History of the Jews in Latvia

3449:). In its spiritual life there was thus a synthesis of Jewish tradition and secular culture. From the socio-economic point of view the Jews of Latvia did not form one group, and there were considerable social differences between them. They engaged in a variety of occupations and professions: there were large, medium, and small merchants, industrialists, and different categories of craftsmen, workers, salesmen, clerks, teachers, and members of the liberal professions such as physicians, lawyers, and engineers. All these factors—economic and spiritual—were practically reflected in public life: in the national Jewish sphere and in the general political life of the state. The Jewish population was also represented in the Latvian parliament. In the 4650:. The synagogue is located in the Bolderāja neighborhood and is the only active synagogue in the city, the first since the end of World War II. The city's rabbi is Rabbi Shimon Kotnovsky-Liak, whose family originally came from Rēzekne, Latvia. He himself is a native of the country. After his studies and military service in the IDF in 2006, he was sent on missions to Jewish communities in the United States and Russia and has been primarily active in Latvia and Europe since 2018. Rabbi Kotnovsky-Liak is a member of the Conference of European Rabbis and the Eastern European representative in Latvia. His mentors are 3999:, on the night of June 13–14, 1941, thousands of Latvian Jews were deported along with Latvians. Of all the ethnic groups so deported, Jews suffered proportionately more than any other, and were deported to especially harsh conditions. Records have been preserved of the deportations of 1,212 Jewish Latvian citizens (12.5% of those deported to the far reaches of the USSR) but the actual number of Jews deported was certainly larger, on the order of 5,000 to 6,000 during the first Soviet occupation. 3376:. However, the Jewish banks and cooperative societies were discriminated against in the sphere of public credit and the state bank was in practice closed to them. These societies nevertheless functioned on sound foundations. Their initial capital was relatively larger than that of the non-Jewish cooperative societies. In 1931 over 15,000 members were organized within the Jewisherion societies. Jews were particularly active in the following branches of industry: timber, 3412:, the overwhelming majority of them in medium and small trade. About 29% of the Jewish population was occupied in industry and about 7% in the liberal professions. There were no Jews in the governmental administration. The economic situation of the majority of Latvia’s Jews became difficult. Large numbers were ousted from their economic position and lost their livelihood as a result of government policy and most of them were thrust into small trade, peddling, and 3259: 2543: 4341:. Of the total, 30,267 Jews (5/6) lived in Riga. The others lived in Daugavpils and other towns. According to private estimates, the Jews of Latvia in 1970 numbered about 50,000. The overwhelming majority of them lived in Riga, the capital, which became one of the leading centers of national agitation among the Jews of the Soviet Union. Underground religious and Zionist activity resulted in greater suspicion by authorities. 4314:. Along with the rest of the survivors they eventually settled in new homes, mostly in Israel. In Latvia itself, several hundred Jews had managed to survive. A public demonstration was held in Riga a few days after its liberation, in which sixty or seventy of the surviving Jews participated. Gradually, some of the Jews who had found refuge in the Soviet Union came back. Several thousand Latvian Jews had fought in the 4493:

Between 1968 and 1980, 13,153 Jews, or 35.8% of the Jewish population of Latvia, emigrated to Israel or other Western countries. Another major factor was a high rate of assimilation and intermarriage, and a death rate higher than the birth rate. In 1988–89 the Jewish birth rate was 7.0 per 1,000 and the Jewish mortality rate – 18.3 per 1,000. In 1987, 39.7% of children born of Jewish mothers had non-Jewish fathers.

2988: 5807: 4355: 4246: 2893: 55: 5793: 5998: 5986: 4513:. This included children and grandchildren who were born in Latvia, as per Latvian law citizenship is not determined by place of birth, but by having an ancestor who is a national or citizen of the state. In public school, the compulsory use of Latvian affected many Jewish students, who spoke Russian as their primary language. As Latvia sought to become a member of the 4149:. After the war, surviving witnesses reported that Cukurs had been present during the ghetto clearance and fired into the mass of Jewish civilians. According to another account Cukurs also participated in the burning of the Riga synagogues. According to Bernard Press in his book The Murder of the Jews in Latvia, Cukurs burned the synagogue on Stabu Street. 156: 3428:, thus removing large numbers of Jews from this branch of trade, without accepting them as salaried workers or providing them with any other kind of employment; the Latvian cooperatives enjoyed wide governmental support and functioned in privileged conditions in comparison to the Jewish enterprises; and Jews had difficulty in obtaining 3484:, Agudas Israel). The number of Jewish delegates in the four parliaments which were elected in Latvia until the coup d’état of 1934 was as follows: six in the first (1922–25), five in the second (1925–28) and the third (1928–31), and three in the fourth (1931–34). Among the long-time deputies were Dubins (Agudas Israel), 3135:, and so only those Jews who could prove that they had lived there legally before the provinces became part of Russia were authorized to reside in the region. Nevertheless, the Jewish population of the Baltic region gradually increased because, from time to time, additional Jews who enjoyed special "privileges", such as 3940:

of May 15, 1934, restrictions were placed on the autonomy of minorities' "cultures and minorities" education as well as education in native language. This was part of a wider move to standardize Latvian usage in schooling and professional and governmental sectors. As a result, Jewish schools continue

3889:

schools, in which Jewish children received a free education, was established. In addition to these, there were also Russian and German schools for Jewish children, chosen in accordance with the language of their families and wishes of their parents. These were, however, later excluded from the Jewish

4415:

On April 7, 1945, the Soviet press published the "Declaration of the Special Government Commission charged with the inquiry into the crimes committed by the German-Fascist aggressors during their occupation of the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic". This document devotes a chapter to the persecution

4219:

Conditions in this camp, one of the worst in Latvia, led to heavy loss of life among the inmates. The Kaiserwald concentration camp, established in the summer of 1943, contained the Jewish survivors from the ghettos of Riga, Daugavpils, Liepāja, and other places, as well as non-Jews. At the end of

4496:

In 1989, there were 22,900 Jews in Latvia, who comprised some 0.9% of the population. That same year Soviet Union allowed unrestricted Jewish immigration, and 1,588 Jews emigrated from Latvia (1,536 of them from Riga). In 1990, 3,388 Latvian Jews immigrated to Israel (2,837 of them from Riga). In

3283:

on August 11, 1920, repatriates began to return from Russia; these included a considerable number of Jewish refugees. In this time, there were 40,000 Jews in Riga alone. By 1925 the Jewish population had increased to 95,675, the largest number of Jews during the period of Latvia’s existence as an

4002:

The deportations of Jewish civic leaders and rabbis, members of parliament, and the professional and merchant class only a week before Nazi Germany invaded the Baltics left the Jewish community ill-prepared to organize in the face of the invasion and immediately ensuing Holocaust. Those deported

4575:

daubed on the memorial. Articles of antisemitic content appeared in the Latvian fringe nationalist press. The main topics of these articles were the collaboration of Jews with the Communists in the Soviet period, Jews tarnishing Latvia's good name in the West, and Jewish businessmen striving to

4492:

The Jewish population of Latvia declined from 28,300 in 1979 to 22,900 in 1989, when 18,800 of its Jews lived in the capital Riga. Part of this was due to a high rate of emigration to Israel; the Soviet Union allowed limited numbers of Jewish citizens to leave the country for Israel every year.

3315:

before World War I. After the establishment of the republic, a severe crisis overtook the young state. The government had not yet consolidated itself and the country had become impoverished as a result of World War I and the struggle for independence which Latvia had conducted for several years

4642:

The Chabad Rabbi is the emissary of Chabad in Latvia since 1992, Rabbi Mordechai Glazman. He is joined by other rabbis: Rabbi Shneur Kot since 1998 and Rabbi Akiva Kramer since 2016. In September 2021, a Chabad House was inaugurated in the center of Riga on Dzirnavu Street 29, which includes a

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as politically undesirable elements. During the Nazi attack of Latvia a considerable number of Jews also succeeded in fleeing to the interior of the Soviet Union; it is estimated that some 75,000 Latvian Jews fell into Nazi hands. Survivor accounts sometimes describe how, even before the Nazi

3994:

on June 16, 1940. Jewish civic and political leaders began to be arrested in August 1940. The first to be arrested were the Zionist leaders Favid Varhaftig and Mahanud Alperin. The leadership of Betar were deported. In 1941, the Soviets arrested Nuroks, Dubins and other Jewish civic leaders,

3278:

During the World War I in 1914, there were about 190,000 Jews in the territories of Latvia (7.4% of the total population). During the war years, many of them were expelled to the interior of Russia, while others escaped from the war zone. In 1920 the Jews of Latvia numbered 79,644 (5% of the

3972:

continued to operate. Jewish social life did, however, retain its vitality. Owing in part to the restrictions imposed on minorities including Jews, the influence of religion and Zionism increased, motivating some to immigrate to Palestine. This also increased the influence of the banned

5064:, banned Jews from entering Livonia in 1306 (or 1309), which implied that the Jews created competition for German merchants. In the next few centuries, Jews possibly came to Livonia as authorized merchants from other countries and cities, but did not settle in Livonia for a long life. 2978:

Today's Jewish community traces its roots to survivors of the Holocaust, Jews who fled to the USSR's interior to escape the German invasion and later returned, and mostly to Jews newly immigrated to Latvia from the Soviet Union. The Latvian Jewish community today is small but active.

3182:

when the Russian armies retreated from Courland (April 1915), the Russian military authorities expelled thousands of Jews to the provinces of the interior. A considerable number later returned to Latvia as repatriates after the independent republic was established.

4192:, and other German-occupied countries began arriving in Latvia. Some 15,000 "Reich Jews" were settled in several streets of the liquidated "greater Riga ghetto". Many transports were taken straight from the Riga railroad station to execution sites in the 4508:

After the fall of the Soviet Union and Latvian independence in 1991, many Jews who arrived from the Soviet Union were denied automatic Latvian citizenship, as with anyone of any nationality who was not a Latvian citizen, or descendant of one, until the

4329:. It may be assumed that about 10,000 of them were natives, including Jewish refugees who returned to their former residences from the interior of Russia, while the remainder came from other parts of the Soviet Union. About 48% of the Jews declared 4467:

Latvians of varying backgrounds also took part in the persecution and murder of the Jews in the country outside Latvia. At the time of the German retreat in the summer of 1944, many of these collaborators fled to Germany. After the war, as assumed

4207:

The German occupying power in Latvia also kept Jews in "barracks camps", i.e., near their places of forced labor. A considerable number of such camps were located in the Riga area and other localities. Larger concentrations camps included those at

4566:

of Holocaust memorials, in Jelgava and in the Biķernieki Forest, took place in 1993. The delegates of the World Congress of Latvian Jews who came to Biķernieki to commemorate the 46,500 Latvian Jews shot there, were shocked by the sight of

4037:, while their wives and children were sent to Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, and elsewhere. Approximately half died as the consequence of their deportation, some deported more than once—M. Dubins died after being deported a second time in 1956. 3476:). On May 1, 1920, the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by a relatively democratic vote, was convened. It was to function until October 7, 1922, and included nine Jewish delegates who represented all groups in the Jewish population ( 3444:

Latvian Jewry continued the communal and popular traditions of Russian Jewry, of which it formed a part until 1918. On the other hand, it was also influenced by the culture of West European Jewry, being situated within its proximity (i.e.,

3073:

from 1766 onwards, Jewish merchants were allowed to stay in Riga for six months, provided they lived in a particular block of the city. In 1785, the Jews of Sloka were allowed a temporary stay in Riga for a longer period of time.

4595:

of Riga. The main Holocaust memorial in Riga was built in 1993 on the site of the destroyed Grand Choral Synagogue, with another one commemorating the events in Biķernieki (built 2001), the Rumbula massacre (built 2002) and the

4505:, 12,624 Jews and non-Jewish family members of Jews immigrated from Latvia to Israel between 1989 and 2000. Some Latvian Jews also emigrated to other Western countries. Many of these emigrants kept their Latvian citizenship. 3142:

By 1897 the Jewish population had already increased to 26,793 (3.5% of the population), about three-quarters of whom lived in Riga. In Courland there were 22,734 Jews in the middle of the 19th century, while according to the

4480:(IRO), and other relief organizations for Nazi victims, and some of them immigrated to the U.S. and other countries abroad. On the other hand, there were also Latvians who risked their lives in order to save Jews. One such, 4078:. At the end of July 1941 the Germans replaced the military with a civil administration. One of its first acts was the promulgation of a series of anti-Jewish ordinances. A subordinate civil administration composed of local 4224:(in Lithuania) were also taken to Kaiserwald. When the Soviet victories in the summer of 1944 forced a German retreat from the Baltic states, the surviving inmates of the Kaiserwald camp were deported by the Germans to 4859:

in the Holocaust. Latvia's Jewish population after World War II peaked at almost 37,000 in 1970, and afterwards began consistently declining. Latvia's Jewish population significantly declined in the 1990s after the

3332:

before World War I, upon their return from Russia they resumed export of these goods on their own initiative. They also developed a variegated industry, and a considerable part of the import trade, such as that of

3316:(1918–20) against both Germany and the Soviet Union. With the cessation of hostilities, Latvia found itself retarded in both the administrative and economic spheres. Among other difficulties, there was running 3295:), while the natural increase only partly replaced these departures. The largest communities were Riga with 43,672 Jews (11.3% of the total) in 1935, Daugavpils with 11,106 (25%), and Liepāja with 7,379 (13%). 3345:, was concentrated in their hands. However, once the Jews had made their contribution, the authorities began to force them out of their economic positions and to deprive them of their sources of livelihood. 2971:

World War II ended the prominence of the Jewish community. Under Stalin, Jews, who formed only 5% of the population, constituted 12% of the deportees. 80% of Latvia's Jewish population was murdered in

3990:

After first extracting Latvian agreement under duress—Stalin personally threatened the Latvian foreign minister, in Moscow, during negotiations—to the stationing of Soviet troops on Latvian soil, the

4520:

While striving toward independence the Latvian national movement sought to make common cause with the Jews in the republic. July 4 was established in Latvia as a memorial day for the victims of the

2968:. The Jewish community flourished. Jewish parents had the right to send their children to schools using Hebrew as the language of instruction, as part of a significant network of minority schools. 2865: 3965:) being removed from the Jewish curriculum. Notably, Dubnow was among the Jews who fled from Germany to Latvia for safety in 1938. (Latvia continued to take in refugees until the fall of 1938.) 1176: 5342: 3139:

graduates, those engaged in "useful" professions, etc., received authorization to settle there. In the middle of the 19th century, there were about 9,000 Jews in the province of Livonia.

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which was formed during the first year of Latvian independence and existed until April 1920, there were also representatives of the national minorities, including seven Jews, among them

4639:

The old synagogue (Peitav Shul) in the Old Town of Riga is active regularly, and today, the rabbi of the synagogue is Rabbi Eliyahu Kramer. This synagogue belongs to the Litvak stream.

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excesses at the hands of the Latvian activists, although there is some disagreement amongst Jewish historians as to the extent of this phenomenon. Latvian-American Holocaust historian

4444:, his assistant; Sauer, commandant of the Kaiserwald concentration camp; and several dozen other Nazi criminals involved in the destruction of Latvian Jewry. On January 26, 1946, the 3877:; this coincided with the bill on the cultural autonomy of the minorities. In the Ministry of Education, there were special departments for the minorities. The engineer Jacob Landau ( 3010:

in the second half of the 16th century, when the lands of Latvia became the subject to Denmark, Poland and Lithuania, Jews began to arrive in the territory of Latvia. First was the

1754: 1409: 1104: 4025:, 1st and 3rd Saeima deputy and head of the Bund Noijs Maizels, as well as other Jewish members of parliament. Men were separated from their families and sent to labor camps at 1296: 6162: 5975: 4164:

were destroyed and 400 Jews were killed. According to Stahlecker's report, the number of Jews killed in mass executions by Einsatzgruppe A by the end of October 1941 in Riga,

2504: 4460:

at the end of 1941. He and six others were sentenced to death by hanging; the sentence was carried out in Riga on February 3, 1946. Other trials were held in the postwar

6872: 268: 1291: 5423:

and These Names Accuse (Latvian National Foundation, Stockholm) both estimate that 5,000 Jews were deported in the first Soviet mass deportation of June 13–14, 1941.

4130:, whose unit operated on the northern Russian front and in the occupied Baltic republics. His account covers the period from the end of June up to October 15, 1941. 7086: 5776: 1539: 6290: 5855: 4376: 4267: 3061:

In the Eastern part of Latvia, Latgale, Jews came from Ukraine, Belarus and Poland in the 17th and 18th centuries, of whom most belonged to the Polish culture of

4325:

According to the population census taken in the Soviet Union in 1959, there were 36,592 Jews (17,096 men and 19,496 women; 1.75% of the total population) in the

6220: 1793: 3357: 3320:. Jews made a large contribution to the rebuilding of the state from the ruins of the war and its consequences. Having much experience in the export of the 5579: 4118:("task forces") played a leading role in the destruction of Latvian Jews, according to information given in their own reports, especially in the report of 3974: 2921: 778: 741: 6568: 5636: 3520: 6427: 6240: 6066: 1717: 4416:

and murder of Jews. The declaration lists Nazis held responsible for the crimes committed in Latvia under German occupation. They include Lohse, the

6265: 6155: 5968: 1740: 5922: 5698: 6437: 5825: 4216:(Mežaparks). The Salaspils concentration camp, set up at the end of 1941, contained thousands of people, including many Latvian and foreign Jews. 3995:

Zionists, conservatives, and right wing socialists. Their arrest orders were approved by S. Shustin. When the Soviets executed the first round of

1090: 5927: 4501:, and Latvia regained its independence. Immigration continued throughout the 1990s, causing a decline in the Jewish population. According to the 6525: 6477: 6352: 6347: 5116: 2957:(1700–1721), which decimated Latvia's population. The Jewish community reestablished itself in the 18th century, mainly through an influx from 2845: 2497: 1667: 1602: 1484: 788: 3917:

schools according to their parents’ wishes. There were also government pedagogic institutes for teachers in Hebrew and Yiddish, courses for

6482: 6312: 5860: 5820: 4974: 4114:" period at all in most parts of Latvia, when Latvian activists could have engaged in the persecution of Jews on their own initiative. The 4057: 3890:

department because, by decision of the Ministry of Education, only the Hebrew and Yiddish schools were included within the scope of Jewish

3589: 3481: 3247: 2835: 2777: 1226: 4517:, its citizenship requirements were gradually relaxed in the 1990s, allowing for its postwar residents to apply for Latvian citizenship. 6487: 6148: 5961: 4510: 4464:, but altogether only a small number of Germans and Latvians who had taken part in the murder of Latvian Jewry were brought to justice. 3991: 3556: 3547: 3538: 3529: 2830: 1494: 1311: 1301: 541: 5611: 4315: 6412: 5948: 5057: 4477: 4093:'s attack on the Soviet Union, 14,000 citizens of Latvia, including several thousand Jews, were deported by the Soviet authorities to 3352:, in practice the economic policy of the government was intended to restrict their activities. This was also reflected in the area of 1890: 1840: 1805: 1499: 1364: 1231: 5723: 3468:, later chairman of the Jewish National Democratic Party), who acted as Minister of Labor (1919–21), anong other high positions, and 3058:. In 1793, the Jews in Jelgava expressed their gratitude to Duke Peter von Biron for the protection of Jews and religious tolerance. 7044: 6382: 6342: 6322: 6302: 6205: 5388: 4935: 4402: 4293: 2850: 2815: 2490: 1582: 1544: 1519: 1439: 1424: 1271: 1211: 1166: 5416: 5650: 5487: 3373: 6515: 6317: 5897: 5835: 4306:

About 1,000 Latvian Jews survived their internment in concentration camps; most of them refused repatriation and remained in the

3156: 3011: 2739: 1875: 1857: 1763: 1657: 1509: 1504: 1429: 1394: 1261: 4646:

In late August 2018, the "Beit Yisrael" synagogue was inaugurated in the residential area of Jūrmala at the home of businessman

4579:

In the early 2000s, after a decade of mass emigration, around 9,000 Jews remained in Latvia, mostly in Riga, where an Ohr Avner

7107: 6520: 6467: 6442: 6397: 6392: 6367: 6225: 4498: 3361: 2914: 2393: 2292: 1847: 1830: 1783: 1682: 1592: 1529: 1479: 1459: 1454: 1374: 1348: 1323: 1201: 1191: 1181: 1161: 1156: 6510: 7016: 6938: 6649: 6561: 6432: 6422: 6372: 6332: 6285: 6280: 6270: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6230: 6215: 6210: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6037: 6022: 5830: 4380: 4271: 3175: 2653: 1866: 1852: 1820: 1800: 1768: 1712: 1687: 1662: 1642: 1632: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1587: 1577: 1572: 1549: 1464: 1449: 1369: 1328: 1281: 1276: 1196: 1141: 5902: 5553: 4062:

Latvia was occupied by the Germans during the first weeks of the German-Soviet war in July 1941. It became part of the new

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to operate while secular Yiddish schools were closed. This resulted in the works of eminent Jewish authors such as the poet

3937: 3420:

of Riga and the provincial towns. The decline in their status was due to three principal causes: the government assumed the

3235: 2825: 3069:(self-government). In the 17th and 18th centuries, Jews were not permitted to stay in Riga or Vidzeme. During the reign of 3038:

had a benevolent attitude toward the Jews. A great role in the modernization of Courland was achieved by finance assistant

6943: 6530: 6472: 6417: 6407: 6387: 6377: 6362: 6357: 6337: 6275: 6260: 6235: 6171: 6104: 6081: 6027: 5845: 4597: 4213: 4180:(Dvinsk) totaled 30,025, and by the end of December 1941, 35,238 Latvian Jews had been killed; 2,500 Jews remained in the 3874: 3450: 3348:

Although, in theory, there were no discriminatory laws against the Jews in democratic Latvia and they enjoyed equality of

3148: 3030:'s (1610–1681) economic reforms. Attempts of the conservative landowners to banish the Jews failed. In 18th century, Duke 2870: 2287: 1825: 1810: 1773: 1735: 1707: 1697: 1692: 1677: 1672: 1637: 1622: 1597: 1563: 1534: 1434: 1419: 1343: 1333: 1251: 1221: 1146: 1132: 768: 6953: 6447: 6402: 6327: 6297: 3243: 3144: 1895: 1815: 1778: 1702: 1647: 1514: 1489: 1414: 1389: 1379: 1318: 1241: 1236: 1216: 1206: 1186: 1171: 1064: 532: 527: 6071: 4669:. Around three-quarters of the Jews are Latvian citizens, which is a high percentage for an ethnic minority in Latvia. 4041: 7026: 6051: 5850: 5012: 5002: 4225: 4204:(in Lithuania) were brought to Riga and some of them participated in the underground organization in the Riga ghetto. 2881: 2820: 1885: 1880: 1835: 1788: 1474: 1444: 1404: 1399: 1256: 562: 6535: 5892: 4365: 4256: 5907: 5887: 4536: 3163:

penetrated early to the Livonia and Courland communities but assimilation did not make the same headway there as in

6857: 6613: 5865: 5384:

Leo Dribins, Armands Gūtmanis, Marģers Vestermanis. "The Jewish Community of Latvia: History, Tragedy, Rebirth" at

5095: 5061: 4319: 4074:

was appointed its commissioner general, with headquarters in Riga, the seat of the Reich Commissioner for Ostland,

4063: 3356:. The Jews of Latvia developed a ramified network of loan banks for the granting of credit with the support of the 2907: 2522: 2359: 2204: 1912: 1306: 502: 492: 228: 6505: 6127: 4384: 4369: 4275: 4260: 3046:, doctors and teachers of Jewish extraction came to Courland. They brought the idea of emancipation of the Jews - 3026:. The Jews were entrusted with the offices of tax-collectors, money-changers and merchants. They facilitated Duke 849: 6554: 3128: 2473: 2166: 2017: 1958: 3022:

after 1570. In the 17th century large numbers of Jews arrived in the Duchy of Courland that was a vassal of the

6912: 6633: 6608: 6603: 4502: 4449: 4153: 2176: 2156: 1266: 746: 287: 5315: 2721: 6831: 6796: 6741: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6577: 6017: 5840: 4307: 4184:

and 950 in the Daugavpils ghetto. At the end of 1941 and the beginning of 1942, Jews deported from Germany,

4123: 4071: 3147:, some 51,072 Jews (7.6% of the population) lived there. The Jews of Courland formed a special group within 3023: 2855: 2840: 2638: 2633: 2317: 2307: 2272: 2151: 2141: 1924: 1095: 1037: 871: 550: 507: 222: 4082:

elements was also established, to which Latvian general councillors were appointed. Their nominal head was

5503: 4067: 3567: 3473: 3031: 2762: 2744: 2436: 2171: 2085: 1151: 703: 322: 292: 6654: 698: 6736: 6061: 5702: 5081: 4832: 2668: 2663: 2327: 2322: 2267: 2055: 970: 685: 580: 297: 4004: 7006: 6766: 6674: 6120: 5163: 4982: 3651: 2767: 2711: 2398: 2350: 2090: 1948: 761: 626: 615: 573: 5676: 5404:

Swain, Geoff, Between Stalin and Hitler: class war and race war on the Dvina. RoutledgeCurzon, 2004.

5120: 7060: 6862: 6826: 6821: 6791: 6771: 4655: 4584: 4053: 4030: 4009: 3942: 3288: 3070: 2810: 2772: 2729: 2567: 2451: 824: 691: 594: 587: 517: 405: 280: 5917: 4441: 4433: 4417: 4098: 4015: 3898: 3454: 3152: 3132: 3101: 2954: 2860: 2734: 2701: 2302: 2252: 2199: 2194: 2108: 1978: 1246: 1075: 834: 754: 608: 174: 6776: 4497:

1991, the number of immigrants to Israel from Riga was 1,087. That same year, the Soviet Union

6990: 6933: 6811: 6756: 6664: 6659: 5747: 5630: 4959: 4861: 4469: 4445: 4421: 4107: 3906: 3902: 3847: 3690: 3489: 3304: 3227: 3223: 3120: 3051: 2531: 2446: 2388: 2368: 2185: 1745: 1384: 844: 715: 645: 522: 435: 302: 3287:

Between 1925 and 1935 over 6,000 Jews left Latvia (the overwhelming majority of them for the

6917: 6885: 6806: 6801: 6700: 6669: 6091: 5870: 5604: 5029: 4881: 4662: 4651: 4588: 4457: 4338: 4334: 4193: 4142: 4079: 3996: 3958: 3946: 3930: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3485: 3429: 3353: 3195: 2800: 2706: 2648: 2416: 2297: 2257: 2221: 1919: 1469: 980: 736: 640: 555: 445: 237: 91: 87: 4647: 3258: 6969: 6890: 6746: 6695: 5875: 5491: 5420: 5392: 4146: 4127: 3926: 3292: 3104: 3062: 3035: 2964:

Under an independent Latvia, Jews formed political parties and participated as members of

2716: 2585: 2378: 2337: 2332: 2312: 2234: 2228: 2161: 2113: 1953: 1934: 1085: 814: 726: 709: 253: 139: 131: 95: 83: 66: 6974: 5385: 5741: 5413: 4484:, helped to save several dozen Jews of the Riga ghetto by providing them with hideouts. 4040:

It is estimated that of the 2,100,000 Jews who came under Soviet control as a result of

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population). After the signing of the peace treaty between the Latvian Republic and the

200: 7039: 7034: 6907: 6895: 6852: 6836: 6032: 5953: 5798: 5654: 5484: 5239: 4514: 4481: 4189: 4134: 4115: 4083: 3512:

Seats won by Jewish political parties in elections during the first Republic of Latvia

3469: 3164: 3094: 3055: 2678: 2658: 2542: 2478: 2277: 2146: 2132: 2012: 1991: 1968: 1963: 1941: 1929: 1524: 1005: 939: 904: 882: 819: 657: 635: 497: 476: 452: 218: 127: 5188: 4629: 7101: 7076: 6786: 6751: 6726: 6593: 5812: 4840: 4836: 4828: 4601: 4453: 4201: 4197: 4075: 4034: 3432:. In addition to the above, the Jewish population was subjected to a heavy burden of 3321: 3219: 3171: 3027: 2972: 2897: 2673: 2562: 2557: 2426: 2421: 1627: 1554: 1080: 929: 924: 919: 909: 887: 839: 601: 440: 345: 307: 258: 143: 4044:

dividing Eastern Europe, about 1,900,000 were deported to Siberia and central Asia.

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All political parties and organizations were also abolished. Of Jewish groups, only

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into Russia as a province in 1795. Both these provinces were situated outside the

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restored as museums. One of the largest memorials outside Riga is located at the

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https://www.pmlp.gov.lv/sites/pmlp/files/media_file/isvn_latvija_pec_ttb_vpd.pdf

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also operated a day school, as well as a kindergarten. An active synagogue, the

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In 2023, a mass grave of dozens of Jews slain by Nazis in 1941 was detected in

4440:, chief of the Riga ghetto and commandant of the Salaspils concentration camp; 3459: 7011: 6761: 5788: 4877: 4865: 4633: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4605: 4592: 4177: 4169: 4161: 3768: 3501: 3267: 3231: 3215: 3207: 3203: 3136: 3124: 3090: 2992: 2600: 2572: 2099: 1113: 1042: 1000: 829: 809: 368: 275: 195: 17: 5942: 5076:

Significant portions of this article were reproduced, with permission of the

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Before World War II, Latvia had almost 100,000 Jews. Most Latvian Jews were

4844: 4666: 4661:

The population in the 2021 census rose from 6,454 to 8,094. This included 4

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R. O. G. Urch. Latvia: Country and People. London, Allen & Unwin. 1938.

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administration began persecuting the Latvian Jews, they had suffered from

3170:

Courland Jewry developed a specific character, combining features of both

3050:, with them. Jews also took part in the building of the Duke's palaces in 4856: 4568: 4173: 4145:

on November 30, 1941. One of the most notorious members of the group was

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which prevailed in this region, and on the other by that of neighboring

4673: 4330: 4185: 4165: 4094: 3925:, a popular Jewish music academy, evening schools for working youth, a 3914: 3886: 3493: 3417: 3393: 3385: 3377: 3365: 3312: 3263: 3187: 3082: 3019: 3015: 3003: 2958: 2946: 2407: 2373: 2242: 2036: 1025: 1020: 892: 783: 678: 674: 670: 419: 414: 391: 373: 248: 243: 233: 211: 186: 111: 99: 5932: 4608:) Cemetery, is located on the city's eastern side in Lizuma Street in 155: 5580:"82 years after Nazi massacre, mass Jewish grave uncovered in Latvia" 4876:

to Israel and the United States (specifically, to the U.S. states of

4873: 4580: 4540: 4229: 4157: 4090: 3882: 3349: 3334: 3325: 3271: 3211: 3112: 3098: 2965: 2950: 2941: 2067: 2062: 2022: 2007: 1118: 1010: 430: 396: 382: 317: 164: 160: 60: 4539:

was held in Riga. It was attended by delegates from Israel, the US,

4337:

as their language, while only a few hundred described themselves as

3002:

had no connections with the Jews and their entrance was banned into

2961:, and came to play a principal role in the economic life of Latvia. 5319: 5318:. The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. Archived from 4322:(43rd Guard) and 304th, and many were killed or wounded in battle. 3873:

On December 8, 1919, the general bill on schools was passed by the

4625: 4473: 4425: 4311: 3508:(Bund). The last two were not reelected to the fourth parliament. 3433: 3405: 3372:, etc., were established and organized within a central body, the 3329: 3257: 2999: 2986: 2595: 2589: 2576: 1030: 459: 363: 332: 154: 5949:

Dvinsk (Daugavpils) and Vishki (Višķi) records, from 1867 to 1905

5912: 5751: 5746:. Tel Aviv: Association of Latvian and Estonian Jews in Israel. 4698: 4616:

Synagogue is still in operation, with a new synagogue opened in

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The Holocaust in Latvia & Latvia's Jews Yesterday and Today

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Swain, G. Between Stalin and Hitler. Routledge, New York. 2004.

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Jewish parliamentary representatives, first Republic of Latvia

3042:

Aaron Levi Lipman (served until 1741), upon whose request many

5246:. Tel Aviv: Association of Latvian and Estonian Jews in Israel 4348: 4239: 4200:

forests near Riga, and elsewhere. In 1942 about 800 Jews from

5724:

YIVO | Population and Migration: Population since World War I

3977:, while the Jewish intelligentsia gravitated toward Zionism. 3262:

Ethnic composition of Latvia from 1863 to 1935. The towns of

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The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941–1944 : The Missing Center

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with approximately 12,000 pupils and 742 teachers, eighteen

4658:. He holds a dual degree in political science and Judaism. 4548: 4428:) for Ostland; Drechsler, Commissioner General for Latvia; 4119: 3909:

with 300 pupils and thirty-seven teachers. Pupils attended

3905:

with approximately 2,000 pupils and 286 teachers, and four

3416:

in various goods at the second-hand clothes markets in the

3065:. A large part of their community life was managed by the 5937: 5528: 4456:, among them Jeckeln, one of the men responsible for the 4137:

played a leading role in the atrocities committed in the

3408:

milling. About one half of the Jews of Latvia engaged in

3014:, where there formed a Jewish community near modern day 5117:"Kurzeme's and Zemgale's Jews - Latvijas Universitāte" 3496:

in Israel after the country was established in 1948),

3226:

was short-lived. On May 15, 1934, the prime minister,

5343:"Noslepkavoto ebreju piemiņai (2) | Druva - AlisePAC" 3210:(Zemgale) and Livonia (Vidzeme), and the independent 2945:

dates back to the first Jewish colony established in

5726:. Yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved on April 14, 2013. 5485:

LATVIA'S JEWISH COMMUNITY: HISTORY, TRAGEDY, REVIVAL

2046: 2027: 450: 7069: 7053: 7025: 6999: 6983: 6962: 6926: 6871: 6845: 6719: 6683: 6642: 6496: 6458: 6178: 6080: 6050: 6005: 5933:

Official Encyclopaedia Judaica, 2nd Edition website

4643:synagogue, a community center, and a kosher store. 4333:as their mother tongue. The others mainly declared 4232:, and from there were sent to various other camps. 3881:) headed the Jewish department. A broad network of 117: 105: 77: 51: 46: 37: 4527:Many Jewish organizations operate in the country. 4604:(built 2005). The main Jewish cemetery, the New ( 5653:. Demoscope.ru. January 15, 2013. Archived from 4993:Supplement to the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics 3190:, in which most of the population was Latvian, 5856:Military history of Latvia during World War II 3151:. On the one hand they were influenced by the 6562: 6156: 5969: 4236:German retreat and Soviet re-occupation, 1944 4152:At the instigation of the Einsatzgruppe, the 3246:of the nation. His government inclined to be 3214:was established (November 1918). At first, a 3206:(Dvinsk), were joined to Courland (Kurzeme), 3089:, the two principalities on the coast of the 2915: 2498: 8: 5446:Latvians and Jews Between Germany and Russia 5434:Latvians and Jews Between Germany and Russia 4684: 3374:Alliance of Cooperative Societies for Credit 3358:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 3222:spirit prevailed in the young state but the 32: 5777:YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe 5380: 5378: 5376: 5374: 5372: 5370: 5368: 5366: 5364: 4383:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4274:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4003:included Constitutional Convention members 3274:in particular had large Jewish populations. 742:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 6569: 6555: 6547: 6163: 6149: 6141: 5976: 5962: 5954: 5480: 5478: 5345:[To the Memory of Murdered Jews]. 4683: 2922: 2908: 2516: 2505: 2491: 2355: 1996: 1069: 876: 481: 350: 169: 31: 5529:"The Jewish community of Jūrmala, Latvia" 4872:to other countries, especially they made 4403:Learn how and when to remove this message 4294:Learn how and when to remove this message 3303:Jews already played an important role in 3254:Jewish population in the Latvian Republic 5111: 5109: 5107: 5105: 5103: 4220:September 1943 Jews from the liquidated 3810: 3510: 3364:(JCA). Cooperative credit societies for 7017:Extraordinary (Soviet) State Commission 5923:The Holocaust in German-Occupied Latvia 5826:History of the Jews during World War II 5386:the Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs 5149: 5147: 5088: 5049: 5019:Mezhdunarodnaia Evreiskaia Gazeta (MEG) 3897:In 1933 there were ninety-eight Jewish 2530: 2519: 2406: 2358: 2184: 2131: 2098: 2075: 1999: 1865: 1753: 1727: 1562: 1356: 1131: 1103: 962: 796: 725: 625: 540: 484: 404: 381: 353: 181: 5635:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 5628: 4048:German occupation of Latvia, 1941–1944 3789: 3767: 3747: 3727: 3705: 3650: 3630: 3610: 3588: 3566: 7: 7087:Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany 7000:War crimes investigations and trials 5861:Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany 5821:General Jewish Labour Bund in Latvia 4975:The Destruction of the European Jews 4827:The Jewish population data includes 4685:Historical Latvian Jewish population 4381:adding citations to reliable sources 4272:adding citations to reliable sources 4058:Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany 3202:), including the large community of 2778:The First Latvian National Awakening 47:Regions with significant populations 5677:"Ethnicities in Latvia. Statistics" 5164:"COURLAND - JewishEncyclopedia.com" 4930:Die Vernichtung der Juden Lettlands 4511:Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940 3186:Three districts of the province of 3093:which were incorporated within the 3077:Essentially the nucleus of Latvian 5617:from the original on March 3, 2016 5058:Grand Master of the Teutonic Order 4478:International Refugee Organization 3929:, and cultural clubs. There was a 3291:which was soon to be declared the 25: 7045:Roberts Seduls and Johanna Sedule 6846:Nazi occupation and organizations 5701:. Data.csb.gov.lv. Archived from 4936:Jewish Central Information Office 4923:Perakim be-Toledot Yahadut Latvia 4902:Geschikhte fun di Yidn in Letland 4847:(all per the 1959 Soviet census). 4452:began a trial of a group of Nazi 4086:, a former Latvian army general. 2851:Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic 2816:Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic 533:Historical population comparisons 6067:Latvian people of Jewish descent 5996: 5984: 5836:History of the Jews in Lithuania 5805: 5791: 5432:Dov Levin, quoted in Gordon, F. 4353: 4244: 4089:In mid-June 1941, on the eve of 3933:reflecting a variety of trends. 3862:Jewish social-democratic "Bund" 3676:Jewish National Democratic Party 2891: 2740:Duchy of Courland and Semigallia 2541: 1177:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1091:Historical population by country 53: 5943:JewishGEN Vishki Shtetl website 5214:"Courland, by Herman Rosenthal" 5119:. April 3, 2012. Archived from 4940:From Germany to the Riga Ghetto 4535:On June 11–17, 1993, the First 3362:Jewish Colonization Association 6939:Jungfernhof concentration camp 6650:Burning of the Riga synagogues 6172:History of the Jews in Europe 6038:Burning of the Riga synagogues 6023:Jungfernhof concentration camp 5945:(not active, January 24, 2021) 5831:History of the Jews in Estonia 5395:, retrieved December 22, 2010. 5316:"The Jewish Community of Riga" 5009:Antisemitism World Report 1995 4999:Antisemitism World Report 1994 4537:World Congress of Latvian Jews 4316:Soviet army’s Latvian division 4160:against the Jews in Riga. All 3728:Jewish Progressive Association 2654:Livonian Brothers of the Sword 1: 6944:Kaiserwald concentration camp 6105:Great Choral Synagogue (Riga) 6028:Kaiserwald concentration camp 6013:History of the Jews in Latvia 5846:Kaiserwald concentration camp 5651:"Приложение Демоскопа Weekly" 5578:II, Dylan (August 24, 2023). 4843:(or Central Asian Jews), and 4598:Kaiserwald concentration camp 4576:control the Latvian economy. 2949:in 1571. Jews contributed to 2871:2008 Latvian financial crisis 748:Christianity and Judaism 6954:Salaspils concentration camp 5893:Leģenda, kas nāk no Jelgavas 5270:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 4108:Andrew (Andrievs) Ezergailis 4066:, officially designated as " 4064:Reichskommissariat "Ostland" 3986:Soviet occupation, 1940–1941 3145:1897 Imperial Russian Census 38: 7027:Righteous Among the Nations 6599:Related articles by country 5851:Latvian resistance movement 5419:September 21, 2011, at the 5013:Institute of Jewish Affairs 5003:Institute of Jewish Affairs 4612:. Elsewhere in Latvia, the 4226:Stutthof concentration camp 3992:Soviet Union invaded Latvia 3790:United List of Zemgale Jews 3242:. Ulmanis was proclaimed a 2866:Restoration of Independence 2047: 2028: 1755:Latin America and Caribbean 451: 7124: 6858:Reichskommissariat Ostland 5992:Jews and Judaism in Latvia 5938:Vishki, a shtetl in Latvia 5866:Reichskommissariat Ostland 5168:www.jewishencyclopedia.com 5062:Siegfried von Feuchtwangen 4133:Nevertheless, the Latvian 4110:argues that there was no " 4051: 3875:People's Council of Latvia 3836:Mordehajs (Morduhs) Dubins 3689: 3675: 3655: 3498:Matitjahu Maksis Lazersons 3451:People's Council of Latvia 3081:was formed by the Jews of 2360:Jewish political movements 2057:Conversion to Judaism 6584: 6116: 5760:"Courland Research Group" 5490:October 30, 2014, at the 5469:Andrew Ezergailis (1996) 5391:October 30, 2014, at the 4814: 4711:— 4656:Rabbi Pinchas Goldschmidt 4583:school was in operation. 4472:, they received aid from 4310:in Germany, Austria, and 4122:-Brigadeführer (General) 3831: 3661: 3658: 3516: 3440:Public and political life 3119:, formerly an autonomous 3097:during the 18th century. 2953:'s development until the 2846:1944 Soviet re-occupation 763:Hinduism and Judaism 122: 110: 82: 6913:Latvian Auxiliary Police 5584:European Jewish Congress 5456:Unger, L. and Jelen, C. 5189:"Latvia (Pages 358-368)" 4450:Baltic Military District 4154:Latvian Auxiliary Police 4141:in conjunction with the 3997:mass Baltic deportations 3844:Mordehajs Markuss Nuroks 3492:, later a member of the 2826:1934 Latvian coup d'état 589:Temple in Jerusalem 282:Bar and bat mitzvah 6832:Franz Walter Stahlecker 6742:Otto-Heinrich Drechsler 6691:Jewish people of Latvia 6578:The Holocaust in Latvia 6072:Latvia–Israel relations 5841:Jews in Latvia (museum) 5080:, from the forthcoming 4954:Algemeyne Entsiklopedie 4864:when many Latvian Jews 4680:Historical demographics 4308:Displaced Persons camps 4072:Otto-Heinrich Drechsler 4042:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 2856:Popular Front of Latvia 2841:The Holocaust in Latvia 2639:Principality of Koknese 2634:Principality of Jersika 551:Twelve Tribes of Israel 65:8,094 (2021, including 7108:Jewish Latvian history 6221:Bosnia and Herzegovina 5913:Saviours and the Saved 5504:"Daugavpils Synagogue" 4488:Developments 1970–1991 4068:Generalbezirk Lettland 3962: 3950: 3611:Jewish Democratic Bloc 3480:, National Democrats, 3275: 3199: 3032:Ernst Johann von Biron 2995: 2831:1940 Soviet occupation 2763:Governorate of Livonia 2745:Couronian colonization 167: 5740:Bobe, Mendel (1971). 5238:Bobe, Mendel (1971). 5082:Encyclopaedia Judaica 4835:in Soviet censuses), 4652:Rabbi Uri Amos Cherki 4531:In independent Latvia 3951:Haims Nahmans Bjaliks 3869:Culture and education 3707:Jewish People's Party 3261: 3238:and Latvia became an 2990: 2669:Bishopric of Courland 2664:Archbishopric of Riga 1297:São Tomé and Príncipe 1292:Republic of the Congo 686:Second Temple Judaism 557:Kingdom of Judah 528:Modern historiography 158: 118:Related ethnic groups 7007:Einsatzgruppen trial 6797:Hans-Adolf Prützmann 6122:List of Latvian Jews 5705:on December 19, 2012 5558:memorialplaces.lu.lv 5295:yivoencyclopedia.org 5240:"The Jews in Latvia" 5039:Notes and references 5032:, Latvia and Estonia 4983:Sergio Della Pergola 4377:improve this section 4268:improve this section 3656:Histadruth-Hacionith 3652:Jewish National Bloc 3631:Jewish Economic Bloc 2991:Former synagogue in 2768:Courland Governorate 2722:Polish–Swedish Wars 2712:Inflanty Voivodeship 2399:World Agudath Israel 1540:United Arab Emirates 627:Second Temple period 617:Babylonian captivity 98:(historically), and 7061:Bikernieki Memorial 6863:Rollkommando Hamann 6827:Rudolf Joachim Seck 6792:Friedrich Panzinger 6772:Ernst Kaltenbrunner 6459:States with limited 5903:Remembering Rumbula 5657:on October 12, 2013 5347:cesis.biblioteka.lv 4686: 4424:, chief of police ( 4126:, the commander of 4097:and other parts of 4054:Holocaust in Latvia 3943:Hayim Nahman Bialik 3938:Ulmanis coup d’état 3813: 3513: 3289:Mandatory Palestine 3284:independent state. 3107:, with the city of 2821:War of Independence 2811:United Baltic Duchy 2773:Vitebsk Governorate 2730:Second Northern War 2691:Early modern period 2568:Corded Ware culture 692:Hellenistic Judaism 270:Land of Israel 229:Principles of faith 34: 6129:List of synagogues 5743:The Jews in Latvia 5508:VISITDAUGAVPILS.LV 5084:, Second Edition. 4964:The Final Solution 4895:Di Yidn in Letland 4591:, operates in the 4418:Reich Commissioner 3921:teachers, popular 3907:vocational schools 3899:elementary schools 3811: 3511: 3276: 3133:Pale of Settlement 2996: 2861:Singing Revolution 2757:National Awakening 2735:Great Northern War 2702:Kingdom of Livonia 2253:Jewish Koine Greek 1795:Dominican Republic 1076:Judaism by country 755:Jews and Christmas 610:Assyrian captivity 168: 7095: 7094: 6991:Sonderaktion 1005 6934:Daugavpils Ghetto 6927:Ghettos and camps 6812:Martin Sandberger 6757:Friedrich Jeckeln 6544: 6543: 6138: 6137: 5898:Liepaja Holocaust 5679:. Roots-saknes.lv 5341:Balodis, Gunārs. 5244:www.jewishgen.org 5218:www.jewishgen.org 5193:www.jewishgen.org 4960:Gerald Reitlinger 4862:fall of Communism 4853: 4852: 4648:Emanuel Grinshpun 4470:Displaced Persons 4446:military tribunal 4422:Friedrich Jeckeln 4413: 4412: 4405: 4345:War crimes trials 4304: 4303: 4296: 3903:secondary schools 3866: 3865: 3848:Ruvins Vitenbergs 3809: 3808: 3224:democratic regime 3012:Duchy of Courland 3006:. Only after the 2932: 2931: 2898:Latvia portal 2806:German occupation 2725: 2724:(1600–1629) 2515: 2514: 2464: 2463: 2212: 2211: 1959:Reconstructionist 1903: 1902: 1055: 1054: 862: 861: 699:Jewish–Roman wars 647:Hasmonean dynasty 563:Kingdom of Israel 467: 466: 153: 152: 16:(Redirected from 7115: 7070:Related articles 6918:Schutzmannschaft 6904: 6882: 6822:Walther Schröder 6807:Alfred Rosenberg 6802:Eduard Roschmann 6701:Joseph Carlebach 6655:Dünamünde Action 6600: 6590: 6571: 6564: 6557: 6548: 6497:Dependencies and 6438:Northern Ireland 6179:Sovereign states 6165: 6158: 6151: 6142: 6130: 6123: 6092:Peitav Synagogue 6084: 6054: 6000: 5993: 5988: 5978: 5971: 5964: 5955: 5815: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5801: 5796: 5795: 5794: 5767: 5755: 5727: 5721: 5715: 5714: 5712: 5710: 5695: 5689: 5688: 5686: 5684: 5673: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5647: 5641: 5640: 5634: 5626: 5624: 5622: 5616: 5609: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5575: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5564: 5550: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5539: 5525: 5519: 5518: 5516: 5514: 5500: 5494: 5482: 5473: 5467: 5461: 5454: 5448: 5442: 5436: 5430: 5424: 5411: 5405: 5402: 5396: 5382: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5354: 5338: 5332: 5331: 5329: 5327: 5322:on June 24, 2018 5312: 5306: 5305: 5303: 5301: 5287: 5281: 5280: 5278: 5276: 5262: 5256: 5255: 5253: 5251: 5235: 5229: 5228: 5226: 5224: 5210: 5204: 5203: 5201: 5199: 5185: 5179: 5178: 5176: 5174: 5160: 5154: 5151: 5142: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5130: 5128: 5123:on April 3, 2012 5113: 5098: 5093: 5065: 5054: 5030:Pinkas Hakehilot 4947:The Untold Story 4945:Isaac Levinson, 4914:Yahadut Latvia, 4911:1918–1933 (1933) 4893:M. Schatz-Anin, 4700: 4695: 4687: 4620:and the ones in 4589:Peitav Synagogue 4458:Rumbula massacre 4408: 4401: 4397: 4394: 4388: 4357: 4349: 4339:Latvian-speaking 4299: 4292: 4288: 4285: 4279: 4248: 4240: 4143:Rumbula massacre 4080:collaborationist 4024: 4013: 4005:Īzaks Rabinovičs 3975:Social Democrats 3953:) and historian 3840:Maksis Lazersons 3814: 3514: 3486:Mordehajs Nuroks 3470:Mordehajs Dubins 3463: 3212:Latvian Republic 3157:Lithuanian Jewry 2924: 2917: 2910: 2896: 2895: 2894: 2801:Latvian Riflemen 2723: 2707:Duchy of Livonia 2649:Livonian Crusade 2545: 2535: 2517: 2507: 2500: 2493: 2356: 2237: 2058: 2052: 2033: 1997: 1944: 1891:New Zealand 1843: 1806:El Salvador 1796: 1728:Northern America 1720: 1314: 1070: 981:Crimean Karaites 877: 855: 853: 774: 772: 764: 758: 749: 737:Rabbinic Judaism 718: 712: 706: 694: 682: 648: 641:Maccabean Revolt 618: 611: 605: 597: 590: 584: 576: 558: 482: 456: 351: 283: 271: 170: 163:(dark green) in 159:The location of 59: 57: 56: 35: 21: 7123: 7122: 7118: 7117: 7116: 7114: 7113: 7112: 7098: 7097: 7096: 7091: 7065: 7049: 7021: 6995: 6979: 6970:Generalplan Ost 6958: 6922: 6902: 6891:Herberts Cukurs 6880: 6867: 6841: 6777:Wolfgang Kügler 6747:Erich Ehrlinger 6715: 6679: 6675:Liepāja (Šķēde) 6638: 6598: 6588: 6580: 6575: 6545: 6540: 6498: 6492: 6478:Northern Cyprus 6460: 6454: 6353:North Macedonia 6174: 6169: 6139: 6134: 6128: 6121: 6112: 6082: 6076: 6052: 6046: 6001: 5991: 5982: 5884: 5876:Sorella Epstein 5811: 5806: 5804: 5797: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5758: 5739: 5736: 5734:Further reading 5731: 5730: 5722: 5718: 5708: 5706: 5697: 5696: 5692: 5682: 5680: 5675: 5674: 5670: 5660: 5658: 5649: 5648: 5644: 5627: 5620: 5618: 5614: 5607: 5605:"Archived copy" 5603: 5602: 5598: 5588: 5586: 5577: 5576: 5572: 5562: 5560: 5552: 5551: 5547: 5537: 5535: 5527: 5526: 5522: 5512: 5510: 5502: 5501: 5497: 5492:Wayback Machine 5483: 5476: 5468: 5464: 5455: 5451: 5443: 5439: 5431: 5427: 5421:Wayback Machine 5412: 5408: 5403: 5399: 5393:Wayback Machine 5383: 5362: 5352: 5350: 5340: 5339: 5335: 5325: 5323: 5314: 5313: 5309: 5299: 5297: 5291:"YIVO | Latvia" 5289: 5288: 5284: 5274: 5272: 5264: 5263: 5259: 5249: 5247: 5237: 5236: 5232: 5222: 5220: 5212: 5211: 5207: 5197: 5195: 5187: 5186: 5182: 5172: 5170: 5162: 5161: 5157: 5152: 5145: 5140: 5136: 5126: 5124: 5115: 5114: 5101: 5094: 5090: 5074: 5069: 5068: 5055: 5051: 5046: 5041: 4981:U. Schmelz and 4890: 4816: 4682: 4533: 4490: 4434:security police 4432:, chief of the 4409: 4398: 4392: 4389: 4374: 4358: 4347: 4300: 4289: 4283: 4280: 4265: 4249: 4238: 4147:Herberts Cukurs 4128:Einsatzgruppe A 4060: 4052:Main articles: 4050: 4018: 4007: 3988: 3983: 3927:Yiddish theater 3871: 3820:Representatives 3561: 3558: 3552: 3549: 3543: 3540: 3534: 3531: 3525: 3522: 3457: 3442: 3301: 3293:State of Israel 3256: 3105:Swedish Livonia 3036:Peter von Biron 3034:and his father 2985: 2983:General history 2936:history of the 2928: 2892: 2890: 2876: 2875: 2836:Nazi occupation 2796: 2788: 2787: 2758: 2750: 2749: 2717:Swedish Livonia 2692: 2684: 2683: 2629: 2621: 2620: 2553: 2533: 2526: 2511: 2466: 2465: 2353: 2343: 2342: 2333:Judeo-Malayalam 2313:Judaeo-Georgian 2233: 2224: 2214: 2213: 2114:Yiddish theatre 2056: 1994: 1984: 1983: 1942: 1915: 1905: 1904: 1841: 1794: 1718: 1312: 1096:Genetic studies 1067: 1057: 1056: 874: 864: 863: 851: 850: 770: 769: 762: 752: 747: 729:and Middle Ages 727:Rabbinic period 714: 708: 701: 689: 660: 646: 616: 609: 600: 592: 588: 579: 574:in Judaism 571: 556: 479: 469: 468: 348: 338: 337: 281: 269: 214: 140:Lithuanian Jews 132:Belarusian Jews 54: 52: 42: 40: 39:Latvijas ebreji 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7121: 7119: 7111: 7110: 7100: 7099: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7073: 7071: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7063: 7057: 7055: 7051: 7050: 7048: 7047: 7042: 7040:Paul Schiemann 7037: 7031: 7029: 7023: 7022: 7020: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7003: 7001: 6997: 6996: 6994: 6993: 6987: 6985: 6981: 6980: 6978: 6977: 6972: 6966: 6964: 6960: 6959: 6957: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6930: 6928: 6924: 6923: 6921: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6908:Arajs Kommando 6905: 6899: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6877: 6875: 6869: 6868: 6866: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6853:Einsatzgruppen 6849: 6847: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6839: 6837:Eduard Strauch 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6767:Konrāds Kalējs 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6737:Fritz Dietrich 6734: 6729: 6723: 6721: 6717: 6716: 6714: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6687: 6685: 6681: 6680: 6678: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6646: 6644: 6640: 6639: 6637: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6585: 6582: 6581: 6576: 6574: 6573: 6566: 6559: 6551: 6542: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6502: 6500: 6499:other entities 6494: 6493: 6491: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6464: 6462: 6456: 6455: 6453: 6452: 6451: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6435: 6428:United Kingdom 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6241:Czech Republic 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6182: 6180: 6176: 6175: 6170: 6168: 6167: 6160: 6153: 6145: 6136: 6135: 6133: 6132: 6125: 6117: 6114: 6113: 6111: 6110: 6109: 6108: 6095: 6094: 6088: 6086: 6078: 6077: 6075: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6058: 6056: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6044: 6043: 6042: 6041: 6040: 6035: 6033:Salaspils camp 6030: 6025: 6009: 6007: 6003: 6002: 5983: 5981: 5980: 5973: 5966: 5958: 5952: 5951: 5946: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5883: 5882:External links 5880: 5879: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5817: 5816: 5802: 5799:Judaism portal 5786: 5783: 5782: 5781: 5768: 5756: 5735: 5732: 5729: 5728: 5716: 5690: 5668: 5642: 5596: 5570: 5545: 5520: 5495: 5474: 5462: 5449: 5437: 5425: 5406: 5397: 5360: 5333: 5307: 5282: 5257: 5230: 5205: 5180: 5155: 5143: 5134: 5099: 5087: 5086: 5073: 5070: 5067: 5066: 5048: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5036: 5035: 5022: 5016: 5006: 4996: 4990: 4979: 4967: 4957: 4950: 4943: 4933: 4926: 4919: 4916:Sefer Zikkaron 4912: 4909:15 Yor Letland 4905: 4900:L. Ovchinski, 4898: 4889: 4886: 4851: 4850: 4849: 4848: 4825: 4823: 4821: 4819: 4812: 4811: 4808: 4805: 4801: 4800: 4797: 4794: 4790: 4789: 4786: 4783: 4779: 4778: 4775: 4772: 4768: 4767: 4764: 4761: 4757: 4756: 4753: 4750: 4746: 4745: 4742: 4739: 4735: 4734: 4731: 4728: 4724: 4723: 4720: 4717: 4713: 4712: 4709: 4706: 4702: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4681: 4678: 4532: 4529: 4515:European Union 4489: 4486: 4411: 4410: 4393:September 2008 4361: 4359: 4352: 4346: 4343: 4302: 4301: 4252: 4250: 4243: 4237: 4234: 4190:Czechoslovakia 4176:(Wolmar), and 4156:carried out a 4135:Arajs Kommando 4116:Einsatzgruppen 4084:Oskars Dankers 4049: 4046: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3963:Šimons Dubnovs 3870: 3867: 3864: 3863: 3860: 3854: 3853: 3850: 3833: 3829: 3828: 3821: 3818: 3807: 3806: 3803: 3800: 3797: 3794: 3791: 3787: 3786: 3783: 3780: 3777: 3774: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3761: 3758: 3755: 3752: 3749: 3745: 3744: 3741: 3738: 3735: 3732: 3729: 3725: 3724: 3721: 3718: 3715: 3712: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3699: 3696: 3693: 3687: 3686: 3683: 3680: 3677: 3673: 3672: 3669: 3666: 3663: 3660: 3657: 3654: 3648: 3647: 3644: 3641: 3638: 3635: 3632: 3628: 3627: 3624: 3621: 3618: 3615: 3612: 3608: 3607: 3604: 3601: 3598: 3595: 3592: 3586: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3576: 3573: 3570: 3564: 3563: 3554: 3545: 3536: 3527: 3518: 3441: 3438: 3300: 3297: 3255: 3252: 3228:Kārlis Ulmanis 3165:Western Europe 3153:German culture 3095:Russian Empire 3024:King of Poland 3000:Latvian tribes 2984: 2981: 2930: 2929: 2927: 2926: 2919: 2912: 2904: 2901: 2900: 2887: 2886: 2878: 2877: 2874: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2797: 2794: 2793: 2790: 2789: 2786: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2759: 2756: 2755: 2752: 2751: 2748: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2693: 2690: 2689: 2686: 2685: 2682: 2681: 2679:Baltic Germans 2676: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2659:Livonian Order 2656: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2636: 2630: 2627: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2619: 2618: 2613: 2608: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2579: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2554: 2552:Ancient Latvia 2551: 2550: 2547: 2546: 2538: 2537: 2528: 2527: 2520: 2513: 2512: 2510: 2509: 2502: 2495: 2487: 2484: 2483: 2482: 2481: 2476: 2468: 2467: 2462: 2461: 2460: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2444: 2439: 2434: 2429: 2424: 2419: 2411: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2402: 2401: 2396: 2394:Territorialism 2391: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2371: 2363: 2362: 2354: 2349: 2348: 2345: 2344: 2341: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2320: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2285: 2280: 2278:Judaeo-Spanish 2275: 2273:Judaeo-Iranian 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2239: 2238: 2225: 2220: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2210: 2209: 2208: 2207: 2202: 2197: 2189: 2188: 2182: 2181: 2180: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2136: 2135: 2129: 2128: 2127: 2126: 2121: 2116: 2111: 2103: 2102: 2096: 2095: 2094: 2093: 2088: 2080: 2079: 2073: 2072: 2071: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2053: 2044: 2039: 2034: 2025: 2020: 2015: 2010: 2002: 2001: 1995: 1990: 1989: 1986: 1985: 1982: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1951: 1946: 1939: 1938: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1916: 1911: 1910: 1907: 1906: 1901: 1900: 1899: 1898: 1893: 1888: 1883: 1878: 1870: 1869: 1863: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1855: 1850: 1845: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1813: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1791: 1786: 1781: 1776: 1771: 1766: 1758: 1757: 1751: 1750: 1749: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1730: 1729: 1725: 1724: 1723: 1722: 1719:United Kingdom 1715: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1685: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1567: 1566: 1560: 1559: 1558: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1359: 1358: 1354: 1353: 1352: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1309: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1152:Bilad-el-Sudan 1149: 1144: 1136: 1135: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1108: 1107: 1105:Land of Israel 1101: 1100: 1099: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1068: 1063: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1052: 1051: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1034: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 978: 973: 965: 964: 963:Related groups 960: 959: 958: 957: 952: 947: 942: 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 897: 896: 895: 890: 875: 870: 869: 866: 865: 860: 859: 858: 857: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 820:Jewish atheism 817: 812: 807: 799: 798: 794: 793: 792: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771:Islamic–Jewish 766: 759: 744: 739: 731: 730: 723: 722: 721: 720: 696: 683: 655: 650: 643: 638: 636:Yehud Medinata 630: 629: 623: 622: 621: 620: 613: 606: 598: 585: 577: 565: 560: 553: 545: 544: 542:Ancient Israel 538: 537: 536: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 498:Land of Israel 495: 487: 486: 480: 475: 474: 471: 470: 465: 464: 463: 462: 457: 453:Shulchan Aruch 448: 443: 438: 433: 425: 424: 423: 422: 417: 409: 408: 402: 401: 400: 399: 394: 386: 385: 379: 378: 377: 376: 371: 366: 358: 357: 349: 344: 343: 340: 339: 336: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 278: 273: 266: 261: 256: 251: 246: 241: 231: 226: 219:God in Judaism 215: 210: 209: 206: 205: 204: 203: 198: 190: 189: 179: 178: 151: 150: 128:Ashkenazi Jews 120: 119: 115: 114: 108: 107: 103: 102: 80: 79: 75: 74: 63: 49: 48: 44: 43: 28: 24: 18:Latvian Jewish 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7120: 7109: 7106: 7105: 7103: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7077:The Holocaust 7075: 7074: 7072: 7068: 7062: 7059: 7058: 7056: 7052: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7032: 7030: 7028: 7024: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7004: 7002: 6998: 6992: 6989: 6988: 6986: 6982: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6967: 6965: 6963:Documentation 6961: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6931: 6929: 6925: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6903:Organizations 6901: 6900: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6886:Viktors Arājs 6884: 6879: 6878: 6876: 6874: 6873:Collaborators 6870: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6850: 6848: 6844: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6787:Hinrich Lohse 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6727:Alois Brunner 6725: 6724: 6722: 6718: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6688: 6686: 6682: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6647: 6645: 6641: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6597: 6595: 6594:The Holocaust 6592: 6587: 6586: 6583: 6579: 6572: 6567: 6565: 6560: 6558: 6553: 6552: 6549: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6511:Faroe Islands 6509: 6507: 6504: 6503: 6501: 6495: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6483:South Ossetia 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6465: 6463: 6457: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6431: 6430: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6313:Liechtenstein 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6183: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6166: 6161: 6159: 6154: 6152: 6147: 6146: 6143: 6131: 6126: 6124: 6119: 6118: 6115: 6107: 6106: 6102: 6101: 6100: 6097: 6096: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6085: 6079: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6059: 6057: 6055: 6049: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6020: 6019: 6018:The Holocaust 6016: 6015: 6014: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5987: 5979: 5974: 5972: 5967: 5965: 5960: 5959: 5956: 5950: 5947: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5818: 5814: 5813:Latvia portal 5803: 5800: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5778: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5744: 5738: 5737: 5733: 5725: 5720: 5717: 5704: 5700: 5694: 5691: 5678: 5672: 5669: 5656: 5652: 5646: 5643: 5638: 5632: 5613: 5606: 5600: 5597: 5585: 5581: 5574: 5571: 5559: 5555: 5549: 5546: 5534: 5530: 5524: 5521: 5509: 5505: 5499: 5496: 5493: 5489: 5486: 5481: 5479: 5475: 5472: 5466: 5463: 5460:, Paris, 1985 5459: 5453: 5450: 5447: 5441: 5438: 5435: 5429: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5415: 5414:jewishgen.org 5410: 5407: 5401: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5387: 5381: 5379: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5369: 5367: 5365: 5361: 5348: 5344: 5337: 5334: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5308: 5300:September 29, 5296: 5292: 5286: 5283: 5271: 5267: 5261: 5258: 5245: 5241: 5234: 5231: 5219: 5215: 5209: 5206: 5194: 5190: 5184: 5181: 5169: 5165: 5159: 5156: 5150: 5148: 5144: 5138: 5135: 5122: 5118: 5112: 5110: 5108: 5106: 5104: 5100: 5097: 5092: 5089: 5085: 5083: 5079: 5071: 5063: 5059: 5053: 5050: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5031: 5026: 5023: 5020: 5017: 5014: 5010: 5007: 5004: 5000: 4997: 4994: 4991: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4971: 4968: 4965: 4961: 4958: 4955: 4951: 4948: 4944: 4941: 4937: 4934: 4931: 4928:M. Kaufmann, 4927: 4924: 4920: 4917: 4913: 4910: 4906: 4903: 4899: 4896: 4892: 4891: 4887: 4885: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4858: 4846: 4842: 4841:Bukharan Jews 4838: 4837:Georgian Jews 4834: 4831:(recorded as 4830: 4829:Mountain Jews 4826: 4824: 4822: 4820: 4818: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4806: 4803: 4802: 4798: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4787: 4784: 4781: 4780: 4776: 4773: 4770: 4769: 4765: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4754: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4743: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4732: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4721: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4710: 4707: 4704: 4703: 4697: 4692: 4689: 4688: 4679: 4677: 4675: 4670: 4668: 4664: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4644: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4602:Sarkandaugava 4599: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4585:Ohel Menachem 4582: 4577: 4574: 4571:and the word 4570: 4565: 4560: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4518: 4516: 4512: 4506: 4504: 4503:Jewish Agency 4500: 4494: 4487: 4485: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4454:war criminals 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4420:for Ostland; 4419: 4407: 4404: 4396: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4372: 4371: 4367: 4362:This section 4360: 4356: 4351: 4350: 4344: 4342: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4323: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4298: 4295: 4287: 4284:February 2009 4277: 4273: 4269: 4263: 4262: 4258: 4253:This section 4251: 4247: 4242: 4241: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4217: 4215: 4211: 4205: 4203: 4202:Kaunas Ghetto 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4131: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4087: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4076:Hinrich Lohse 4073: 4069: 4065: 4059: 4055: 4047: 4045: 4043: 4038: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4022: 4017: 4011: 4006: 4000: 3998: 3993: 3985: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3971: 3970:Agudat Israel 3966: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3893: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3879:Jakobs Landau 3876: 3868: 3861: 3859: 3858:Noijs Maizels 3856: 3855: 3851: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3819: 3816: 3815: 3804: 3801: 3798: 3795: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3781: 3778: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3759: 3756: 3753: 3750: 3748:Jews of Ludza 3746: 3742: 3739: 3736: 3733: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3719: 3716: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3681: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3667: 3664: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3639: 3636: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3622: 3619: 3616: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3602: 3599: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3580: 3577: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3568:Agudas Israel 3565: 3560: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3542: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3524: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3507: 3506:Noijs Maizels 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3474:Agudas Israel 3471: 3467: 3461: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3439: 3437: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3322:raw materials 3319: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3299:Economic life 3298: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3285: 3282: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3184: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3172:East European 3168: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3149:Russian Jewry 3146: 3140: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3123:under Polish 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3103: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3059: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2994: 2989: 2982: 2980: 2976: 2974: 2973:the Holocaust 2969: 2967: 2962: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2943: 2939: 2925: 2920: 2918: 2913: 2911: 2906: 2905: 2903: 2902: 2899: 2889: 2888: 2885: 2884: 2880: 2879: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2817: 2814: 2812: 2809: 2807: 2804: 2802: 2799: 2798: 2795:Modern Latvia 2792: 2791: 2784: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2771: 2769: 2766: 2764: 2761: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2738: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2720: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2694: 2688: 2687: 2680: 2677: 2675: 2674:Terra Mariana 2672: 2670: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2660: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2650: 2647: 2645: 2642: 2640: 2637: 2635: 2632: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2617: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2597: 2594: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2574: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2563:Narva culture 2561: 2559: 2558:Kunda culture 2556: 2555: 2549: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2539: 2536: 2529: 2524: 2518: 2508: 2503: 2501: 2496: 2494: 2489: 2488: 2486: 2485: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2471: 2470: 2469: 2458: 2455: 2453: 2450: 2448: 2445: 2443: 2440: 2438: 2435: 2433: 2430: 2428: 2425: 2423: 2420: 2418: 2415: 2414: 2413: 2412: 2409: 2405: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2380: 2377: 2375: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2365: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2346: 2339: 2336: 2334: 2331: 2329: 2326: 2324: 2321: 2319: 2318:Judeo-Aramaic 2316: 2314: 2311: 2309: 2308:Judeo-Italian 2306: 2304: 2301: 2299: 2296: 2294: 2291: 2289: 2288:Ghardaïa Sign 2286: 2284: 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2236: 2232: 2231: 2230: 2227: 2226: 2223: 2218: 2217: 2206: 2203: 2201: 2198: 2196: 2193: 2192: 2191: 2190: 2187: 2183: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2145: 2143: 2140: 2139: 2138: 2137: 2134: 2130: 2125: 2122: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2110: 2107: 2106: 2105: 2104: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2089: 2087: 2084: 2083: 2082: 2081: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2054: 2051: 2050: 2045: 2043: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2032: 2031: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2016: 2014: 2011: 2009: 2006: 2005: 2004: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1988: 1987: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1965: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1945: 1940: 1936: 1933: 1931: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1922: 1921: 1918: 1917: 1914: 1913:Denominations 1909: 1908: 1897: 1894: 1892: 1889: 1887: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1873: 1872: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1839: 1837: 1834: 1832: 1829: 1827: 1824: 1822: 1819: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1802: 1799: 1797: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1782: 1780: 1777: 1775: 1772: 1770: 1767: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1760: 1759: 1756: 1752: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1741:United States 1739: 1737: 1734: 1733: 1732: 1731: 1726: 1721: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1694: 1691: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1619: 1616: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1569: 1568: 1565: 1561: 1556: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1376: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1362: 1361: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1287: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1227:Guinea-Bissau 1225: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1110: 1109: 1106: 1102: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1081:Lists of Jews 1079: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1072: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1060: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1008: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 992: 989: 987: 984: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 968: 967: 966: 961: 956: 953: 951: 948: 946: 943: 941: 938: 936: 933: 931: 928: 926: 923: 921: 918: 916: 913: 911: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 894: 891: 889: 886: 885: 884: 881: 880: 879: 878: 873: 868: 867: 856: 848: 846: 843: 841: 840:The Holocaust 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 802: 801: 800: 795: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 767: 765: 760: 756: 750: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 734: 733: 732: 728: 724: 717: 711: 705: 700: 697: 693: 687: 684: 680: 676: 672: 668: 664: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 644: 642: 639: 637: 634: 633: 632: 631: 628: 624: 619: 614: 612: 607: 603: 599: 596: 591: 586: 582: 578: 575: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 554: 552: 549: 548: 547: 546: 543: 539: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 490: 489: 488: 483: 478: 473: 472: 461: 458: 455: 454: 449: 447: 444: 442: 441:Mishneh Torah 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 428: 427: 426: 421: 418: 416: 413: 412: 411: 410: 407: 403: 398: 395: 393: 390: 389: 388: 387: 384: 380: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 361: 360: 359: 356: 352: 347: 342: 341: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 279: 277: 274: 272: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 239: 235: 232: 230: 227: 224: 220: 217: 216: 213: 208: 207: 202: 201:Who is a Jew? 199: 197: 194: 193: 192: 191: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 171: 166: 162: 157: 149: 145: 144:Estonian Jews 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 116: 113: 109: 104: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 76: 72: 68: 64: 62: 50: 45: 36: 27: 19: 6975:Jäger Report 6817:Albert Sauer 6782:Rudolf Lange 6720:Perpetrators 6706:Simon Dubnow 6690: 6589:Main article 6488:Transnistria 6307: 6103: 6098: 6062:Latvian Jews 6012: 5995: 5990: 5989: 5775: 5763: 5742: 5719: 5707:. Retrieved 5703:the original 5693: 5681:. Retrieved 5671: 5659:. Retrieved 5655:the original 5645: 5619:. Retrieved 5599: 5587:. Retrieved 5583: 5573: 5561:. Retrieved 5557: 5548: 5536:. Retrieved 5532: 5523: 5511:. Retrieved 5507: 5498: 5470: 5465: 5457: 5452: 5445: 5440: 5433: 5428: 5409: 5400: 5351:. Retrieved 5349:(in Latvian) 5346: 5336: 5324:. Retrieved 5320:the original 5310: 5298:. Retrieved 5294: 5285: 5273:. Retrieved 5269: 5260: 5248:. Retrieved 5243: 5233: 5221:. Retrieved 5217: 5208: 5196:. Retrieved 5192: 5183: 5171:. Retrieved 5167: 5158: 5137: 5125:. Retrieved 5121:the original 5091: 5075: 5052: 5028: 5018: 5008: 4998: 4992: 4986: 4973: 4970:Raul Hilberg 4963: 4953: 4952:J. Gar, in: 4946: 4939: 4929: 4922: 4915: 4908: 4901: 4894: 4888:Bibliography 4854: 4671: 4660: 4645: 4641: 4638: 4578: 4572: 4564:desecrations 4561: 4553:South Africa 4534: 4526: 4519: 4507: 4495: 4491: 4466: 4430:Rudolf Lange 4414: 4399: 4390: 4375:Please help 4363: 4324: 4305: 4290: 4281: 4266:Please help 4254: 4222:Vilna Ghetto 4218: 4206: 4151: 4132: 4088: 4061: 4039: 4001: 3989: 3981:World War II 3969: 3967: 3955:Simon Dubnow 3935: 3931:Jewish press 3923:universities 3919:kindergarten 3896: 3878: 3872: 3824: 3465: 3447:East Prussia 3443: 3400:(especially 3398:canned foods 3347: 3302: 3286: 3281:Soviet Union 3277: 3230:, dissolved 3185: 3176:German Jewry 3169: 3141: 3076: 3071:Catherine II 3066: 3060: 3008:Livonian War 2998:The ancient 2997: 2977: 2970: 2963: 2955:Northern War 2935: 2933: 2882: 2697:Livonian War 2616:Semigallians 2582:Baltic Finns 2457:Post-Zionism 2328:Judeo-Berber 2323:Judeo-Arabic 2283:Judeo-Gascon 2030:Pidyon haben 1949:Conservative 1652: 1495:Saudi Arabia 1313:South Africa 1302:Sierra Leone 1124:Israeli Jews 1038:Mosaic Arabs 991:Kaifeng Jews 852:Arab–Israeli 825:Emancipation 704:Great Revolt 513:Anti-Judaism 508:Antisemitism 503:Name "Judea" 298:Baal teshuva 136:Russian Jews 33:Latvian Jews 29:Ethnic group 26: 7035:Jānis Lipke 6984:Concealment 6949:Riga Ghetto 6896:Kārlis Lobe 6881:Individuals 6732:Rudolf Batz 6711:Else Hirsch 6665:Pogulianski 6526:Isle of Man 6461:recognition 6413:Switzerland 6348:Netherlands 5908:Riga Ghetto 5888:Jewish Riga 5589:January 30, 5444:Gordon, F. 4995:, 2, (1995) 4907:I. Morein, 4547:, Germany, 4545:Switzerland 4482:Jānis Lipke 4476:, from the 4462:Latvian SSR 4442:Max Gymnich 4438:Kurt Krause 4327:Latvian SSR 4182:Riga Ghetto 4139:Riga Ghetto 4112:interregnum 4104:antisemitic 4099:Soviet Asia 4029:(in Perm), 4019: [ 4016:Īzaks Berss 4008: [ 3521:Constituent 3458: [ 3455:Pauls Mincs 3426:grain trade 3236:coup d'état 3220:progressive 3180:World War I 2783:New Current 2628:Middle Ages 2532:History of 2452:Revisionist 2442:Neo-Zionism 2049:Zeved habat 1842:Puerto Rico 1668:Netherlands 1500:South Korea 1485:Philippines 1365:Afghanistan 1232:Ivory Coast 1006:Crypto-Jews 971:Bnei Anusim 950:Bene Israel 915:Beta Israel 872:Communities 779:Middle Ages 518:Persecution 293:Bereavement 148:Polish Jews 41:יהדות לטביה 7012:Riga Trial 6762:Heinz Jost 6752:Karl Jäger 6383:San Marino 6343:Montenegro 6323:Luxembourg 6303:Kazakhstan 6206:Azerbaijan 6083:Synagogues 5928:The Savers 5699:"Database" 5072:References 5011:, London: 5001:, London: 4938:, London, 4878:California 4614:Daugavpils 4214:Kaiserwald 4198:Biķernieki 4178:Daugavpils 4162:synagogues 4124:Stahlecker 3936:After the 3823:Fraction ( 3769:Ceire Cion 3502:Ceire Cion 3466:Paul Mintz 3268:Daugavpils 3232:parliament 3208:Semigallia 3204:Daugavpils 3137:university 3125:suzerainty 3091:Baltic Sea 2966:parliament 2883:Chronology 2601:Latgalians 2573:Amber Road 2437:Maximalism 2389:Secularism 2369:Autonomism 2186:Literature 1979:Humanistic 1583:Azerbaijan 1545:Uzbekistan 1520:Tajikistan 1440:Kyrgyzstan 1425:Kazakhstan 1272:Mozambique 1247:Madagascar 1167:Cape Verde 1119:New Yishuv 1114:Old Yishuv 1065:Population 1043:Subbotniks 1001:Samaritans 940:Romanyotim 883:Ashkenazim 830:Old Yishuv 810:Sabbateans 797:Modern era 789:Golden Age 716:Bar Kokhba 436:Beit Yosef 303:Philosophy 7082:The Mover 7054:Memorials 6614:Lithuania 6516:Gibraltar 6318:Lithuania 5764:JewishGen 5709:April 14, 5683:April 14, 5661:April 14, 5621:April 14, 5563:April 21, 5538:April 21, 5513:April 21, 5458:U Express 5353:April 21, 5275:March 21, 5250:March 21, 5223:March 21, 5198:March 21, 5173:March 21, 5127:March 21, 5078:publisher 5025:Dov Levin 5015:, 163–164 5005:, 141–142 4921:M. Bobe, 4845:Krymchaks 4667:Krymchaks 4632:Dunes in 4573:Judenfrei 4569:swastikas 4557:Australia 4522:Holocaust 4499:collapsed 4364:does not 4255:does not 4210:Salaspils 4172:(Libau), 4168:(Mitau), 4027:Solikamsk 3911:religious 3414:bartering 3370:tradesmen 3366:craftsmen 3318:inflation 3244:president 3240:autocracy 3192:Latgallia 3178:. During 3115:in 1721. 3102:conquered 3044:craftsmen 3040:court Jew 2611:Selonians 2606:Curonians 2586:Livonians 2447:Religious 2303:Zarphatic 2293:Bukharian 2263:Judeo-Tat 2248:Yeshivish 2222:Languages 2177:Sephardic 2167:Israelite 2157:Ethiopian 2147:Ashkenazi 2086:Religious 1876:Australia 1858:Venezuela 1764:Argentina 1746:Greenland 1658:Lithuania 1510:Sri Lanka 1505:Singapore 1430:Kurdistan 1395:Indonesia 1385:Hong Kong 1338:Abayudaya 1262:Mauritius 996:Igbo Jews 986:Krymchaks 905:Sephardim 773:relations 667:Sadducees 663:Pharisees 653:Sanhedrin 568:Jerusalem 328:Synagogue 196:Etymology 78:Languages 71:Krymchaks 7102:Category 6536:Svalbard 6521:Guernsey 6468:Abkhazia 6443:Scotland 6398:Slovenia 6393:Slovakia 6368:Portugal 6226:Bulgaria 5785:See also 5752:77953642 5631:cite web 5612:Archived 5533:Jewrmala 5488:Archived 5417:Archived 5389:Archived 5326:June 24, 4989:, (1995) 4882:New York 4857:murdered 4815:Source: 4593:Old City 4174:Valmiera 3892:autonomy 3825:frakcija 3691:Mizrachi 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Knowledge (XXG)

History of the Jews in Latvia

Index