2751:Classification and index of the world's languages
1780:Boë, Louis-Jean; et al. (11 December 2019).
560:, either of them may influence the other through
491:are all descended from Latin, as well as for the
124:and thus becoming distinct languages over time.
2033:The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics
237:distributed in 142 different language families.
2687:. New York and London: Oxford University Press.
2217:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2070:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1187:appeared as a result of colonialism are called
862:and therefore the only language in its family.
2749:Voegelin, C. F. & Voegelin, F. M. (1977).
2742:Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present).
2136:"Coevolution of genes and languages revisited"
1551:List of languages by number of native speakers
88:is a metaphor borrowed from biology, with the
2813:
2436:. In Kikusawa, Ritsuko; Reid, Laurie (eds.).
2134:; Minch, E.; Mountain, J. L. (15 June 1992).
8:
4816:Families with more than 30 languages are in
2031:. In Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn (eds.).
1822:"How many languages are there in the world?"
1199:
2680:(2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University.
2661:(15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International.
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
120:of the proto-language undergoing different
26:
4673:
4239:
4123:
3820:
3638:
3295:
2990:
2841:
2820:
2806:
2798:
2429:Kalyan, Siva; François, Alexandre (2018).
1198:
790:is four branches down and there is also a
2694:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2515:
2350:
2314:The Oxford Handbook of Language Evolution
2254:
2236:
2177:
2159:
2107:
2089:
1904:
1894:
1850:"What are the largest language families?"
1805:
1749:De la Fuente, José Andrés Alonso (2016).
1641:Rowe, Bruce M.; Levine, Diane P. (2015).
1062:Learn how and when to remove this message
717:Learn how and when to remove this message
2210:"The origin and evolution of word order"
32:This is an accepted version of this page
2657:Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005).
2406:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998. Print.
2035:. London: Routledge. pp. 161–189.
1633:
1603:
213:, is far younger than language itself.
28:
2739:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
854:rather than dialects of Japanese, the
2692:The languages of Native North America
2609:. New York: Oxford University Press.
2600:Handbook of American Indian languages
2593:Handbook of American Indian languages
2571:Handbook of American Indian languages
2328:
2326:
1644:A Concise Introduction to Linguistics
1591:Farming/language dispersal hypothesis
988:languages should be included or not.
980:, there are debates over whether the
844:Classifications of the Japonic family
552:Linguistic interference and borrowing
449:horizontally (by spatial diffusion).
7:
2624:. Austin: University of Texas Press.
1044:adding citations to reliable sources
737:is analogous to the biological term
699:adding citations to reliable sources
2744:Handbook of North American Indians
2671:Ethnologue: Languages of the World
2659:Ethnologue: Languages of the world
1711:Ethnologue: Languages of the World
1012:Other classifications of languages
112:within a language family as being
57:
2333:Campbell, Lyle (24 August 2010).
1877:Campbell, Lyle (8 January 2019).
511:, which have shared descent from
2737:A guide to the world's languages
2577:, Bureau of American Ethnology.
1020:
675:
564:such as borrowing. For example,
1681:. John Benjamins. p. 336.
1647:. Routledge. pp. 340–341.
1031:needs additional citations for
850:as separate languages within a
686:needs additional citations for
18:Language families and languages
1675:Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2011).
108:. Linguists thus describe the
1:
2676:Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966).
2627:Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996).
1937:"Welcome to the 24th edition"
521:Indo-European language family
104:of taxa used in evolutionary
2380:. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
2374:Bloomfield, Leonard (1994).
1620:used as a literary language.
597:which are distantly related
2683:Harrison, K. David. (2007)
2066:"The great human expansion"
1889:(1/2). UPV/EHU Press: 133.
1281:mediumspringgreen (#00fa9a)
1178:. In addition, a number of
834:between them, as occurs in
495:language family, including
4867:
2690:Mithun, Marianne. (1999).
2419:35.1 (1999): 65–98. Print.
1143:
1078:
919:
869:
818:
456:
220:
4801:
4676:
4242:
4126:
3823:
3641:
3298:
2993:
2844:
2829:Primary language families
2735:Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987).
2544:www.linguisticsociety.org
1546:List of language families
1526:List of revived languages
1476:
1465:
1456:
1447:
1430:
1419:
1405:
1396:
1387:
1380:
1369:
1360:
1351:
1342:
1331:
1322:
1313:
1304:
1293:
1284:
1275:
1266:
1257:
1248:
1237:
1227:
1217:
1208:
1204:
940:list of language families
443:genealogical relationship
223:List of language families
84:of that family. The term
3646:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan
2713:Ross, Malcolm. (2005). "
2605:Campbell, Lyle. (1997).
1586:Father Tongue hypothesis
858:itself was considered a
558:contact with one another
531:of linguistic analysis.
39:latest accepted revision
4813:have no living members.
2678:The Languages of Africa
2642:Goddard, Ives. (1999).
2575:Smithsonian Institution
2453:"The Balkan Sprachbund"
2278:Campbell, Lyle (2013).
2238:10.1073/pnas.1113716108
2161:10.1073/pnas.89.12.5620
2091:10.1073/pnas.1212380109
1496:Comparative linguistics
1120:West Germanic languages
1114:, etc.) might well be "
852:Japonic language family
747:are a subfamily of the
729:A language family is a
599:Indo-European languages
562:linguistic interference
469:Romance language family
217:Major language families
4841:Historical linguistics
4793:Unclassified languages
4747:list of sign languages
3715:Northeastern Tasmanian
2793:Most similar languages
2500:10.1002/bies.201300096
2451:Joseph, Brian (2017).
2417:Journal of Linguistics
2352:10.3765/bls.v36i1.3900
2280:Historical Linguistics
1798:10.1126/sciadv.aaw3916
1767:10.1075/dia.33.4.04alo
1725:"Family: Austronesian"
1531:Global language system
1393:lightskyblue (#87cefa)
1299:darkseagreen (#8fbc8f)
1295:Paleo-Siberian (areal)
1002:Historical glottometry
978:Altaic language family
968:is sometimes termed a
961:
832:mutual intelligibility
556:When languages are in
235:living human languages
176:Austronesian languages
94:historical linguistics
69:
4768:Constructed languages
2776:The Multitree Project
2753:. New York: Elsevier.
2598:Boas, Franz. (1933).
2591:Boas, Franz. (1922).
2460:linguisticsociety.org
2132:Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.
2058:Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.
2000:10.1075/sl.28.1.10has
1581:Unclassified language
1290:yellowgreen (#9acd32)
1164:lateral gene transfer
959:
952:Visual representation
809:historical linguistic
667:Structure of a family
429:Two languages have a
178:, contain over 1000.
67:
3315:Binanderean–Goilalan
2569:Boas, Franz (1911).
1616:, as opposed to the
1566:Proto-Human language
1501:Constructed language
1468:Constructed language
1337:lightcoral (#f08080)
1263:lightgreen (#90ee90)
1040:improve this article
695:improve this article
431:genetic relationship
425:Genetic relationship
4597:(Maku-Auari/Jukude)
4500:Tequiraca–Canichana
4343:Harákmbut–Katukinan
3106:Northwest Caucasian
3100:Northeast Caucasian
3024:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
2720:8 June 2004 at the
2669:. (Online version:
2229:2011PNAS..10817290G
2223:(42): 17290–17295.
2208:(10 October 2011).
2152:1992PNAS...89.5620C
2082:2012PNAS..10917758H
2076:(44): 17758–17764.
2064:(17 October 2012).
2022:François, Alexandre
1988:Studies in Language
1506:Endangered language
1384:lightcyan (#e0ffff)
1243:goldenrod (#daa520)
1201:
1092:Indian subcontinent
1006:linguistic linkages
945:Proto-Indo-European
910:Aquitanian language
757:Proto-Indo-European
525:Proto-Indo-European
165:Proto-Indo-European
114:genetically related
29:Page version status
4851:Types of groupings
4219:Tarascan/Purépecha
3708:Northern Tasmanian
3466:South Bougainville
3427:North Bougainville
1980:Haspelmath, Martin
1896:10.1387/asju.20195
1556:Origin of language
1371:Andamanese (areal)
1362:Australian (areal)
1328:lavender (#e6e6fA)
962:
932:comparative method
774:, and groups into
766:restrict the term
745:Germanic languages
529:comparative method
459:Comparative method
187:comparative method
110:daughter languages
102:phylogenetic trees
70:
35:
4846:Language families
4828:
4827:
4778:Language isolates
4756:
4755:
4661:
4660:
4227:
4226:
4113:
4112:
3808:
3807:
3755:Western Tasmanian
3673:Eastern Tasmanian
3628:
3627:
3350:East Geelvink Bay
3280:
3279:
2971:
2970:
2789:(from Wiktionary)
2783:(World Languages)
2781:Lenguas del mundo
2767:(from Muturzikin)
2294:Language families
2146:(12): 5620–5624.
2042:978-0-41552-789-7
1955:"Glottolog 5.0 -"
1688:978-9-027-28722-9
1654:978-1-317-34928-0
1491:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1259:Caucasian (areal)
1140:Contact languages
1072:
1071:
1064:
936:August Schleicher
878:language isolates
856:Japanese language
821:Dialect continuum
727:
726:
719:
611:language isolates
344:(1,274 languages)
338:(1,410 languages)
262:(1,256 languages)
256:(1,552 languages)
207:they were related
172:language isolates
129:Romance languages
118:regional dialects
16:(Redirected from
4858:
4674:
4628:Huaorani/Waorani
4512:(extant in 2000)
4476:Esmeralda–Yaruro
4247:Andoque–Urequena
4240:
4124:
3930:Plateau Penutian
3821:
3796:(Northern Daly?)
3639:
3525:Northwest Papuan
3489:Trans–New Guinea
3355:East New Britain
3330:Central Solomons
3296:
3041:Great Andamanese
2991:
2842:
2822:
2815:
2808:
2799:
2588:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2519:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2457:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2435:
2426:
2420:
2413:
2407:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2354:
2330:
2321:
2318:Maggie Tallerman
2310:Nichols, Johanna
2307:
2301:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2258:
2240:
2214:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2181:
2163:
2128:
2122:
2121:
2111:
2093:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2030:
2018:
2005:
2003:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1943:. 13 April 2024.
1933:
1927:
1926:
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1874:
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1837:
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1811:
1809:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1721:
1715:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1638:
1621:
1608:
1521:Language isolate
1511:Extinct language
1483:
1474:
1469:
1463:
1462:silver (#c0c0c0)
1454:
1449:Language isolate
1445:
1426:
1421:American (areal)
1417:
1403:
1394:
1385:
1376:
1367:
1358:
1349:
1338:
1329:
1320:
1311:
1310:salmon (#fa8072)
1300:
1291:
1282:
1273:
1264:
1255:
1244:
1235:
1225:
1215:
1206:
1205:
1202:
1168:language contact
1100:Italic languages
1067:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1047:
1024:
1016:
872:Language isolate
860:language isolate
827:dialect continua
815:Dialect continua
722:
715:
711:
708:
702:
679:
671:
623:creole languages
367:Trans–New Guinea
266:Trans–New Guinea
233:there are 7,151
203:Turkic languages
191:language contact
122:language changes
47:5 September 2024
21:
4866:
4865:
4861:
4860:
4859:
4857:
4856:
4855:
4831:
4830:
4829:
4824:
4823:
4797:
4783:Mixed languages
4752:
4733:
4668:
4657:
4511:
4505:
4360:Katembri–Taruma
4234:
4223:
4195:
4109:
4002:
3815:
3804:
3775:
3624:
3536:
3495:Turama–Kikorian
3405:Lower Mamberamo
3360:East Strickland
3288:
3276:
3194:
2982:
2977:
2967:
2922:
2831:
2826:
2765:Linguistic maps
2761:
2756:
2722:Wayback Machine
2585:
2568:
2564:
2562:Further reading
2559:
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2008:
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1624:
1618:Classical Latin
1609:
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1239:Khoisan (areal)
1233:
1232:
1223:
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1213:
1212:
1197:
1176:mixed languages
1156:
1150:Creole language
1144:Main articles:
1142:
1083:
1077:
1068:
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1051:
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1025:
1014:
954:
924:
918:
916:Proto-languages
905:Basque language
874:
868:
823:
817:
792:sister language
723:
712:
706:
703:
692:
680:
669:
649:
607:
592:has influenced
584:has influenced
576:has influenced
568:has influenced
554:
461:
455:
435:language change
427:
387:(158 languages)
381:(181 languages)
375:(250 languages)
369:(316 languages)
362:(381 languages)
356:(514 languages)
350:(586 languages)
310:(167 languages)
304:(179 languages)
298:(210 languages)
292:(382 languages)
286:(384 languages)
280:(454 languages)
274:(458 languages)
268:(481 languages)
225:
219:
96:analogous to a
74:language family
60:
55:
54:
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4708:Indo-Pakistani
4705:
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4693:
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4407:Piaroa–Saliban
4404:
4397:
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4372:
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4172:Tequistlatecan
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3730:
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3704:
3699:
3695:Marrku–Wurrugu
3691:
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3676:
3669:
3662:
3654:
3649:
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3113:
3108:
3103:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3057:
3054:Hurro-Urartian
3050:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3026:
3021:
3014:
3007:
3002:
2994:
2988:
2973:
2972:
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2759:External links
2757:
2755:
2754:
2747:
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2733:
2711:
2688:
2681:
2674:
2655:
2640:
2625:
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2531:
2494:(2): 141–150.
2472:
2443:
2421:
2408:
2400:Edzard, Lutz.
2393:
2386:
2366:
2322:
2302:
2285:
2270:
2193:
2123:
2062:Feldman, M. W.
2048:
2041:
2006:
1994:(1): 209–223.
1982:(5 May 2004).
1971:
1946:
1928:
1869:
1841:
1813:
1772:
1761:(4): 530–537.
1741:
1716:
1701:
1687:
1667:
1653:
1632:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1622:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1561:Proto-language
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1516:Language death
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1482:white (#fffff)
1475:
1464:
1455:
1446:
1428:
1427:
1418:
1411:Dene–Yeniseian
1404:
1395:
1386:
1378:
1377:
1368:
1359:
1353:Papuan (areal)
1350:
1348:pink (#ffc0cb)
1340:
1339:
1330:
1321:
1312:
1302:
1301:
1292:
1286:Altaic (areal)
1283:
1274:
1272:lime (#00ff00)
1265:
1256:
1246:
1245:
1236:
1226:
1224:gold (#ffd700)
1216:
1196:
1193:
1180:sign languages
1146:Mixed language
1141:
1138:
1116:areal features
1079:Main article:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1028:
1026:
1019:
1013:
1010:
953:
950:
922:Proto-language
920:Main article:
917:
914:
870:Main article:
867:
864:
819:Main article:
816:
813:
788:proto-language
753:Proto-Germanic
725:
724:
683:
681:
674:
668:
665:
661:sign languages
659:, pidgins and
648:
645:
606:
603:
553:
550:
493:North Germanic
457:Main article:
454:
451:
426:
423:
407:
406:
405:(77 languages)
400:
399:(82 languages)
394:
393:(95 languages)
388:
382:
376:
370:
363:
357:
351:
345:
339:
336:Atlantic–Congo
324:
323:
322:(85 languages)
317:
316:(91 languages)
311:
305:
299:
293:
287:
281:
275:
269:
263:
257:
221:Main article:
218:
215:
82:proto-language
76:is a group of
58:
56:
36:
30:
27:
25:
24:
23:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4863:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4838:
4836:
4819:
4815:
4812:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4800:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4765:
4763:
4759:
4749:
4748:
4743:
4742:
4740:
4736:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4718:Original Thai
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4698:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4678:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4664:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4596:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4584:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4520:
4517:
4516:
4514:
4508:
4501:
4498:
4495:
4492:
4489:
4486:
4483:
4482:Hibito–Cholón
4480:
4477:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4434:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4402:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4350:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4313:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4301:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4264:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4230:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4209:
4205:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4192:
4191:
4187:
4185:
4184:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4167:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4146:
4144:
4143:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4116:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4090:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4078:
4074:
4072:
4071:
4067:
4065:
4064:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4053:
4051:
4050:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4023:
4019:
4017:
4016:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4005:
3999:
3998:Yuman–CochimĂ
3996:
3994:
3993:
3989:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3974:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3925:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3906:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3894:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3877:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3866:
3864:
3863:
3859:
3857:
3856:
3852:
3850:
3849:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3837:
3833:
3831:
3830:
3826:
3825:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3811:
3801:
3798:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3789:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3778:
3771:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3756:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3734:
3733:Southern Daly
3731:
3729:
3728:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3710:
3709:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3674:
3670:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3658:Darwin Region
3655:
3653:
3650:
3647:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3631:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3532:
3529:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3490:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3478:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3439:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3417:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3340:Demta–Sentani
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3287:
3283:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3245:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3226:
3225:
3221:
3219:
3218:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3197:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3144:
3140:
3138:
3137:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3101:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3062:
3061:Indo-European
3058:
3056:
3055:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3019:
3015:
3013:
3012:
3011:Austroasiatic
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2981:
2974:
2963:
2960:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2903:
2900:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2823:
2818:
2816:
2811:
2809:
2804:
2803:
2800:
2794:
2791:
2788:
2785:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2738:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2726:Andrew Pawley
2723:
2719:
2716:
2712:
2709:
2708:0-521-29875-X
2705:
2701:
2700:0-521-23228-7
2697:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2682:
2679:
2675:
2672:
2668:
2667:1-55671-159-X
2664:
2660:
2656:
2653:
2652:0-8032-9271-6
2649:
2645:
2641:
2638:
2637:0-16-048774-9
2634:
2630:
2626:
2623:
2619:
2616:
2615:0-19-509427-1
2612:
2608:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2584:0-8032-5017-7
2580:
2576:
2572:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2545:
2541:
2535:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2476:
2473:
2461:
2454:
2447:
2444:
2439:
2432:
2425:
2422:
2418:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2404:
2397:
2394:
2389:
2387:81-208-1196-8
2383:
2379:
2378:
2370:
2367:
2362:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2306:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2286:
2281:
2274:
2271:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2202:Gell-Mann, M.
2197:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2127:
2124:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2056:Henn, B. M.;
2052:
2049:
2044:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2023:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1972:
1960:
1959:glottolog.org
1956:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1870:
1858:. 25 May 2019
1857:
1856:
1851:
1845:
1842:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1817:
1814:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1745:
1742:
1730:
1729:Glottolog 5.0
1726:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1712:
1705:
1702:
1690:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1671:
1668:
1656:
1650:
1646:
1645:
1637:
1634:
1627:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1607:
1604:
1597:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1541:Linguist List
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1479:
1470:
1459:
1458:Sign language
1450:
1444:tan (#d2b48c)
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1422:
1412:
1408:
1399:
1390:
1379:
1372:
1363:
1354:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1333:Austroasiatic
1325:
1316:
1307:
1303:
1296:
1287:
1278:
1269:
1260:
1251:
1250:Indo-European
1247:
1240:
1230:
1220:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1184:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1093:
1088:
1082:
1074:
1066:
1063:
1055:
1045:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1029:This section
1027:
1023:
1018:
1017:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1003:
998:
994:
989:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
958:
951:
949:
947:
946:
941:
937:
933:
929:
928:mother tongue
923:
915:
913:
911:
906:
902:
898:
894:
889:
885:
883:
879:
873:
865:
863:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
839:
837:
833:
828:
822:
814:
812:
810:
806:
802:
801:
795:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
760:
758:
754:
750:
749:Indo-European
746:
742:
741:
736:
732:
721:
718:
710:
700:
696:
690:
689:
684:This section
682:
678:
673:
672:
666:
664:
662:
658:
654:
646:
644:
642:
638:
633:
629:
626:
624:
620:
616:
612:
605:Complications
604:
602:
600:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
551:
549:
546:
541:
537:
532:
530:
526:
522:
516:
514:
513:Ancient Norse
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
460:
453:Establishment
452:
450:
446:
444:
440:
436:
432:
424:
422:
420:
416:
412:
411:Lyle Campbell
404:
401:
398:
395:
392:
389:
386:
385:Austroasiatic
383:
380:
377:
374:
371:
368:
364:
361:
358:
355:
352:
349:
348:Indo-European
346:
343:
340:
337:
334:
333:
332:
330:
329:
321:
318:
315:
312:
309:
308:Austroasiatic
306:
303:
300:
297:
294:
291:
288:
285:
282:
279:
278:Indo-European
276:
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
258:
255:
252:
251:
250:
248:
247:
242:
240:
239:Lyle Campbell
236:
232:
231:
224:
216:
214:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
183:Sound changes
179:
177:
173:
168:
166:
162:
161:Indo-European
158:
154:
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48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
4817:
4810:
4809:Families in
4744:
4695:
4593:
4581:
4431:
4399:
4390:Pano-Tacanan
4347:
4310:
4298:
4269:Arutani–Sape
4261:
4206:
4188:
4181:
4166:Oto-Manguean
4164:
4147:
4140:
4087:
4075:
4068:
4061:
4054:
4047:
4020:
4013:
3990:
3983:
3971:
3944:
3922:
3915:
3903:
3891:
3874:
3867:
3860:
3853:
3846:
3834:
3827:
3786:
3753:
3749:Western Daly
3727:Pama–Nyungan
3725:
3713:
3706:
3693:
3671:
3666:Eastern Daly
3664:
3656:
3611:
3487:
3475:
3453:
3436:
3414:
3385:Kaure–Kosare
3345:Doso–Turumsa
3335:Chimbu–Wahgi
3325:Bulaka River
3309:Austronesian
3307:
3268:
3261:
3242:
3229:
3222:
3215:
3141:
3134:
3127:
3117:Sino-Tibetan
3115:
3098:
3081:
3059:
3052:
3045:
3028:
3018:Austronesian
3016:
3009:
2997:
2943:
2881:Nilo-Saharan
2879:
2872:
2857:Austronesian
2855:
2848:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2729:
2691:
2684:
2677:
2658:
2643:
2628:
2621:
2606:
2599:
2592:
2570:
2547:. Retrieved
2543:
2534:
2491:
2485:
2475:
2463:. Retrieved
2459:
2446:
2437:
2424:
2416:
2411:
2401:
2396:
2376:
2369:
2345:(1): 16–31.
2342:
2338:
2313:
2305:
2288:
2282:. MIT Press.
2279:
2273:
2220:
2216:
2196:
2143:
2139:
2126:
2073:
2069:
2051:
2032:
1991:
1987:
1974:
1962:. Retrieved
1958:
1949:
1940:
1931:
1886:
1882:
1872:
1860:. Retrieved
1853:
1844:
1832:. Retrieved
1830:. 3 May 2016
1825:
1816:
1789:
1785:
1775:
1758:
1754:
1744:
1732:. Retrieved
1728:
1719:
1710:
1704:
1692:. Retrieved
1677:
1670:
1658:. Retrieved
1643:
1636:
1606:
1478:Unclassified
1344:Austronesian
1306:Sino-Tibetan
1219:Nilo-Saharan
1210:Afro-Asiatic
1185:
1157:
1096:
1084:
1058:
1049:
1038:Please help
1033:verification
1030:
990:
963:
943:
925:
890:
886:
875:
840:
824:
804:
798:
796:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
761:
738:
734:
731:monophyletic
728:
713:
704:
693:Please help
688:verification
685:
650:
630:
627:
608:
555:
533:
517:
462:
447:
442:
430:
428:
418:
414:
408:
373:Pama–Nyungan
354:Sino-Tibetan
342:Austronesian
326:
325:
296:Nilo-Saharan
272:Sino-Tibetan
260:Austronesian
244:
243:
228:
226:
180:
169:
157:Vulgar Latin
131:, including
126:
113:
109:
85:
73:
71:
61:
46:
37:This is the
31:
4703:Germanosign
4607:Mura-PirahĂŁ
4488:Lule–Vilela
4464:Bora-Witoto
4439:Uru–Chipaya
4412:Ticuna–Yuri
4395:Peba–Yaguan
4380:Nambikwaran
4183:Uto-Aztecan
4119:Mesoamerica
3973:Uto-Aztecan
3962:Tsimshianic
3924:Palaihnihan
3794:Malak-Malak
3531:Papuan Gulf
3505:West Papuan
3410:Lower Sepik
3400:Lakes Plain
3303:Arai–Samaia
3291:the Pacific
2999:Afroasiatic
2874:Niger–Congo
2850:Afroasiatic
1906:10810/49565
1755:Diachronica
1398:Uto-Aztecan
1229:Niger–Congo
805:superfamily
800:macrofamily
764:taxonomists
653:monogenesis
647:Monogenesis
379:Otomanguean
360:Afroasiatic
302:Otomanguean
290:Afroasiatic
254:Niger–Congo
211:Afroasiatic
98:family tree
4835:Categories
4697:Francosign
4545:Chiquitano
4525:Alacalufan
4333:Guaicuruan
4306:Chapacuran
4289:Cahuapanan
4257:Araucanian
4160:Mixe–Zoque
4155:Misumalpan
3869:Comecrudan
3721:Nyulnyulan
3500:Upper Yuat
3477:Torricelli
3449:Senu River
3380:Foja Range
3286:New Guinea
3211:Burushaski
3072:Kartvelian
3047:Hmong–Mien
2863:Khoe–Kwadi
2771:Ethnologue
2206:Ruhlen, M.
1941:Ethnologue
1855:Ethnologue
1827:Ethnologue
1694:26 January
1660:26 January
1628:References
1611:Vernacular
1576:Tree model
1571:Sprachbund
1315:Hmong–Mien
1087:sprachbund
1081:Sprachbund
1075:Sprachbund
997:isoglosses
993:wave model
970:dendrogram
966:tree model
481:Portuguese
471:, wherein
415:Ethnologue
284:Australian
246:Ethnologue
230:Ethnologue
145:Portuguese
90:tree model
4728:Tanzanian
4669:languages
4566:HodĂŻ/Joti
4510:Isolates
4449:Yanomaman
4385:Otomákoan
4349:Jirajaran
4338:Guajiboan
4300:Catacaoan
4279:Barbacoan
4208:Cuitlatec
4177:Totonacan
4136:Jicaquean
4015:Chimariko
3911:Muskogean
3893:Kalapuyan
3887:Iroquoian
3862:Chumashan
3855:Chinookan
3848:Chimakuan
3766:Yangmanic
3761:Worrorran
3744:Wagaydyic
3634:Australia
3483:Trans-Fly
3149:Yeniseian
3136:Tyrsenian
3030:Dravidian
2629:Languages
2549:2 October
2508:0265-9247
2487:BioEssays
2465:2 October
2361:2377-1666
2316:, ed. by
2298:Glottolog
1923:166394477
1915:2444-2992
1536:ISO 639-5
1277:Dravidian
974:phylogeny
811:methods.
797:The term
776:complexes
641:Glottolog
545:borrowing
509:Icelandic
505:Norwegian
419:Glottolog
397:Dravidian
391:Tai–Kadai
328:Glottolog
320:Dravidian
78:languages
4761:See also
4738:Isolates
4713:Japanese
4653:Yuracaré
4535:Candoshi
4494:Macro-JĂŞ
4459:Zaparoan
4454:Zamucoan
4444:Witotoan
4427:Tucanoan
4422:Tiniguan
4417:Timotean
4401:Quechuan
4370:Matacoan
4365:Mascoian
4355:Jivaroan
4318:Chibchan
4312:Charruan
4263:Arawakan
4200:Isolates
4131:Chibchan
4007:Isolates
3979:Wakashan
3940:Salishan
3882:Eskaleut
3788:Giimbiyu
3780:Isolates
3689:Jarrakan
3684:Iwaidjan
3541:Isolates
3395:Kutubuan
3263:Sumerian
3199:Isolates
3154:Yukaghir
3123:Tungusic
3089:Mongolic
3077:Koreanic
3036:Eskaleut
2927:Isolates
2911:Ubangian
2718:Archived
2526:24375688
2377:Language
2265:21987807
2247:41352497
2118:23077256
2100:41829755
2024:(2014).
1834:26 March
1734:3 August
1381:Eskaleut
1195:See also
1160:dialects
1125:Germanic
1052:May 2022
986:Koreanic
901:modifier
897:Armenian
893:Albanian
866:Isolates
848:Ryukyuan
707:May 2022
632:Isolates
594:Japanese
582:Sanskrit
540:borrowed
536:cognates
485:Romanian
465:attested
439:genetics
403:Arawakan
365:Nuclear
199:Tungusic
195:Mongolic
149:Romanian
106:taxonomy
100:, or to
92:used in
43:reviewed
4811:italics
4788:Pidgins
4773:Creoles
4723:Swedish
4691:Chinese
4638:Urarina
4623:Puinave
4577:Itonama
4571:Irantxe
4540:Chimane
4470:Chimuan
4375:Nadahup
4294:Cariban
4274:Aymaran
4235:America
4077:Waikuri
4070:Tonkawa
4063:Timucua
4056:Takelma
4049:Siuslaw
4038:Kutenai
4022:Esselen
3985:Wintuan
3946:Shastan
3917:Na-Dene
3905:Maiduan
3842:Caddoan
3816:America
3770:Wagiman
3768:(incl.
3739:Tangkic
3679:Garawan
3652:Bunuban
3613:Tambora
3580:Maybrat
3548:Abinomn
3471:Teberan
3432:Pauwasi
3422:Mairasi
3390:Kiwaian
3270:Tambora
3256:Shompen
3238:Kusunda
3231:Kenaboi
3217:Elamite
3189:Siangic
3171:Kho-Bwa
3165:Hrusish
3083:Kra–Dai
3067:Japonic
2976:Eurasia
2951:Sandawe
2934:Bangime
2899:Songhay
2724:". In:
2702:(hbk);
2517:3910147
2256:3198322
2225:Bibcode
2188:1608971
2170:2359705
2148:Bibcode
2109:3497766
2078:Bibcode
2004:p. 222.
1964:25 June
1862:3 March
1807:7000245
1786:Science
1473:#114057
1453:#dddddd
1425:#c0dde6
1416:#99ddff
1407:Na-Dene
1402:#80bfff
1375:#c99fee
1366:#eba9ee
1357:#fd79da
1324:Kra–Dai
1319:#f2ceee
1254:#c9ffd9
1234:#ffddaa
1214:#faecc8
1172:creoles
1112:Umbrian
982:Japonic
657:creoles
590:Chinese
578:Persian
570:English
501:Swedish
477:Italian
473:Spanish
314:Kra-Dai
153:Catalan
141:Italian
133:Spanish
4686:BANZSL
4648:Yamana
4633:Trumai
4602:Movima
4556:FulniĂ´
4519:AikanĂŁ
4433:Tupian
4328:Chonan
4252:Arauan
4190:Xincan
4142:Lencan
4095:Yokuts
3992:Yukian
3957:Tanoan
3952:Siouan
3935:Pomoan
3876:Coosan
3702:Mirndi
3595:Porome
3590:Pawaia
3444:Senagi
3416:Madang
3365:Eleman
3320:Border
3251:Nihali
3244:Minoan
3224:Hattic
3206:Basque
3177:Mijiic
3159:Digaro
3143:Uralic
3129:Turkic
2980:Europe
2837:Africa
2706:
2698:
2665:
2650:
2635:
2613:
2581:
2524:
2514:
2506:
2384:
2359:
2263:
2253:
2245:
2186:
2176:
2168:
2116:
2106:
2098:
2039:
1921:
1913:
1804:
1792:(12).
1685:
1651:
1436:Pidgin
1432:Creole
1268:Uralic
1189:pidgin
1154:Pidgin
1152:, and
1133:Slavic
1129:Baltic
882:Basque
836:Arabic
780:phylum
772:groups
768:family
735:family
637:Basque
619:pidgin
588:, and
574:Arabic
566:French
497:Danish
489:French
487:, and
201:, and
137:French
86:family
4643:Warao
4612:Nukak
4583:Kunza
4561:GuatĂł
4550:Cofán
4530:Camsá
4323:Choco
4284:Boran
4233:South
4214:Huave
4149:Mayan
4100:Yuchi
4083:Washo
4033:Karuk
4028:Haida
3967:Utian
3899:Keres
3836:Alsea
3829:Algic
3814:North
3606:Taiap
3600:Sulka
3455:Sepik
3370:Engan
3111:Ongan
3094:Nivkh
2962:Shabo
2945:Jalaa
2939:Hadza
2893:Mande
2732:(PDF)
2456:(PDF)
2434:(PDF)
2243:JSTOR
2213:(PDF)
2179:49344
2166:JSTOR
2096:JSTOR
2029:(PDF)
1919:S2CID
1614:Latin
1598:Notes
1440:Mixed
1409:(and
1389:Algic
1108:Oscan
1104:Latin
784:stock
762:Some
740:clade
615:mixed
586:Tamil
4818:bold
4745:See
4681:Arab
4667:Sign
4618:Páez
4595:Maku
4589:Leco
4105:Zuni
4089:Yana
4043:Seri
3800:Tiwi
3620:Wiru
3585:Mpur
3575:Kuot
3558:AnĂŞm
3553:Abun
3520:Yuat
3515:Yawa
3461:Skou
3438:Ramu
3289:and
3183:Miju
3005:Ainu
2985:Asia
2983:and
2956:Laal
2917:Kadu
2905:Ijaw
2868:Kx'a
2704:ISBN
2696:ISBN
2663:ISBN
2648:ISBN
2633:ISBN
2611:ISBN
2579:ISBN
2551:2020
2522:PMID
2504:ISSN
2467:2020
2382:ISBN
2357:ISSN
2292:Cf.
2261:PMID
2184:PMID
2114:PMID
2037:ISBN
1966:2023
1911:ISSN
1864:2020
1836:2021
1736:2024
1696:2017
1683:ISBN
1662:2017
1649:ISBN
1131:and
991:The
984:and
895:and
621:and
613:and
507:and
417:and
3570:Kol
3564:Ata
3510:Yam
3375:Fas
2888:Tuu
2512:PMC
2496:doi
2347:doi
2251:PMC
2233:doi
2221:108
2174:PMC
2156:doi
2104:PMC
2086:doi
2074:109
1996:doi
1901:hdl
1891:doi
1802:PMC
1794:doi
1763:doi
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