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gain have been widely reported throughout the country. The increasing frequency of droughts has also caused a shortage of cows, camels, produce, and grain used to feed families and/or fatten girls. As a result, many families have been forced to sell their livestock because they can not afford to feed themselves. Many women and young girls have now turned to black market cattle and incredibly dangerous bird steroids to gain weight. The increasing levels of impoverishment in some areas of the country have also led some women and girls to discover that antihistamines, traditionally used to treat hay fever, have appetite inducing qualities. While these products are still dangerous, they are much more accessible and can be purchased over-the-counter. Women who have undergone
Leblouh are also at a consistently higher risk of initiating sex earlier and having children earlier than their counterparts who were not gavaged. Gavage may also put women at serious risk for poor childbirth outcomes, HIV/AIDS, and other health issues, above and beyond the impact of BMI that itself constitutes a physical health risk. Also, there seems to be a strong correlation between gavage and early pregnancy as early pregnancy is more common among poor young women.
774:
transparent elections occurred for the first time in
Mauritania. After just two years of democracy and a period of serious institutional crisis with several changes to government and the presentation of a motion of censorship by a group of deputies, General Abdel Aziz seized power by force after a new political coup in 2008. This coup occurred in August 2008, and the democratic government was subsequently replaced with a military junta that favored what they called "a return to tradition." An election in July 2009 allowed the military junta to maintain control of the government. After this election a slew of legislation was enacted focusing on reinstating traditional rules into law, despite claims of massive vote-rigging. Mint Ely, a women's rights campaigner, describes: "We had a Ministry of Women's Affairs. ... We had female diplomats and governors. The military set us back by decades, sending us back to our traditional roles. We no longer even have a ministry to talk to."
749:
undergoing the process of
Leblouh consume four times the amount of calories as an adult male bodybuilder who consumes on average 4,000 calories daily. During these months the child or young girl being fattened consumes on average 14,000 to 16,000 calories daily, while the recommended diet for a healthy 12-year old girl includes only 1,500 calories. Young girls are often fattened from around the age of 6 or 7 and are coerced using techniques which cause varying degrees of mental and physical anguish. If the young girls refuse to consume the on average 20 liters of milk a day that they are given, they are subjected to "toe squeezing" which involves the crushing of the toes using a contraption made of sticks, pinched on the skin, or even hit. Sources state that the most common reason for families investing in Leblouh for their young daughter is to ensure her financial security and good marriage prospects.
855:
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959:"Girls as young as 5 and as old as 19 had to drink up to five gallons of fat-rich camel’s or cow’s milk daily, aiming for silvery stretch marks on their upper arms. If a girl refused or vomited, the village weight-gain specialist might squeeze her foot between sticks, pull her ear, pinch her inner thigh, bend her finger backward or force her to drink her own vomit. In extreme cases, girls die, due to a burst stomach. The practice was known as gavage, a French term for force-feeding geese to obtain foie gras."
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rich men would often not work and sit in tents while black slaves did the hard labor that the desert required. Mauritania is a society that even today is governed by two distinct populations: the light-skinned Moors and the dark-skinned
Africans whose roots are largely sub-Saharan. Mauritanians who identify as Arabs still have the highest rates of Leblouh in the country when compared to the nation's minority groups.
791:
of the practice. While the prevalence of gavage is clearly quite high, the harming of the genital organs of any child (including harm resulting from the practice of gavage and FGM) is illegal under the
Mauritanian child protection penal code; penalties range from 1–3 years imprisonment and heavy fines. The law, however, does not specifically mention FGM or gavage as illicit practices that harm young children.
798:
pop music, and French TV altering the perceptions of body size and women's beauty. Lebanese music is incredibly popular throughout the Middle East and
Mauritanian men have begun to compare Mauritanian women to popular Lebanese singers, showing that attitudes may be changing in the country even among
790:
and gavage. The analysis found that the majority of both female and male respondents favored the continuation of the practice (64% and 70%, respectively). It also found that almost a quarter (23%) of women reported being force fed as a child and 32% of women and 29% of men approved the continuation
773:
The 21st century however has been a time for the revival of
Leblouh in Mauritania, as well as a time for reform. In 2005, the head of President Ould Taya’s presidential guard, Mohamed Ould Ely Vall led a coup with the promise of free and fair elections in 2006. In 2006 and 2007, democratic, free and
756:
in the
Sahelian region, along with the urban areas along the coast. In these regions, families are much more motivated to force-feed their daughters in the effort to draw wealthy suitors. It does not appear however, that gavaged women have greater wealth or access to resources than their non-gavaged
748:
Leblouh (often referred to using the French word gavage) in
Mauritania is quite unique and involves an often months long process during which Mauritanian girls are forced to swallow gallons of milk, couscous, peanut oil, and cups of pure animal fat. An often cited statistic is that Mauritanian girls
777:
Government figures from prior to the 2008 coup indicate that gavage occurred in 50-60 percent of the women in rural areas and 20-30 percent of the women in urban areas. After the coup, professional force-feeders estimate that approximately 80 percent of women nation-wide have undergone some form of
760:
The practice of fattening girls in
Mauritania has been linked to incredibly harmful physical and psychological consequences. Leblouh has been correlated with significant reductions in movement and the development of cardiovascular diseases. The use of pills, in the form of steroids, to cause weight
769:
It is difficult to precisely pinpoint the origins of force-feeding in Mauritania. However, some historians believe that the practice is centuries old and dates back to a time when most Mauritanians were nomads. In this nomadic society, obesity was seen as a sign of beauty in women and the wives of
802:
International organizations and NGOs have also become increasingly interested in what they see as a peculiar and abusive cultural practice. The idea that traditional fattening customs have now morphed into cases where young women routinely ingest dangerous animal growth hormones and steroids has
732:(1910). The folklorist who wrote down the story explained the treatment of the "pretty daughter": "The fatting house is a room where a girl is kept for some weeks before her marriage. She is given plenty of food, and made as fat as possible, as fatness is looked upon as a great beauty by the
714:
Older women called "fatteners" force the young girls to consume enormous quantities of food and liquid, inflicting pain on them if they do not eat and drink. One way of inflicting pain is to pinch a limb between two sticks. A six-year-old might typically be forced to drink 20 litres
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Guerrero, Lindsey A. "The force-feeding of young girls: Mauritania's failure to enforce preventative measures and comply with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women."
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Domínguez-Mujica, Josefina, Mercedes de los Ángeles Rodríguez-Rodríguez, & Laudy Rivero-Rodríguez. "La Maternidad a edades tempranas en Mauritania: una perspectiva geodemográfica."
505:
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Gavage is much more common in the poorer and more resource deficient regions of Mauritania. These regions include the rural Saharan regions of the country, the rural areas along the
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Ouldzeidoune, Nacerdine, et al. “A Description of Female Genital Mutilation and Force-Feeding Practices in Mauritania: Implications for the Protection of Child Rights and Health.”
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http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/04/world/africa/04mauritania.html?_r=2&ei=5070&en=039cd42546c89671&ex=1189915200&pagewanted=all&oref=slogin
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mixed with two cups of butter, every day. Although the practice is abusive, mothers claim there is no other way to secure a good future for their children.
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Salamon, Hagar; Juhasz, Esther (2011). ""Goddesses of Flesh and Metal": Gazes on the Tradition of Fattening Jewish Brides in Tunisia".
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girls from as young as five to nineteen, in countries where obesity was traditionally regarded as desirable. Especially prevalent in
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1489:, Public Library of Science, 9 Apr. 2013, journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0060594#pone.0060594-United2.
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Data from the Mauritania 2000–2001 DHS was used to determine the attitudes of men and women in regards to the continuation of
1582:
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The practice goes back to the 11th century, and has been reported to have made a significant comeback in Mauritania after a
510:
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Enquête Démographique et de Santé Mauritanie 2000–2001. Nouakchott, Mauritanie: ONS et ORC Macro, Calverton, Maryland, USA.
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Popenoe, Rebecca. 2004. Feeding Desire: Fatness, Beauty, and Sexuality among a Saharan People. New York: Routledge.
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1418:, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A330687900/AONE?u=tel_a_vanderbilt&sid=AONE&xid=11dd6785. Accessed 27 Apr. 2021.
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is practiced to increase chances of marriage in a society where high body volume used to be a sign of wealth.
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A similar practice is referred to in a folktale entitled "The Tortoise with a Pretty Daughter", collected in
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1612:
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31:
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Attitudes in Mauritania do seem to be changing however with global influences, such as Western fashions,
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Pendergast, Philip, and Adenife Modile. “Forced to Force-Feed? Gavage, Marriage and Sex in Mauritania.”
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Christopher E. Forth (2018) France and the fattened American: animality, consumption and the logic of
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LaFraniere S (2007) In Mauritania: Seeking to end an overfed ideal. The New York Times.Available:
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1528:, edited by Thomas A Hale and Aissata G Sidikou, Indiana University Press, 2014, pp. 112–114.
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1541:. Prólogo de Elvira Velasco Morillo. Colección H+D para el Desarrollo Nº 8, 2011. 36 pages.
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Rguibi, M.; Belahsen, R. (2006). "Fattening practices among Moroccan Saharawi women".
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1464:, PAA, 27 Apr. 2018, paa.confex.com/paa/2018/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/23553.
795:
706:. The younger generations in Mauritania view this practice negatively.
688:
680:
921:
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1539:“Mujer y Fortalecimiento Institucional. Estudio de caso: Mauritania”
1343:
Girls being force-fed for marriage as junta revives fattening farms
692:
676:
668:
684:
158:
998:"Girls being force-fed for marriage as fattening farms revived"
1524:
Tauzine, Aline. “Saharan Music About A Feminine Modernity.”
956:, published on July 4, 2007. Accessed on June 30, 2011.
1434:. Washington D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse. pp. 44–45.
1537:
Luisa Moreno Manso y Carla Fernández-Durán Gortázar.
635:
154:
Post-assault treatment of victims of sexual assault
782:Attitudes towards leblouh in Mauritania and abroad
715:(4.4 imp gal; 5.3 US gal) of
1554:, Food, Culture & Society, 21:3, 350-366,
1222:"Journal from Kashmir - featuring women poets"
1020:Bernus, E.; Akkari-Weriemmi, J. (1998-09-01).
943:In Mauritania, Seeking to End an Overfed Ideal
803:caught the attention of organizations such as
1412:Transnational Law & Contemporary Problems
836:Jewish woman from Garrigues on Djerba island
596:
8:
1364:
1362:
1117:"A country where big is no longer beautiful"
704:military junta took over the country in 2008
1502:, 26.103 (2020): 123-156. Web. 27 apr. 2021
1369:Young Mauritanians reject forced fattening
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18:
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1143:Journal of Middle East Women's Studies
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914:"De mujeres abundantemente hermosas (
537:Prosecution of gender-targeted crimes
7:
1431:A Study of Female Life in Mauritania
1082:Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal
1015:
1013:
1171:10.2979/jmiddeastwomstud.2011.7.1.1
1155:10.2979/jmiddeastwomstud.2011.7.1.1
996:Duval Smith, Alex (March 1, 2009).
625:
16:Force-feeding of girls for marriage
860:Jewish women in Tunisia about 1910
848:Tunisian Jewish woman of the 1910s
729:Folk Stories from Southern Nigeria
14:
1414:, vol. 21, no. 3, 2013, p. 879+.
824:Tunisian Jewish woman, about 1900
1588:Violence against women in Africa
1035:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.1856
853:
841:
829:
817:
1438:from the original on 2022-01-28
1319:from the original on 2016-03-04
1290:from the original on 2016-03-03
1261:from the original on 2015-07-07
1232:from the original on 2019-10-17
1203:from the original on 2019-12-08
1193:"Where Fat Is a Mark of Beauty"
1123:from the original on 2019-12-07
1050:from the original on 2019-10-17
978:from the original on 2016-04-26
719:, and eat two kilos of pounded
659:The practice occurs in several
1526:Women’s Songs from West Africa
972:"Encyclopedie Berbere: Gavage"
765:Origins of leblouh and revival
1:
1560:10.1080/15528014.2018.1451041
1028:(in French) (20): 2996–2999.
482:International legal framework
577:Violence against LGBT people
451:Online gender-based violence
147:Violence against prostitutes
1608:Children's rights in Africa
636:
1629:
916:Abundantly beautiful women
117:Sexual violence statistics
1428:Abeille, Barbara (1979).
1115:Baba, Hana (2013-05-14).
788:female genital mutilation
436:Intimate partner violence
329:Female genital mutilation
107:Causes of sexual violence
648:and having its roots in
288:Secondary victimisation
112:Child sexual initiation
99:Sexual assault and rape
1598:Marriage in Mauritania
1515:. Accessed 2011 Apr 1.
572:Violence against women
32:Violence against women
1583:Management of obesity
1578:Culture of Mauritania
1416:Gale Academic OneFile
744:Leblouh in Mauritania
640:) is the practice of
446:Marry-your-rapist law
441:Marriage by abduction
298:Virgin cleansing myth
1500:Papeles de Población
1382:, February 24, 2009.
1026:Encyclopédie Berbère
941:LaFRANIERE, SHARON.
431:Forced sterilisation
127:Cybersex trafficking
1593:Women in Mauritania
1341:Smith, Alex Duval.
1309:"Biyokulule Online"
1280:"Biyokulule Online"
1255:www.namywedding.com
1068:The Price of Beauty
663:countries, such as
122:Forced prostitution
1374:2017-12-29 at the
1348:2018-01-25 at the
1313:www.biyokulule.com
1284:www.biyokulule.com
954:The New York Times
948:2018-01-17 at the
362:Narcissistic abuse
1391:Chapter 1, note 4
1251:"namywedding.com"
1197:Los Angeles Times
634:
613:
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468:Toxic masculinity
400:Droit du seigneur
377:Domestic violence
132:Human trafficking
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920:. Archived from
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562:Sex and the law
542:Women's shelter
463:Sexual bullying
421:Forced marriage
411:Forced abortion
334:Gishiri cutting
303:Widow cleansing
293:Sexual violence
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1228:. 2015-10-17.
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1199:. 1998-09-30.
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1440:. Retrieved
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1354:The Observer
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1321:. Retrieved
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1292:. Retrieved
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1234:. Retrieved
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1125:. Retrieved
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1003:The Guardian
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922:the original
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805:Equality Now
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717:camel's milk
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697:South Africa
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473:Witch trials
455:
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398:
372:Dating abuse
354:Other issues
346:Foot binding
339:Infibulation
169:By Deception
164:Acquaintance
1226:World Pulse
1149:(1): 1–38.
734:Efik people
710:Description
652:tradition,
646:rural areas
567:Victimology
547:25 November
406:Eve teasing
367:Gaslighting
319:Acid attack
66:Infanticide
51:Dowry death
1572:Categories
1442:2021-12-02
1380:Al Arabiya
1323:2019-12-08
1294:2019-12-08
1265:2019-12-08
1236:2019-12-08
1207:2019-12-08
1127:2019-12-08
1054:2019-12-08
982:2013-02-10
928:2014-12-25
883:References
665:Mauritania
557:By country
552:6 February
387:management
276:In Service
234:Statistics
224:Prevention
174:Corrective
86:Sororicide
1179:162465276
1163:1552-5864
1094:1020-3397
1044:1015-7344
778:Leblouh.
687:people),
631:romanized
239:Statutory
219:Pregnancy
199:Genocidal
91:Uxoricide
71:Matricide
1487:PLOS ONE
1436:Archived
1372:Archived
1346:Archived
1317:Archived
1288:Archived
1259:Archived
1230:Archived
1201:Archived
1121:Archived
1102:17333802
1048:Archived
1022:"Gavage"
976:Archived
946:Archived
866:See also
796:Nigerian
738:Bahumono
521:Istanbul
61:Femicide
24:a series
22:Part of
811:Gallery
689:Nigeria
681:Tunisia
661:African
654:leblouh
637:lə-blūḥ
633::
617:Leblouh
382:outline
254:Wartime
214:Marital
204:History
189:Factors
184:Effects
38:Killing
1552:gavage
1177:
1169:
1161:
1100:
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1042:
899:
721:millet
685:Jewish
673:Uganda
650:Tuareg
626:البلوح
622:Arabic
516:Maputo
457:Raptio
266:Campus
244:Threat
229:Prison
1175:S2CID
1167:JSTOR
799:men.
693:Kenya
677:Sudan
669:Niger
506:DEVAW
496:CEDAW
491:DEDAW
271:Child
1159:ISSN
1098:PMID
1090:ISSN
1040:ISSN
897:ISBN
736:and
699:.
695:and
501:VDPA
281:Mass
209:Laws
194:Gang
179:Date
159:Rape
81:Sati
1556:doi
1462:PAA
1151:doi
1030:doi
807:.
740:."
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