Animal locomotion - Knowledge

825: 2210: 2225: 478: 2165: 40: 613:, leap out of the water to escape predators, an adaptation similar to that of flying fish. Smaller squids fly in shoals, and have been observed to cover distances as long as 50 m. Small fins towards the back of the mantle help stabilize the motion of flight. They exit the water by expelling water out of their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to continue jetting water while airborne providing thrust even after leaving the water. This may make flying squid the only animals with jet-propelled aerial locomotion. The 1081: 6266: 2277: 2253: 2180: 2024:. In pinnipeds, two types of porpoising have been identified. "High porpoising" is most often near (within 100 m) the shore and is often followed by minor course changes; this may help seals get their bearings on beaching or rafting sites. "Low porpoising" is typically observed relatively far (more than 100 m) from shore and often aborted in favour of anti-predator movements; this may be a way for seals to maximize sub-surface vigilance and thereby reduce their vulnerability to sharks 1750:, laying their eggs in host nests, where their larvae consume the host egg or larva while it is still young. Chrysidines are distinguished from the members of other subfamilies in that most have flattened or concave lower abdomens and can curl into a defensive ball when attacked by a potential host, a process known as conglobation. Protected by hard chitin in this position, they are expelled from the nest without injury and can search for a less hostile host. 861:. Kangaroo rats often leap 2 m and reportedly up to 2.75 m at speeds up to almost 3 m/s (6.7 mph). They can quickly change their direction between jumps. The rapid locomotion of the banner-tailed kangaroo rat may minimize energy cost and predation risk. Its use of a "move-freeze" mode may also make it less conspicuous to nocturnal predators. Frogs are, relative to their size, the best jumpers of all vertebrates. The Australian rocket frog, 1816: 2265: 1404: 1550:. The net cost of transport of swimming is lowest, followed by flight, with terrestrial limbed locomotion being the most expensive per unit distance. However, because of the speeds involved, flight requires the most energy per unit time. This does not mean that an animal that normally moves by running would be a more efficient swimmer; however, these comparisons assume an animal is specialized for that form of motion. Another consideration here is 2008: 741: 873: 1637:) lives at the surface of the ocean. The gas-filled bladder, or pneumatophore (sometimes called a "sail"), remains at the surface, while the remainder is submerged. Because the Portuguese man o' war has no means of propulsion, it is moved by a combination of winds, currents, and tides. The sail is equipped with a siphon. In the event of a surface attack, the sail can be deflated, allowing the organism to briefly submerge. 594: 404: 2195: 1620: 570:; the term "volplaning" also refers to this mode of flight in animals. This mode of flight involves flying a greater distance horizontally than vertically and therefore can be distinguished from a simple descent like a parachute. Gliding has evolved on more occasions than active flight. There are examples of gliding animals in several major taxonomic classes such as the invertebrates (e.g., 224: 324: 1730:, the eastern beach tiger beetle, is notable for its ability to leap into the air, loop its body into a rotating wheel and roll along the sand at a high speed using wind to propel itself. If the wind is strong enough, the larva can cover up to 60 metres (200 ft) in this manner. This remarkable ability may have evolved to help the larva escape predators such as the 2047:, when being pursued by a predator, have been known to reach speeds over 70 km/h (43 mph), and can maintain a steady speed of 50 km/h (31 mph), which makes the ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal: Ostriches can also locomote by swimming. Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called 6117: 900: 5148: 721: 1275: 605:, octopus and squid. The flights of flying fish are typically around 50 meters (160 ft), though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to 400 m (1,300 ft). To glide upward out of the water, a flying fish moves its tail up to 70 times per second. Several oceanic 745: 744: 1999:

50 m, though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to 400 m (1,300 ft). They can travel at speeds of more than 70 km/h (43 mph). Maximum altitude is 6 m (20 ft) above the surface of the sea. Some accounts have them landing on ships' decks.

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with slat-like structures that open and close to create suction and take a firm hold against the skin of larger marine animals. By sliding backward, the remora can increase the suction, or it can release itself by swimming forward. Remoras sometimes attach to small boats. They swim well on their own,

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are arboreal lizards that usually use quadrupedalism in the trees. When frightened, they can drop to water below and run across the surface on their hind limbs at about 1.5 m/s for a distance of approximately 4.5 m (15 ft) before they sink to all fours and swim. They can also sustain

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Jumping (saltation) can be distinguished from running, galloping, and other gaits where the entire body is temporarily airborne by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch. Many terrestrial animals use jumping (including hopping or leaping) to escape predators

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on the animal's body. Flying animals must be very light to achieve flight, the largest living flying animals being birds of around 20 kilograms. Other structural adaptations of flying animals include reduced and redistributed body weight, fusiform shape and powerful flight muscles; there may also be

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When swimming, several marine mammals such as dolphins, porpoises and pinnipeds, frequently leap above the water surface whilst maintaining horizontal locomotion. This is done for various reasons. When travelling, jumping can save dolphins and porpoises energy as there is less friction while in the

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on the underside of their arms. Although the tube feet resemble suction cups in appearance, the gripping action is a function of adhesive chemicals rather than suction. Other chemicals and relaxation of the ampullae allow for release from the substrate. The tube feet latch on to surfaces and move

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caterpillars move by looping or inching (measuring off a length with each movement), using their paired circular and longitudinal muscles (as for peristalsis) along with the ability to attach to a surface at both anterior and posterior ends. One end is attached, often the thicker end, and the other

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that digests the skin of his mouth and her body, fusing the pair down to the blood-vessel level. The male becomes dependent on the female host for survival by receiving nutrients via their shared circulatory system, and provides sperm to the female in return. After fusing, males increase in volume

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m. When cockroaches run rapidly, they rear up on their two hind legs like bipedal humans; this allows them to run at speeds up to 50 body lengths per second, equivalent to a "couple hundred miles per hour, if you scale up to the size of humans." When grazing, kangaroos use a form of pentapedalism

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There are a large number of semi-aquatic animals (animals that spend part of their life cycle in water, or generally have part of their anatomy underwater). These represent the major taxa of mammals (e.g., beaver, otter, polar bear), birds (e.g., penguins, ducks), reptiles (e.g., anaconda, bog

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of locomotion involves the energy expenditure by animals in moving. Energy consumed in locomotion is not available for other efforts, so animals typically have evolved to use the minimum energy possible during movement. However, in the case of certain behaviors, such as locomotion to escape a

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Arboreal locomotion is the locomotion of animals in trees. Some animals may only scale trees occasionally, while others are exclusively arboreal. These habitats pose numerous mechanical challenges to animals moving through them, leading to a variety of anatomical, behavioural and ecological

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can make powerful, self-propelled leaps out of water into air, where their long, wing-like fins enable gliding flight for considerable distances above the water's surface. This uncommon ability is a natural defence mechanism to evade predators. The flights of flying fish are typically around

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to travel fast, taking in water then squirting it back out in an explosive burst. Other swimming animals may rely predominantly on their limbs, much as humans do when swimming. Though life on land originated from the seas, terrestrial animals have returned to an aquatic lifestyle on several

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can jump vertically up to 18 cm and horizontally up to 33 cm; however, although this form of locomotion is initiated by the flea, it has little control of the jump—they always jump in the same direction, with very little variation in the trajectory between individual jumps.

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predator, performance (such as speed or maneuverability) is more crucial, and such movements may be energetically expensive. Furthermore, animals may use energetically expensive methods of locomotion when environmental conditions (such as being within a burrow) preclude other modes.

1187:) pull themselves along with some of their arms while letting others trail behind. Other starfish turn up the tips of their arms while moving, which exposes the sensory tube feet and eyespot to external stimuli. Most starfish cannot move quickly, a typical speed being that of the 241:

In water, staying afloat is possible using buoyancy. If an animal's body is less dense than water, it can stay afloat. This requires little energy to maintain a vertical position, but requires more energy for locomotion in the horizontal plane compared to less buoyant animals. The

1546:) needed above baseline metabolic rate to move a given distance. For aerobic locomotion, most animals have a nearly constant cost of transport—moving a given distance requires the same caloric expenditure, regardless of speed. This constancy is usually accomplished by changes in 1278: 285:

oscillate their body in an up-and-down (dorso-ventral) direction. Other animals, e.g. penguins, diving ducks, move underwater in a manner which has been termed "aquatic flying". Some fish propel themselves without a wave motion of the body, as in the slow-moving seahorses and

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environments, gravity must be overcome whereas the drag of air has little influence. In aqueous environments, friction (or drag) becomes the major energetic challenge with gravity being less of an influence. Remaining in the aqueous environment, animals with natural

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end, often thinner, is projected forward peristaltically until it touches down, as far as it can reach; then the first end is released, pulled forward, and reattached; and the cycle repeats. In the case of leeches, attachment is by a sucker at each end of the body.

1534:). The effect of forces during locomotion on the design of the skeletal system is also important, as is the interaction between locomotion and muscle physiology, in determining how the structures and effectors of locomotion enable or limit animal movement. The 901: 902: 2051:, which conserves energy while moving quickly. They also jump with both feet together if they want to move more quickly or cross steep or rocky terrain. To get onto land, penguins sometimes propel themselves upwards at a great speed to leap out the water. 1444:, Latin for "arm") is a form of arboreal locomotion in which primates swing from tree limb to tree limb using only their arms. During brachiation, the body is alternately supported under each forelimb. This is the primary means of locomotion for the small 1255: 1896:

ensures, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available. Multiple males can be incorporated into a single individual female with up to eight males in some species, though some taxa appear to have a one male per female rule.

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Soaring birds can maintain flight without wing flapping, using rising air currents. Many gliding birds are able to "lock" their extended wings by means of a specialized tendon. Soaring birds may alternate glides with periods of soaring in

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with a sinuous, or curved, motion. When the remora reaches about 3 cm (1.2 in), the disc is fully formed and the remora can then attach to other animals. The remora's lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and the animal lacks a

1574:. In terrestrial animals, the cost of transport is typically measured while they walk or run on a motorized treadmill, either wearing a mask to capture gas exchange or with the entire treadmill enclosed in a metabolic chamber. For small 1703:

A spider (usually limited to individuals of a small species), or spiderling after hatching, climbs as high as it can, stands on raised legs with its abdomen pointed upwards ("tiptoeing"), and then releases several silk threads from its

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movements of its legs similar to those used by gymnasts, to actively propel itself off the ground, allowing it to move both down and uphill, even at a 40 percent incline. This behaviour is different than other huntsman spiders, such as

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is often stranded by its short rear legs, which are sufficient for locomotion when the body is supported by water, but not on dry land. The mantis shrimp then performs a forward flip in an attempt to roll towards the next tide pool.

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Pandas are known to swig their heads laterally as they ascend vertical surfaces astonishingly utilizing their head as a propulsive limb in a anatomical way that was thought to only be practiced by certain species of birds.

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is widely used in the study of animal locomotion: if at rest, to move forwards an animal must push something backwards. Terrestrial animals must push the solid ground, swimming and flying animals must push against a

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indicate how they have evolved to cope with this. Limbless organisms moving on land must energetically overcome surface friction, however, they do not usually need to expend significant energy to counteract gravity.

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Some animals locomote between different media, e.g., from aquatic to aerial. This often requires different modes of locomotion in the different media and may require a distinct transitional locomotor behaviour.

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has been observed to roll repeatedly for 2 m (6.6 ft), but they typically travel less than 1 m (3.3 ft). Again, the animal initiates the movement but has little control during its locomotion.

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of southeast Asia. Some New World monkeys such as spider monkeys and muriquis are "semibrachiators" and move through the trees with a combination of leaping and brachiation. Some New World species also practice

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Many animals temporarily change the number of legs they use for locomotion in different circumstances. For example, many quadrupedal animals switch to bipedalism to reach low-level browse on trees. The genus of

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bird has claws on its thumb and first finger enabling it to dexterously climb tree branches until its wings are strong enough for sustained flight. These claws are gone by the time the bird reaches adulthood.

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consequences as well as variations throughout different species. Furthermore, many of these same principles may be applied to climbing without trees, such as on rock piles or mountains. The earliest known

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Heglund, N.C.; Cavagna, G.A.; Taylor, C.R. (1982). "Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. III. Energy changes of the centre of mass as a function of speed and body size in birds and mammals".

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walks by using two groups of legs (left 1, right 2, Left 3, Right 4 and Right 1, Left 2, Right 3, Left 4) in a reciprocating fashion. This alternating tetrapod coordination is used over all walking speeds.

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There are no three-legged animals—though some macropods, such as kangaroos, that alternate between resting their weight on their muscular tails and their two hind legs could be looked at as an example of

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and become much larger relative to free-living males of the species. They live and remain reproductively functional as long as the female lives, and can take part in multiple spawnings. This extreme

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Due to its low coefficient of friction, ice provides the opportunity for other modes of locomotion. Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called

349:, provides adhesion. Waves of tube feet contractions and relaxations move along the adherent surface and the animal moves slowly along. Some sea urchins also use their spines for benthic locomotion. 1213:) can travel at a speed of 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) per minute. Sunflower starfish are quick, efficient hunters, moving at a speed of 1 m/min (3.3 ft/min) using 15,000 tube feet. 991:, etc.), whose adaptations can include a soft rubbery pad between their hooves for grip, hooves with sharp keratin rims for lodging in small footholds, and prominent dew claws. Another case is the 1112:

quadrupeds may use their tail to assist in locomotion and when grazing, the kangaroos and other macropods use their tail to propel themselves forward with the four legs used to maintain balance.

1277: 544:. Insects were the first taxon to evolve flight, approximately 400 million years ago (mya), followed by pterosaurs approximately 220 mya, birds approximately 160 mya, then bats about 60 mya. 345:

to move about. The tube feet typically have a tip shaped like a suction pad that can create a vacuum through contraction of muscles. This, along with some stickiness from the secretion of

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While larger animals such as ducks can move on water by floating, some small animals move across it without breaking through the surface. This surface locomotion takes advantage of the

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Pascal Godefroit; Andrea Cau; Hu Dong-Yu; François Escuillié; Wu Wenhao; Gareth Dyke (2013). "A Jurassic avialan dinosaur from China resolves the early phylogenetic history of birds".

1241: 1240: 1237: 2071:(non-motile) suspension feeders. Frequently, adults are found attached to moving objects such as whales and ships, and are thereby transported (passive locomotion) around the oceans. 1242: 3773: 2703: 903: 5883: 5174: 395:, can escape by rolling itself into a self-propelled wheel and somersault backwards at a speed of 72 rpm. They can travel more than 2 m using this unusual method of locomotion. 5550: 2209: 3695: 824: 1502:

expend little energy to maintain a vertical position in a water column. Others naturally sink, and must spend energy to remain afloat. Drag is also an energetic influence in

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encountered in water is much greater than in air. Morphology is therefore important for efficient locomotion, which is in most cases essential for basic functions such as

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Some animals change location because they are attached to, or reside on, another animal or moving structure. This is arguably more accurately termed "animal transport".

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Shultz, Jeffrey W (2005-02-06). "Evolution of locomotion in arachnida: The hydraulic pressure pump of the giant whipscorpion, Mastigoproctus Giganteus (Uropygi)".

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air. This type of travel is known as "porpoising". Other reasons for dolphins and porpoises performing porpoising include orientation, social displays, fighting,

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into the air. These form a triangle-shaped parachute that carries the spider on updrafts of winds, where even the slightest breeze transports it. The Earth's

277:) and batiform fish (electric rays, sawfishes, guitarfishes, skates and stingrays) use their pectoral fins as the primary means of locomotion, sometimes termed 5218: 1296: 3098: 2224: 2812:

A. G. Vidal-Gadea; M. D. Rinehart; J. H. Belanger (2008). "Skeletal adaptations for forwards and sideways walking in three species of decapod crustaceans".

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walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, so they can use the remaining arms to camouflage themselves as a mat of algae or floating coconut.

142:) typically have a locomotion mechanism that costs very little energy per unit distance, whereas non-migratory animals that must frequently move quickly to 87:. There are also many animal species that depend on their environment for transportation, a type of mobility called passive locomotion, e.g., sailing (some 4578: 358:). This is because of the articulation of the legs, which makes a sidelong gait more efficient. However, some crabs walk forwards or backwards, including 1607:

Passive locomotion in animals is a type of mobility in which the animal depends on their environment for transportation; such animals are vagile but not

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Sensenig, Andrew T; Jeffrey W Shultz (2003-02-15). "Mechanics of Cuticular Elastic Energy Storage in Leg Joints Lacking Extensor Muscles in Arachnids".

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The most common metric of energy use during locomotion is the net (also termed "incremental") cost of transport, defined as the amount of energy (e.g.,

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move on steep or even near-vertical surfaces by careful balancing and leaping. Perhaps the most exceptional are the various types of mountain-dwelling

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have points rather than suckers on their long tube feet and are capable of much more rapid motion, "gliding" across the ocean floor. The sand star (

1037:, mode of locomotion. A few modern mammalian species are habitual bipeds, i.e., whose normal method of locomotion is two-legged. These include the 5529: 4527: 3709: 2276: 454:, preventing them from interfering with the structure of water. Another form of locomotion (in which the surface layer is broken) is used by the 1585:

Energetics is important for explaining the evolution of foraging economic decisions in organisms; for example, a study of the African honey bee,

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locomotion is movement by animals that live on, in, or near the bottom of aquatic environments. In the sea, many animals walk over the seabed.

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Cavey, Michael J.; Wood, Richard L. (1981). "Specializations for excitation-contraction coupling in the podial retractor cells of the starfish

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can move around on the body of their host, but are transported much longer distances by the host's locomotion. Some ectoparasites such as

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live in the alimentary tracts of other animals, and depend on the host's ability to move to distribute their eggs. Ectoparasites such as

6160: 6140: 5897: 557: 5184: 5554: 4885: 2145:, used to understand how the movements of animal limbs relate to the motion of the whole animal, for instance when walking or flying. 1958:, are fish that are able to leave water for extended periods of time. These fish use a range of terrestrial locomotory modes, such as 4605: 617:

has been observed to glide for distances over 30 m (100 ft), at speeds of up to 11.2 m/s (37 ft/s; 25 mph).

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as a form of locomotion. The flic-flac spider can reach speeds of up to 2 m/s using forward or back flips to evade threats.

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in a wave, with one arm section attaching to the surface as another releases. Some multi-armed, fast-moving starfish such as the

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first before they are able to stand on two feet, which requires good coordination as well as physical development. Humans are

6915: 6153: 3442:"Predator-driven macroevolution in flyingfishes inferred from behavioural studies: historical controversies and a hypothesis" 995:, which being a predator of such caprids also has spectacular balance and leaping abilities, such as ability to leap up to 17 5525: 4663: 6265: 2035:

Some semi-aquatic birds use terrestrial locomotion, surface swimming, underwater swimming and flying (e.g., ducks, swans).

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framework are required in most terrestrial animals for structural support. Each step also requires much energy to overcome

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Animals locomote for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, a suitable microhabitat, or to escape predators.

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off for the energetic benefits of warmer, less concentrated nectar, which also reduces their consumption and flight time.

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and some harvestmen have evolved muscles that extend two leg joints (the femur-patella and patella-tibia joints) at once.

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Hedenstrom, A.; Moller, A.P. (1992). "Morphological adaptations to song flight in passerine birds: a comparative study".

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at speeds of up to 44 turns per second. If the spider is on a sloped dune, its rolling speed may be 1 metre per second.

511:. Because it is impossible for any organism to have a density as low as that of air, flying animals must generate enough 6805: 5893: 5724: 3750: 2179: 6692: 6287: 3390: 1875:. The remora benefits by using the host as transport and protection, and also feeds on materials dropped by the host. 715: 5576:

Pietsch, T.W. (1975). "Precocious sexual parasitism in the deep sea ceratioid anglerfish, Cryptopsaras couesi Gill".

4995: 2847: 5299:"Wind-powered wheel locomotion, initiated by leaping Somersaults, in larvae of the Southeastern beach tiger beetle ( 2264: 39: 6973: 6786: 6379: 6215: 3781: 2468:

Gaston, K.A., Eft, J.A. and Lauer, T.E. (2016). "Morphology and its effect on habitat selection of stream fishes".

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Dewar, H.; Graham, J. (1994). "Studies of tropical tuna swimming performance in a large water tunnel-kinematics".

1783:, has been observed flipping itself into a crude wheel. The species lives in shallow, sandy areas. At low tides, 837:

or catch prey—however, relatively few animals use this as a primary mode of locomotion. Those that do include the

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themselves on all fours while "water-walking" to increase the distance travelled above the surface by about 1.3

1096:, walking or running on four legs. A few birds use quadrupedal movement in some circumstances. For example, the 6559: 6092: 5245:"Laboratory studies of the factors stimulating ballooning behavior by Linyphiid spiders (Araneae, Linyphiidae)" 2017: 1571: 1430:, about 260 million years ago. Some invertebrate animals are exclusively arboreal in habitat, for example, the 771: 1630: 3809:

Schroder, G.D. (August 1979). "Foraging behavior and home range utilization of the Bannertail Kangaroo Rat".

2194: 1126: 254:-like body form is seen in many aquatic animals, though the mechanisms they use for locomotion are diverse. 4089: 1855:. Some remoras associate primarily with specific host species. They are commonly found attached to sharks, 1080: 6726: 6670: 6655: 6575: 6518: 6462: 6457: 6442: 4505: 2609: 1329: 730: 709: 697: 48: 5812: 5244: 4358: 6650: 6533: 5688: 4224: 3873:"Explosive jumping: extreme morphological and physiological specializations of Australian rocket frogs ( 3689: 2481: 1318: 1229:(four legs plus the tail) but switch to hopping (bipedalism) when they wish to move at a greater speed. 5986:

DeAngelis, Brian D.; Zavatone-Veth, Jacob A.; Clark, Damon A (2019-06-28). Calabrese, Ronald L. (ed.).

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Some whales raise their (entire) body vertically out of the water in a behaviour known as "breaching".

758:, dragging and crawling or slithering. Here friction and buoyancy are no longer an issue, but a strong 5505: 4736: 67:

use to move from one place to another. Some modes of locomotion are (initially) self-propelled, e.g.,

6472: 6384: 6121: 5585: 5467: 5314: 5081: 3290: 3248: 3163: 3054: 3013: 2601: 2344: 2068: 1366: 1162: 1033:, usually have only two functional legs, which some (e.g., ostrich, emu, kiwi) use as their primary, 525: 370: 5017:

Churchill, Celia K.C.; Ó Foighil, Diarmaid; Strong, Ellen E.; Gittenberger, Adriaan (October 2011).

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A.G. Vidal-Gadea; Belanger, J.H. (2009). "Muscular anatomy of the legs of the forward walking crab,

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may swim freely or at other times "walk" along the ocean or river floor, but not on land (e.g., the

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Barett, Paul M.; Butler, Richard J.; Edwards, Nicholas P.; Milner, Andrew R. (September 26, 2007).

2332: 1454: 1398: 1369:, are able to move more rapidly, "swimming" through the loose substrate. Burrowing animals include 988: 945: 689: 610: 575: 92: 3872: 3510:"New observations on airborne jet propulsion (flight) in squid, with a review of previous reports" 2141:

is a branch of biology that investigates and quantifies how animals move. It is an application of

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Davies, S.J.J.F. (2003). "Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins". In Hutchins, Michael (ed.).

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Roy L. Caldwell (1979). "A unique form of locomotion in a stomatopod – backward somersaulting".

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Rühs, Patrick A.; Bergfreund, Jotam; Bertsch, Pascal; Gstöhl, Stefan J.; Fischer, Peter (2021).

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Huffard CL, Boneka F, Full RJ (2005). "Underwater bipedal locomotion by octopuses in disguise".

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Some animals are specialized for moving on non-horizontal surfaces. One common habitat for such

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Cartmill, M. (1985). "Climbing". In M. Hildebrand; D.M. Bramble; K.F. Liem; D.B. Wake (eds.).

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Animals use locomotion in a wide variety of ways to procure food. Terrestrial methods include

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is on the ground at any one time at most, and both leave the ground briefly. At higher speeds

779: 614: 482: 131: 31: 5653: 5628: 4359:"Echinoderms don't suck: evidence against the involvement of suction in tube foot attachment" 4277:"Muscle Firing Patterns in Two Arachnids Using Different Methods of Propulsive Leg Extension" 2115:, grazing, ram feeding, suction feeding, protrusion and pivot feeding. Other methods include 6983: 6850: 6508: 6282: 6062: 6017: 5999: 5950: 5761: 5593: 5475: 5458: 5422: 5332: 5322: 5210: 5089: 5030: 4963: 4955: 4914: 4820: 4812: 4748: 4634: 4445: 4373: 4331: 4288: 4233: 4180: 4127: 4054: 4019: 3938: 3891: 3820: 3521: 3482: 3332: 3298: 3171: 3062: 2894: 2821: 2786: 2718: 2684: 2619: 2557: 2549: 2510: 2426:, Nato Science Series A, vol. 180, Springer Science & Business Media, p. 658, 2296: 1847: 1374: 1209: 1011: 787: 643: 563: 135: 4944:"Honeybees prefer warmer nectar and less viscous nectar, regardless of sugar concentration" 4556: 2007: 6781: 6619: 6452: 6356: 6339: 6210: 6135: 4792: 4145: 3995: 3742: 2104: 1991: 1955: 1685: 1677: 1458: 872: 647: 587: 486: 455: 443: 265:

is by oscillating the body from side-to-side, the resulting wave motion ending at a large

236: 127: 562:

Rather than active flight, some (semi-) arboreal animals reduce their rate of falling by

5715: 5655:

Ecology and Evolution of Transmission in Feather-feeding Lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera)

5589: 5471: 5318: 5085: 3294: 3167: 3058: 2605: 134:

has shaped the locomotion methods and mechanisms used by moving organisms. For example,

6737: 6513: 6404: 6327: 6274: 6245: 6205: 6180: 6022: 5987: 5337: 5298: 4968: 4943: 4903:"Voluntary running in deer mice: Speed, distance, energy costs and temperature effects" 4825: 4796: 4408: 4131: 3486: 2688: 2562: 2537: 2215: 2112: 1951: 1839: 1747: 1567: 1482: 1378: 1362: 1154: 1093: 867:, can leap over 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), more than fifty times its body length. 863: 627: 243: 5937:

Darmohray, Dana M.; Jacobs, Jovin R.; Marques, Hugo G.; Carey, Megan R. (2019-04-03).

2446: 593: 386:

especially so as their last pair of walking legs are flattened into swimming paddles.

6967: 6887: 6697: 6334: 6250: 6240: 5621: 5501: 2230: 1868: 1535: 1370: 1026:

Species have different numbers of legs resulting in large differences in locomotion.

1006:

Some light animals are able to climb up smooth sheer surfaces or hang upside down by

976: 972: 916: 854: 529: 447: 282: 270: 143: 119: 5790: 5442: 4465: 4343: 4261: 4208: 4111: 4074: 3911: 3494: 3456: 3183: 3084: 2798: 2730: 2631: 1974:), and jumping. Many of these locomotory modes incorporate multiple combinations of 403: 130:. For many animals, the ability to move is essential for survival and, as a result, 6855: 6763: 6609: 6399: 6128: 5605: 5487: 4633:. Biosystems & Biorobotics. Vol. 2. Springer, Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. 3318: 2936: 2326: 2063:

are exclusively marine and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters. They have two

2036: 1975: 1947: 1852: 1842:. They grow to 30–90 cm (0.98–2.95 ft) long, and their distinctive first 1681: 1669: 1386: 1338: 1334: 1188: 1134: 1050: 1042: 1038: 992: 858: 658: 583: 520: 512: 490: 467: 123: 44: 1619: 1149:

extend their knees by the use of highly elastic thickenings in the joint cuticle.

1100:

sometimes uses its wings to right itself after lunging at prey. The newly hatched

5955: 5938: 5327: 6892: 6753: 6732: 6717: 6707: 6702: 6665: 6603: 6411: 6361: 6302: 6297: 6292: 5860: 2200: 1995: 1987: 1743: 1689: 1654: 1507: 1437: 1358: 1350: 1197: 1116: 1074: 957: 893: 602: 579: 571: 537: 451: 435:

sails always align along the direction of the wind where the sail may act as an

427:, the by-the-wind sailor, is a cnidarian with no means of propulsion other than 338: 296: 269:. Finer control, such as for slow movements, is often achieved with thrust from 223: 139: 17: 5838:. Vol. 8 (2 ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 99–101. 4377: 3927:"Ontogenetic scaling of burrowing forces in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris" 1582:, the cost of transport has also been measured during voluntary wheel running. 896:, the same rhythmic contractions that propel food through the digestive tract. 794:

animals, standing on two feet and keeping one on the ground at all times while

6948: 6758: 6722: 6312: 6255: 6225: 6220: 5035: 5018: 4638: 4401: 4276: 3526: 3509: 3382: 2898: 2825: 2722: 2142: 2120: 2116: 2059:

An animal's mode of locomotion may change considerably during its life-cycle.

1884: 1843: 1766: 1579: 1559: 1431: 1354: 1146: 1109: 1046: 1034: 635: 383: 375: 266: 6013: 5964: 4385: 4302: 4245: 4192: 3353: 3267: 2972: 6544: 6416: 6389: 5766: 5749: 5413:

Sutton G.P.; Burrows M. (2011). "The biomechanics of the jump of the flea".

5276:

Gorham, P. (2013). "Ballooning spiders: The case for electrostatic flight".

4801:

and the early evolution of arboreality in terrestrial vertebrate ecosystems"

4753: 4237: 4058: 3942: 3644: 2060: 1906: 1867:, and some small remoras travel in the mouths or gills of large manta rays, 1864: 1856: 1731: 1554:—heavier animals, though using more total energy, require less energy 1551: 1323: 1175: 1138: 889: 693: 678: 639: 533: 379: 359: 353: 342: 247: 88: 6076: 6031: 5972: 5775: 5434: 5346: 5125: 5103: 5044: 4977: 4959: 4928: 4834: 4816: 4253: 4200: 4066: 3950: 3903: 3310: 3175: 3076: 2906: 2833: 2571: 2553: 1357:, or other methods. In loose solids such as sand some animals, such as the 6116: 4762: 4457: 4293: 4031: 2777:

Sleinis, S.; Silvey, G.E. (1980). "Locomotion in a forward walking crab".

2522: 1954:—which does not actually fly—and batfishes of the family Ogcocephalidae). 439:, so that the animals tend to sail downwind at a small angle to the wind. 323: 273:(or front limbs in marine mammals). Some fish, e.g. the spotted ratfish ( 6837: 6712: 6421: 6344: 6322: 6230: 5510: 4630:

BiLBIQ: A Biologically Inspired Robot with Walking and Rolling Locomotion

3624: 3210: 2514: 2021: 1938:

turtle, marine iguana) and amphibians (e.g., salamanders, frogs, newts).

1872: 1802: 1774: 1735: 1608: 1499: 1478: 1423: 1413: 1382: 1150: 1142: 1122: 1097: 1085: 1058: 1054: 1030: 1007: 968: 953: 838: 807: 763: 759: 436: 312: 305: 288: 115: 108: 72: 56: 6797: 6145: 6004: 3302: 3197:

Sacktor, B. (1975). "Biochemical adaptations for flight in the insect".

6684: 6629: 6624: 6614: 6349: 6067: 6047:"Wing and body kinematics of takeoff and landing flight in the pigeon ( 6046: 5426: 5214: 5179: 5094: 5059: 4449: 4335: 4023: 3832: 3508:

Maciá, S.; Robinson, M.P.; Craze, P.; Dalton, R.; Thomas, J.D. (2004).

3473:

Packard, A. (1972). "Cephalopods and fish: the limits of convergence".

2790: 2311: 2108: 2044: 2040: 1910: 1592: 1575: 1490: 1486: 1449: 1427: 1418: 1101: 1066: 819: 799: 795: 791: 767: 755: 662: 631: 428: 423: 408: 334: 327: 251: 100: 84: 76: 68: 4919: 4902: 4184: 2623: 1887:, when a male finds a female, he bites into her skin, and releases an 700:

for ballooning, sometimes traveling great distances at high altitude.

6829: 6307: 6141:

Unified Physics Theory Explains Animals' Running, Flying And Swimming

5597: 5479: 4901:

Chappell, M.A.; Garland, T.; Rezende, E.L. & Gomes, F.R. (2004).

4628: 3387:

Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals

2064: 2043:) have lost the primary locomotion of flight. The largest of these, 1979: 1963: 1888: 1860: 1831: 1770: 1657: 1596: 1563: 1543: 1503: 1474: 1445: 1203: 1130: 949: 850: 842: 810:

helps keep the body upright, so more energy can be used in movement.

783: 775: 567: 508: 498: 485:

in flight. The female, above, is in fast forward flight with a small

262: 232: 104: 96: 80: 64: 5203:"Systematics and Evolution of the Californian Trapdoor Spider Genus 5202: 3824: 3067: 3042: 2704:"The structure and function of the tube feet in certain echinoderms" 2039:

also use diving locomotion (e.g., dippers, auks). Some birds (e.g.,

888:

Other animals move in terrestrial habitats without the aid of legs.

146:

are likely to have energetically costly, but very fast, locomotion.

5988:"The manifold structure of limb coordination in walking Drosophila" 5076: 3895: 1909:

are transported by their hosts. For example, endoparasites such as

1493:, although the influence of these depends on the circumstances. In 149:

The anatomical structures that animals use for movement, including

5282: 4687:"Cebrennus rechenbergi: Cartwheeling spider discovered in Morocco" 2711:

Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom

2349: 2316: 2170: 2006: 1814: 1721: 1618: 1527: 1523: 1402: 1079: 1015: 912: 898: 876: 871: 823: 739: 719: 692:

is a method of locomotion used by spiders. Certain silk-producing

606: 592: 476: 402: 352:

Crabs typically walk sideways (a behaviour that gives us the word

346: 322: 222: 150: 38: 4942:

Nicolson, S.; de Veer, L.; Kohler. A. & Pirk, C.W.W. (2013).

4322:

Bowerman, R.F. (1975). "The control of walking in the scorpion".

3156:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences

2542:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences

1349:

Some animals move through solids such as soil by burrowing using

1115:

Insects generally walk with six legs—though some insects such as

754:

Forms of locomotion on land include walking, running, hopping or

431:. A small rigid sail projects into the air and catches the wind. 6860: 6583: 6503: 6371: 6184: 3133:. San Francisco: Pearson - Benjamin Cummings. pp. 522–523. 2185: 1971: 1918: 1914: 1753: 1697: 1547: 1511: 984: 846: 803: 750:

Pacific leaping blenny climbing up a vertical piece of Plexiglas

696:, mostly small or young spiders, secrete a special light-weight 668: 516: 489:; the male, below, is twisting his wings sharply upward to gain 258: 170: 158: 6801: 6548: 6149: 1014:. Many insects can do this, though much larger animals such as 515:

to ascend and remain airborne. One way to achieve this is with

6192: 6176: 4664:"The Moroccan flic-flac spider: A gymnast among the arachnids" 1983: 1967: 1531: 1170:

Centipedes and millipedes have many sets of legs that move in

980: 601:

Some aquatic animals also regularly use gliding, for example,

541: 166: 162: 154: 5939:"Spatial and Temporal Locomotor Learning in Mouse Cerebellum" 2420:

Lindsay, Everett H.; Fahlbusch, Volker; Mein, Pierre (2013),

1137:

extend their limbs hydraulically using the pressure of their

5813:"Anti-predatory strategies of Cape fur seals at Seal Island" 1416:

with specializations that adapted it for climbing trees was

3401: 3399: 2675:

Fish, F.E.; Hui, C.A. (1991). "Dolphin swimming–a review".

1769:

typically display the standard locomotion types as seen in

5553:. Natural History Museum. 28 January 2013. Archived from 4848:

Jurmain, Robert; Kilgore, Lynn; Trevathan, Wenda (2008).

4606:"Stealth behavior allows cockroaches to seemingly vanish" 2091:

Paddlefish ram suspension-feeding zooplankton in aquarium

2067:(active swimming) larval stages, but as adults, they are 1863:. Smaller remoras also fasten onto fish such as tuna and 566:. Gliding is heavier-than-air flight without the use of 2957:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 63–77. 2155:

Swimming in major groups of formerly terrestrial animals

1108:

A relatively few animals use five limbs for locomotion.

5209:. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. 4805:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

4581:. National Geographic. 16 November 2004. Archived from 3544:. National Geographic. 20 February 2013. Archived from 3677:: 185–190. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011 2587:"Review of Fish Swimming Modes for Aquatic Locomotion" 519:, which when moved through the air generate an upward 446:

of water. Animals that move in such a way include the

315:

created by boats or surf on naturally breaking waves.

308:, now very distinct from their terrestrial ancestors. 189:

The term "locomotion" is formed in English from Latin

4357:

Hennebert, E.; Santos, R. & Flammang, P. (2012).

2538:"Mechanical performance of aquatic rowing and flying" 4534:. Sea Stars of the Pacific Northwest. Archived from 4504:. Sea Stars of the Pacific Northwest. Archived from 3249:"Pterosaur distribution in time and space: an atlas" 3043:"Biophysics: water-repellent legs of water striders" 2753:"The Green Sea Urchin in Maine, Fishery and Biology" 2585:

Sfakiotakis, M.; Lane, D.M.; Davies, J.B.C. (1999).

653:

Examples of soaring flight by birds are the use of:

6876: 6836: 6746: 6683: 6638: 6592: 6582: 6491: 6430: 6370: 6273: 6191: 5717:

The Endeavour Journal of Sir Joseph Banks 1768–1771

4399:Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). 1680:approximately 20 mm in size and native to the 5620: 4400: 1742:Members of the largest subfamily of cuckoo wasps, 879:moving by looping using its front and back suckers 114:Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to 5627:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 5390:. Human Frontier Science Program. Archived from 5019:"Females floated first in bubble-rafting snails" 4120:Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 3694:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 3101:. National Geographic News. 2010. Archived from 2860:New South Wales Department of Primary Industries 330:in jumping motion; these bivalves can also swim. 204:The movement of whole body is called locomotion 6099:. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 5149:"Fog, wind and heat - life in the Namib desert" 4164: 4162: 3804: 3802: 3743:"Heteromyidae: Kangaroo Rats & Pocket Mice" 3449:Annals of the History and Philosophy of Biology 2955:Walking sideways: the remarkable world of crabs 1591:, has shown that honey bees may trade the high 677:Dynamic effects near the surface of the sea by 5060:"Complex fluids in animal survival strategies" 3226:"Insects evolved flight as plants grew taller" 1712:may also provide lift in windless conditions. 1562:generally measure energy use by the amount of 6813: 6560: 6161: 6045:Berg Angela, M.; Biewener, Andrew A. (2010). 5207:Simon (Araneae: Mygalomorphae: Euctenizidae)" 4994:. National Geographic Society. Archived from 4852:(7 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 109. 4666:. Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung 3378: 3376: 3374: 3372: 2920:Ng, P.K.L.; Guinot, D; Davie, P.J.F. (2008). 2470:Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science 1921:can opportunistically hitch a ride on a fly ( 782:is also required for movement on land. Human 524:physiological adaptations. Active flight has 8: 3768: 3766: 3542:"Scientists Unravel Mystery of Flying Squid" 2486:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1946:Some fish use multiple modes of locomotion. 5551:"Sharksucker fish's strange disc explained" 4780:. Belknap Press, Cambridge. pp. 73–88. 3629:. Minneapolis, Minn.: Compass Point Books. 3571:. City: New Holland Published. p. 20. 3124: 3122: 3120: 2020:, entertainment and attempting to dislodge 1174:. Some echinoderms locomote using the many 6880: 6820: 6806: 6798: 6589: 6567: 6553: 6545: 6168: 6154: 6146: 5750:"Dynamics of Dolphin Porpoising Revisited" 3435: 3433: 3431: 3129:Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2005). 2772: 2770: 6524:Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water 6066: 6021: 6003: 5954: 5765: 5743: 5741: 5336: 5326: 5281: 5093: 5075: 5034: 4967: 4918: 4824: 4752: 4662:Bröhl, I.; Jördens, J. (April 28, 2014). 4292: 3966:Hirudinoidea: Leeches and Their Relatives 3525: 3066: 2613: 2561: 1653:) uses a buoyant foam raft stabilized by 1061:apes. Bipedalism is rarely found outside 630:. Five principal types of lift are used: 4710:"A desert spider with astonishing moves" 4112:"On the morphology of a reptilian bird, 3968:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 591–597. 3718:U. S. Bureau of Land Management web site 3407:"Flying Fish | National Geographic" 2988:"Mantis Shrimp (Crustacea: Stomatopoda)" 2652:Young, R.E.; Katharina M. Mangold, K.M. 2399:. Oxford University Press. p. 307. 2078: 1982:and tail fin movement. Examples include 1826:, may attach themselves to scuba divers. 1133:joints of their appendages. Spiders and 138:that travel vast distances (such as the 5530:Integrated Taxonomic Information System 4407:. Saunders College Publishing. p. 4146:"Butterflies in the Nymphalidae family" 3333:"Vertebrate flight: Chiropteran flight" 2360: 2248: 2160: 2011:Pacific white-sided dolphins porpoising 1461:, which acts as a fifth grasping hand. 1231: 1119:do not use the front legs for walking. 967:Others living on rock faces such as in 6777:Animal locomotion on the water surface 4871: 4869: 4480:"Sea Star: Tube Feet & Locomotion" 3991: 3981: 3687: 2479: 2258:Australian Emperor dragonfly (Insecta) 418:Animal locomotion on the water surface 107:and spiders) or riding other animals ( 30:For the Eadweard Muybridge study, see 5815:. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research 5388:"Insect jumping: An ancient question" 3884:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 3747:Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum web site 2887:Arthropod Structure & Development 2814:Arthropod Structure & Development 2536:Walker, J.A.; Westneat, M.W. (2000). 2282:Townsend's big-eared bat (Chiroptera) 1477:to overcome various forces including 1125:have eight legs. Most arachnids lack 304:occasions, such as the fully aquatic 7: 5362:"What is the life cycle of the flea" 5297:Harvey, Alan; Zukoff, Sarah (2011). 3871:James, R. S.; Wilson, R. S. (2008). 3660:"Population structure in the spider 2366: 2364: 1322:) uses a series of rapid, acrobatic 528:evolved at least four times, in the 450:. Water striders have legs that are 382:, are also capable of swimming, the 63:is any of a variety of methods that 5754:Integrative and Comparative Biology 4850:Essentials of Physical Anthropology 4741:The Journal of Experimental Biology 4579:"How "Jesus Lizards" walk on water" 4559:. National Marine Fisheries Service 4482:. A Snail's Odyssey. Archived from 3099:"How "Jesus Lizards" walk on water" 2779:Journal of Comparative Physiology A 2594:IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 1029:Modern birds, though classified as 558:Aerial locomotion in marine animals 507:Gravity is the primary obstacle to 5836:Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia 4132:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1891.tb00045.x 3774:"Animal Guide: Giant Kangaroo Rat" 3487:10.1111/j.1469-185x.1972.tb00975.x 2885:(Decapoda, Brachyura, Majoidea)". 2689:10.1111/j.1365-2907.1991.tb00292.x 2423:European Neogene Mammal Chronology 2127:Quantifying body and limb movement 1925:) and attempt to find a new host. 1846:take the form of a modified oval, 25: 5918:Holladay, April (23 April 2007). 5224:from the original on June 8, 2011 5173:Mark Gardiner, ed. (April 2005). 4324:Journal of Comparative Physiology 3596:. McGraw-Hill. pp. 856–858. 2990:. Bioteaching.com. Archived from 6264: 6115: 4778:Functional Vertebrate Morphology 4275:Shultz, Jeffrey W (1992-01-01). 2275: 2263: 2251: 2223: 2208: 2193: 2178: 2163: 1510:efficient body shapes of flying 1292: 1287:Octopedal locomotion by a spider 1273: 1253: 1234: 1018:can also perform similar feats. 956:movement, travelling rapidly by 6097:Principles of Animal Locomotion 6055:Journal of Experimental Biology 5415:Journal of Experimental Biology 4907:Journal of Experimental Biology 4281:Journal of Experimental Biology 4172:Journal of Experimental Biology 4012:Journal of Experimental Biology 3931:Journal of Experimental Biology 3224:Salleh, A. (November 7, 2014). 3018:Principles of Animal Locomotion 2503:Journal of Experimental Biology 1688:. The spider escapes parasitic 1316:The Moroccan flic-flac spider ( 311:Dolphins sometimes ride on the 5147:Armstrong, S. (14 July 1990). 3594:Van Sickle's Modern Airmanship 3569:Sasol Birds - The Inside Story 3020:. Princeton University Press. 2396:Biology: A Modern Introduction 1692:by flipping onto its side and 1065:—though at least two types of 908:Leech moving on a flat surface 493:and fly up towards the female. 1: 3199:Biochemical Society Symposium 2449:. Online Etymology Dictionary 2055:Changes during the life-cycle 1660:to float at the sea surface. 961: 657:Thermals and convergences by 173:are sometimes referred to as 5956:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.01.038 5894:National Wildlife Federation 5791:"How dolphins spin, and why" 5725:University of Sydney Library 5623:Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes 5328:10.1371/journal.pone.0017746 4797:"The Late Permian herbivore 4090:"B. rex! – Tetrapod Zoology" 4088:Naish, Darren (2008-12-03). 3849:. Scienceray. Archived from 3847:"Top 10 best jumper animals" 3751:Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum 3413:. 2010-04-11. Archived from 1966:-like walking (using paired 1519:Newton's third law of motion 946:climbing animals is in trees 674:Wave lift by migrating birds 193:"from a place" (ablative of 27:Self-propulsion by an animal 6693:Comparative foot morphology 5652:University of Utah (2008). 5619:Gould, Stephen Jay (1983). 5183:. p. 3. Archived from 4880:. Oxford University Press. 4685:Prostak, S. (May 6, 2014). 3041:Gao, X.; Jiang, L. (2004). 2986:Srour, M. (July 13, 2011). 2929:Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 2751:Chenoweth, Stanley (1994). 2654:"Cephalopod jet propulsion" 1820:Some remoras, such as this 1566:consumed, or the amount of 1473:Animal locomotion requires 716:Comparative foot morphology 257:The primary means by which 7000: 6380:Flying and gliding animals 6216:Fin and flipper locomotion 5882:Stewart, D. (2006-08-01). 5252:The Journal of Arachnology 4708:Bhanoo, S. (May 4, 2014). 4378:10.11646/zoosymposia.7.1.3 3782:Public Broadcasting System 2340:Role of skin in locomotion 2139:study of animal locomotion 2133:Study of animal locomotion 2130: 2111:. Aquatic methods include 1800: 1396: 1092:Many familiar animals are 817: 713: 707: 554:Flying and gliding animals 551: 503:Flying and gliding animals 496: 465: 415: 374:. Some crabs, notably the 230: 211: 29: 6944: 6931: 6901: 6883: 6772: 6576:Animal locomotion on land 6262: 6093:McNeill Alexander, Robert 5036:10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.011 4639:10.1007/978-3-642-34682-8 4608:. UC Berkeley News Center 3722:Bureau of Land Management 3662:Achaearranea Tepidariorum 2899:10.1016/j.asd.2008.12.002 2826:10.1016/j.asd.2007.06.002 2723:10.1017/S0025315400012042 2374:. Encyclopædia Britannica 1780:Nannosquilla decemspinosa 1570:produced, in an animal's 392:Nannosquilla decemspinosa 5696:(1): 4–7. Archived from 5504:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). 5301:Cicindela dorsalis media 5122:Living Desert Adventures 4876:Biewener, A. A. (2003). 4438:Cell and Tissue Research 3964:Brusca, Richard (2016). 3710:"Merriam's Kangaroo Rat 2018:non-verbal communication 1185:Pycnopodia helianthoides 772:elastic potential energy 770:, and animals can store 5681:"On a fin and a prayer" 4992:"Portuguese Man-of-War" 4754:10.1242/jeb.201.12.1871 4735:Quillin KJ (May 1998). 4238:10.1002/jmor.1052100103 4059:10.1126/science.1109616 3943:10.1242/jeb.203.18.2757 3623:Heinrichs, Ann (2004). 3527:10.1093/mollus/70.3.297 3455:: 59–77. Archived from 2935:: 1–286. Archived from 2856:Fishing and Aquaculture 2393:Beckett, B. S. (1986). 2107:, social predation and 1859:, whales, turtles, and 1077:locomotion in animals. 884:Peristalsis and looping 778:to help overcome this. 295:Other animals, such as 83:, hopping, soaring and 6656:Rectilinear locomotion 6519:Terrestrial locomotion 6463:Evolution of cetaceans 6458:Origin of avian flight 6443:Evolution of tetrapods 5884:"A Bird Like No Other" 5124:. 2008. Archived from 4960:10.1098/rspb.2013.1597 4817:10.1098/rspb.2009.0911 4500:Dermasterias imbricata 4110:Parker, W. K. (1891). 3925:Quillan, K.J. (2000). 3784:. 2014. Archived from 3778:Nature on PBS web site 3671:Journal of Arachnology 3664:(Aranae, Theridiidae)" 3658:Valerio, C.E. (1977). 3440:Kutschera, U. (2005). 3176:10.1098/rspb.1992.0026 2554:10.1098/rspb.2000.1224 2243:Flight in major groups 2092: 2012: 1828: 1674:Carparachne aureoflava 1626: 1408: 1330:Carparachne aureoflava 1306:Multi-legged millipede 1268:Hexapedal stick-insect 1193:Dermasterias imbricata 1089: 1043:kangaroo rats and mice 909: 880: 833: 751: 737: 731:Pacific leaping blenny 710:Terrestrial locomotion 598: 597:Flying fish taking off 494: 413: 331: 228: 52: 49:rectilinear locomotion 6651:Undulatory locomotion 6534:Undulatory locomotion 6483:Homologous structures 6124:at Wikimedia Commons 5767:10.1093/icb/42.5.1071 5714:Joseph Banks (1997). 5514:. April 2013 version. 5368:on September 19, 2005 5243:Weyman, G.S. (1995). 5118:"The Desert is alive" 4294:10.1242/jeb.162.1.313 4225:Journal of Morphology 3014:McNeill Alexander, R. 2702:Smith, J. E. (1937). 2090: 2010: 1929:Changes between media 1818: 1710:static electric field 1631:Portuguese man o' war 1622: 1406: 1337:, which uses passive 1319:Cebrennus rechenbergi 1117:nymphalid butterflies 1083: 907: 875: 841:and other macropods, 827: 749: 729: 596: 578:), amphibians (e.g., 483:brimstone butterflies 480: 406: 326: 231:Further information: 226: 179:locomotory structures 42: 6478:Analogous structures 6473:Convergent evolution 5863:. Digital West Media 5394:on December 16, 2014 4998:on November 10, 2007 4716:. The New York Times 4604:Sanders, R. (2012). 4585:on November 19, 2004 4557:"Sunflower sea star" 4434:Stylasterias forreri 3937:(Pt 18): 2757–2770. 3592:Welch, John (1999). 3548:on December 15, 2014 3417:on February 28, 2021 3131:Biology, 7th Edition 2994:on December 29, 2019 2515:10.1242/jeb.192.1.45 1455:suspensory behaviors 1407:A brachiating gibbon 1367:pink fairy armadillo 1312:Powered cartwheeling 1163:Hadrurus arizonensis 830:Sciurus carolinensis 611:Pacific flying squid 371:Mictyris platycheles 341:primarily use their 201:"motion, a moving". 6936:End-plate potential 6921:Uterine contraction 6646:Concertina movement 6600:Arboreal locomotion 6529:Rotating locomotion 6468:Comparative anatomy 6005:10.7554/eLife.46409 5859:Desert USA (1996). 5590:1975Natur.256...38P 5506:"Family Echeneidae" 5472:1979Natur.282...71C 5319:2011PLoSO...617746H 5201:Bond, J.E. (1999). 5086:2021SMat...17.3022R 4811:(1673): 3611–3618. 4627:King, R.S. (2013). 4114:Opisthocomus hoazin 3741:Merlin, P. (2014). 3567:Loon, Rael (2005). 3358:The Free Dictionary 3303:10.1038/nature12168 3295:2013Natur.498..359G 3168:1992RSPSB.247..183H 3105:on January 27, 2006 3059:2004Natur.432...36G 2953:Weis, J.S. (2012). 2606:1999IJOE...24..237S 2548:(1455): 1875–1881. 2372:"Animal locomotion" 2333:Movement of Animals 2270:Magpie goose (Aves) 1883:In some species of 1595:content of viscous 1399:arboreal locomotion 1393:Arboreal locomotion 1063:terrestrial animals 1022:Walking and running 989:rocky mountain goat 952:is specialized for 948:; for example, the 576:banded flying snake 574:), reptiles (e.g., 6906:Muscle contraction 6448:Evolution of birds 6201:Aquatic locomotion 6134:2012-03-10 at the 6129:Beetle Orientation 6068:10.1242/jeb.038109 5789:Binns, C. (2006). 5748:Weihs, D. (2002). 5658:. pp. 83–87. 5557:on 1 February 2013 5427:10.1242/jeb.052399 5175:"Feature creature" 5095:10.1039/D1SM00142F 4791:Fröbisch J. & 4714:The New York Times 4526:McDaniel, Daniel. 4450:10.1007/BF00210108 4336:10.1007/bf00614529 4092:. Scienceblogs.com 4024:10.1242/jeb.97.1.1 3712:Dipodomys merriami 2883:Libinia emarginata 2791:10.1007/BF00657350 2307:Bird feet and legs 2093: 2013: 1960:lateral undulation 1829: 1823:Echeneis naucrates 1727:Cicindela dorsalis 1627: 1603:Passive locomotion 1409: 1172:metachronal rhythm 1090: 910: 881: 834: 752: 738: 734:Alticus arnoldorum 599: 582:), mammals (e.g., 495: 414: 365:Libinia emarginata 332: 279:labriform swimming 275:Hydrolagus colliei 229: 214:Aquatic locomotion 53: 6974:Animal locomotion 6961: 6960: 6957: 6956: 6795: 6794: 6679: 6678: 6542: 6541: 6499:Animal locomotion 6438:Evolution of fish 6318:facultative biped 6122:Animal locomotion 6120:Media related to 6061:(10): 1651–1658. 5949:(1): 217–231.e4. 5920:"Ostriches swim!" 5889:National Wildlife 5845:978-0-7876-5784-0 5679:Fish, F. (1991). 5665:978-0-549-46429-7 5638:978-0-393-01716-8 5070:(11): 3022–3036. 5029:(19): R802–R803. 4920:10.1242/jeb.01213 4913:(22): 3839–3854. 4878:Animal Locomotion 4648:978-3-642-34681-1 4418:978-0-03-030504-7 4185:10.1242/jeb.00182 3975:978-1-60535-375-3 3636:978-0-7565-0590-5 3603:978-0-07-069633-4 3578:978-1-77007-151-3 3514:J. Molluscan Stud 3162:(1320): 183–187. 3140:978-0-8053-7171-0 3027:978-0-691-08678-1 2964:978-0-8014-5050-1 2624:10.1109/48.757275 2322:Kinesis (biology) 2302:Animal navigation 2088: 1894:sexual dimorphism 1871:, swordfish, and 1848:sucker-like organ 1651:Janthina janthina 1635:Physalia physalis 1624:Physalia physalis 1301: 1282: 1263: 1243: 1181:sunflower seastar 905: 747: 727: 615:neon flying squid 412:moves by sailing. 175:locomotory organs 136:migratory animals 132:natural selection 61:animal locomotion 33:Animal Locomotion 16:(Redirected from 6991: 6881: 6822: 6815: 6808: 6799: 6590: 6569: 6562: 6555: 6546: 6509:Robot locomotion 6283:Limb development 6268: 6241:Lobe-finned fish 6170: 6163: 6156: 6147: 6119: 6081: 6080: 6070: 6042: 6036: 6035: 6025: 6007: 5983: 5977: 5976: 5958: 5934: 5928: 5927: 5915: 5909: 5908: 5906: 5905: 5896:. 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Archived from 5357: 5351: 5350: 5340: 5330: 5294: 5288: 5287: 5285: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5263: 5249: 5240: 5234: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5223: 5198: 5192: 5191: 5189: 5170: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5160: 5144: 5138: 5137: 5135: 5133: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5097: 5079: 5055: 5049: 5048: 5038: 5014: 5008: 5007: 5005: 5003: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4971: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4922: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4873: 4864: 4863: 4845: 4839: 4838: 4828: 4788: 4782: 4781: 4773: 4767: 4766: 4756: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4705: 4699: 4698: 4696: 4694: 4682: 4676: 4675: 4673: 4671: 4659: 4653: 4652: 4624: 4618: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4601: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4553: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4543: 4530:Luidia foliolata 4523: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4513: 4498:"Leather star - 4494: 4488: 4487: 4476: 4470: 4469: 4429: 4423: 4422: 4406: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4363: 4354: 4348: 4347: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4309: 4296: 4272: 4266: 4265: 4219: 4213: 4212: 4166: 4157: 4156: 4154: 4152: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4107: 4101: 4100: 4098: 4097: 4085: 4079: 4078: 4042: 4036: 4035: 4006: 4000: 3999: 3993: 3989: 3987: 3979: 3961: 3955: 3954: 3922: 3916: 3915: 3881: 3868: 3862: 3861: 3859: 3858: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3806: 3797: 3796: 3794: 3793: 3770: 3761: 3760: 3758: 3757: 3738: 3732: 3731: 3729: 3728: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3693: 3685: 3683: 3682: 3668: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3620: 3614: 3608: 3607: 3589: 3583: 3582: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3529: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3461: 3446: 3437: 3426: 3425: 3423: 3422: 3403: 3394: 3380: 3367: 3366: 3365: 3364: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3289:(7454): 359–62. 3278: 3272: 3271: 3253: 3244: 3238: 3237: 3235: 3233: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3194: 3188: 3187: 3151: 3145: 3144: 3126: 3115: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3095: 3089: 3088: 3070: 3038: 3032: 3031: 3010: 3004: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2983: 2977: 2976: 2950: 2944: 2943: 2941: 2926: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2878: 2872: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2844: 2838: 2837: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2774: 2765: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2755:. State of Maine 2748: 2742: 2741: 2739: 2733:. Archived from 2708: 2699: 2693: 2692: 2672: 2666: 2665: 2663: 2661: 2649: 2643: 2642: 2640: 2634:. Archived from 2617: 2591: 2582: 2576: 2575: 2565: 2533: 2527: 2526: 2498: 2492: 2491: 2485: 2477: 2465: 2459: 2458: 2456: 2454: 2443: 2437: 2436: 2417: 2411: 2410: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2368: 2297:Animal migration 2279: 2267: 2255: 2227: 2212: 2197: 2182: 2167: 2105:ambush predation 2099:Food procurement 2089: 1797:Animal transport 1746:, are generally 1647:violet sea-snail 1588:A. m. scutellata 1375:ground squirrels 1303: 1302: 1284: 1283: 1265: 1264: 1245: 1244: 1227: 1210:Luidia foliolata 1002: 998: 906: 748: 728: 227:Dolphins surfing 144:escape predators 128:escape predators 21: 18:Locomotory organ 6999: 6998: 6994: 6993: 6992: 6990: 6989: 6988: 6964: 6963: 6962: 6953: 6940: 6927: 6897: 6872: 6832: 6826: 6796: 6791: 6782:Fish locomotion 6768: 6742: 6675: 6634: 6620:Knuckle-walking 6578: 6573: 6543: 6538: 6487: 6453:Origin of birds 6426: 6366: 6288:Limb morphology 6269: 6260: 6246:Ray-finned fish 6211:Fish locomotion 6187: 6174: 6136:Wayback Machine 6113: 6089: 6087:Further reading 6084: 6044: 6043: 6039: 5985: 5984: 5980: 5936: 5935: 5931: 5917: 5916: 5912: 5903: 5901: 5881: 5880: 5876: 5866: 5864: 5858: 5857: 5853: 5846: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5818: 5816: 5811: 5810: 5806: 5796: 5794: 5788: 5787: 5783: 5747: 5746: 5739: 5729: 5727: 5720: 5713: 5712: 5708: 5700: 5683: 5678: 5677: 5673: 5666: 5651: 5650: 5646: 5639: 5618: 5617: 5613: 5584:(5512): 38–40. 5575: 5574: 5570: 5560: 5558: 5549: 5548: 5544: 5534: 5532: 5524: 5523: 5519: 5500: 5499: 5495: 5466:(5734): 71–73. 5455: 5454: 5450: 5412: 5411: 5407: 5397: 5395: 5386: 5385: 5381: 5371: 5369: 5359: 5358: 5354: 5296: 5295: 5291: 5275: 5274: 5270: 5261: 5259: 5247: 5242: 5241: 5237: 5227: 5225: 5221: 5200: 5199: 5195: 5187: 5172: 5171: 5167: 5158: 5156: 5146: 5145: 5141: 5131: 5129: 5128:on May 16, 2017 5116: 5115: 5111: 5057: 5056: 5052: 5023:Current Biology 5016: 5015: 5011: 5001: 4999: 4990: 4989: 4985: 4948:Proc. R. Soc. B 4941: 4940: 4936: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4888: 4875: 4874: 4867: 4860: 4847: 4846: 4842: 4790: 4789: 4785: 4775: 4774: 4770: 4747:(12): 1871–83. 4734: 4733: 4729: 4719: 4717: 4707: 4706: 4702: 4692: 4690: 4684: 4683: 4679: 4669: 4667: 4661: 4660: 4656: 4649: 4626: 4625: 4621: 4611: 4609: 4603: 4602: 4598: 4588: 4586: 4577: 4576: 4572: 4562: 4560: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4541: 4539: 4525: 4524: 4520: 4511: 4509: 4496: 4495: 4491: 4478: 4477: 4473: 4431: 4430: 4426: 4419: 4398: 4397: 4393: 4361: 4356: 4355: 4351: 4321: 4320: 4316: 4307: 4305: 4274: 4273: 4269: 4221: 4220: 4216: 4168: 4167: 4160: 4150: 4148: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4109: 4108: 4104: 4095: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4082: 4044: 4043: 4039: 4008: 4007: 4003: 3990: 3980: 3976: 3963: 3962: 3958: 3924: 3923: 3919: 3879: 3870: 3869: 3865: 3856: 3854: 3845: 3844: 3840: 3825:10.2307/1936601 3808: 3807: 3800: 3791: 3789: 3772: 3771: 3764: 3755: 3753: 3740: 3739: 3735: 3726: 3724: 3708: 3707: 3703: 3686: 3680: 3678: 3666: 3657: 3656: 3652: 3637: 3622: 3621: 3617: 3611: 3604: 3591: 3590: 3586: 3579: 3566: 3565: 3561: 3551: 3549: 3540: 3539: 3535: 3507: 3506: 3502: 3472: 3471: 3467: 3459: 3444: 3439: 3438: 3429: 3420: 3418: 3405: 3404: 3397: 3391:Greenwood Press 3381: 3370: 3362: 3360: 3352: 3351: 3347: 3337: 3335: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3251: 3246: 3245: 3241: 3231: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3218: 3205:(41): 111–131. 3196: 3195: 3191: 3153: 3152: 3148: 3141: 3128: 3127: 3118: 3108: 3106: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3068:10.1038/432036a 3040: 3039: 3035: 3028: 3012: 3011: 3007: 2997: 2995: 2985: 2984: 2980: 2965: 2952: 2951: 2947: 2939: 2924: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2880: 2879: 2875: 2865: 2863: 2846: 2845: 2841: 2811: 2810: 2806: 2776: 2775: 2768: 2758: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2745: 2737: 2706: 2701: 2700: 2696: 2674: 2673: 2669: 2659: 2657: 2651: 2650: 2646: 2638: 2615:10.1.1.459.8614 2589: 2584: 2583: 2579: 2535: 2534: 2530: 2500: 2499: 2495: 2478: 2467: 2466: 2462: 2452: 2450: 2445: 2444: 2440: 2434: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2407: 2392: 2391: 2387: 2377: 2375: 2370: 2369: 2362: 2358: 2293: 2288: 2287: 2286: 2283: 2280: 2271: 2268: 2259: 2256: 2245: 2244: 2239: 2238: 2237: 2234: 2228: 2219: 2213: 2204: 2198: 2189: 2183: 2174: 2168: 2157: 2156: 2151: 2135: 2129: 2101: 2079: 2077: 2057: 2033: 2005: 1992:walking catfish 1956:Amphibious fish 1944: 1931: 1903: 1881: 1840:ray-finned fish 1827: 1813: 1805: 1799: 1790:N. decemspinosa 1785:N. decemspinosa 1777:, one species, 1763: 1748:kleptoparasites 1718: 1686:Southern Africa 1678:huntsman spider 1666: 1643: 1617: 1605: 1508:aerodynamically 1471: 1459:prehensile tail 1457:by using their 1401: 1395: 1379:naked mole-rats 1347: 1314: 1307: 1304: 1293: 1288: 1285: 1274: 1269: 1266: 1254: 1249: 1248:Bipedal ostrich 1246: 1235: 1225: 1155:pseudoscorpions 1129:muscles in the 1084:Animation of a 1024: 1000: 996: 942: 926: 899: 886: 828:Gray squirrel ( 822: 816: 740: 720: 718: 712: 706: 687: 648:dynamic soaring 623: 588:squirrel glider 560: 552:Main articles: 550: 505: 497:Main articles: 487:angle of attack 475: 470: 464: 456:basilisk lizard 444:surface tension 420: 401: 399:Aquatic Surface 321: 239: 237:fish locomotion 221: 216: 210: 187: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6997: 6995: 6987: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6966: 6965: 6959: 6958: 6955: 6954: 6952: 6951: 6945: 6942: 6941: 6939: 6938: 6932: 6929: 6928: 6926: 6925: 6924: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6902: 6899: 6898: 6896: 6895: 6890: 6884: 6878: 6874: 6873: 6871: 6870: 6869: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6848: 6842: 6840: 6834: 6833: 6828:Physiology of 6827: 6825: 6824: 6817: 6810: 6802: 6793: 6792: 6790: 6789: 6787:Volant animals 6784: 6779: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6767: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6750: 6748: 6744: 6743: 6741: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6689: 6687: 6681: 6680: 6677: 6676: 6674: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6642: 6640: 6636: 6635: 6633: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6596: 6594: 6587: 6580: 6579: 6574: 6572: 6571: 6564: 6557: 6549: 6540: 6539: 6537: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6495: 6493: 6489: 6488: 6486: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6434: 6432: 6428: 6427: 6425: 6424: 6419: 6417:Pterosaur wing 6414: 6409: 6408: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6387: 6382: 6376: 6374: 6368: 6367: 6365: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6353: 6352: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6331: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6285: 6279: 6277: 6271: 6270: 6263: 6261: 6259: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6206:Cephalopod fin 6203: 6197: 6195: 6189: 6188: 6175: 6173: 6172: 6165: 6158: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6138: 6112: 6111:External links 6109: 6108: 6107: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6082: 6037: 5978: 5929: 5910: 5874: 5851: 5844: 5826: 5804: 5781: 5737: 5706: 5703:on 2013-11-02. 5671: 5664: 5644: 5637: 5611: 5568: 5542: 5517: 5502:Froese, Rainer 5493: 5448: 5421:(5): 836–847. 5405: 5379: 5352: 5289: 5268: 5235: 5193: 5190:on 2012-02-20. 5165: 5139: 5109: 5050: 5009: 4983: 4934: 4893: 4887:978-0198500223 4886: 4865: 4858: 4840: 4783: 4768: 4727: 4700: 4689:. Sci-News.com 4677: 4654: 4647: 4619: 4596: 4570: 4548: 4518: 4489: 4486:on 2013-10-21. 4471: 4444:(3): 475–485. 4424: 4417: 4391: 4349: 4330:(3): 183–196. 4314: 4287:(1): 313–329. 4267: 4214: 4179:(4): 771–784. 4158: 4137: 4102: 4080: 4053:(5717): 1927. 4037: 4001: 3974: 3956: 3917: 3896:10.1086/525290 3890:(2): 176–185. 3875:Litoria nasuta 3863: 3838: 3819:(4): 657–665. 3798: 3762: 3733: 3701: 3650: 3635: 3615: 3609: 3602: 3584: 3577: 3559: 3533: 3520:(3): 297–299. 3500: 3481:(2): 241–307. 3465: 3462:on 2007-08-20. 3427: 3395: 3368: 3345: 3324: 3273: 3239: 3216: 3189: 3146: 3139: 3116: 3090: 3033: 3026: 3005: 2978: 2963: 2945: 2942:on 2011-06-06. 2912: 2893:(3): 179–194. 2873: 2848:"Spanner crab 2839: 2820:(2): 179–194. 2804: 2785:(4): 301–312. 2766: 2743: 2740:on 2013-11-15. 2717:(1): 345–357. 2694: 2683:(4): 181–195. 2667: 2656:. Tree of Life 2644: 2641:on 2013-12-24. 2600:(2): 237–252. 2577: 2528: 2493: 2460: 2438: 2432: 2412: 2405: 2385: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2304: 2299: 2292: 2289: 2285: 2284: 2281: 2274: 2272: 2269: 2262: 2260: 2257: 2250: 2247: 2246: 2242: 2241: 2240: 2236: 2235: 2229: 2222: 2220: 2216:Gentoo penguin 2214: 2207: 2205: 2199: 2192: 2190: 2184: 2177: 2175: 2169: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2154: 2153: 2152: 2150: 2147: 2131:Main article: 2128: 2125: 2100: 2097: 2076: 2073: 2056: 2053: 2032: 2029: 2004: 2003:Marine mammals 2001: 1952:flying gurnard 1943: 1940: 1930: 1927: 1902: 1899: 1880: 1877: 1834:are a family ( 1819: 1812: 1809: 1801:Main article: 1798: 1795: 1762: 1759: 1717: 1714: 1690:pompilid wasps 1665: 1662: 1642: 1639: 1616: 1613: 1604: 1601: 1568:carbon dioxide 1470: 1467: 1397:Main article: 1394: 1391: 1363:marsupial mole 1346: 1343: 1313: 1310: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1233: 1023: 1020: 941: 938: 925: 922: 885: 882: 864:Litoria nasuta 818:Main article: 815: 812: 708:Main article: 705: 702: 686: 683: 682: 681: 675: 672: 667:Ridge lift by 665: 622: 619: 609:, such as the 549: 546: 474: 471: 463: 460: 416:Main article: 400: 397: 389:A stomatopod, 320: 317: 301:jet propulsion 283:Marine mammals 250:. A fusiform, 220: 217: 212:Main article: 209: 206: 186: 183: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6996: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6971: 6969: 6950: 6947: 6946: 6943: 6937: 6934: 6933: 6930: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6907: 6904: 6903: 6900: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6888:Hand strength 6886: 6885: 6882: 6879: 6875: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6823: 6818: 6816: 6811: 6809: 6804: 6803: 6800: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6774: 6771: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6751: 6749: 6745: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6728: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6698:Arthropod leg 6696: 6694: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6686: 6682: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6643: 6641: 6637: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6605: 6601: 6598: 6597: 6595: 6591: 6588: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6570: 6565: 6563: 6558: 6556: 6551: 6550: 6547: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6494: 6490: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6433: 6429: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6392: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6373: 6369: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6351: 6348: 6347: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6290: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6280: 6278: 6276: 6272: 6267: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6251:Pectoral fins 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6198: 6196: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6171: 6166: 6164: 6159: 6157: 6152: 6151: 6148: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6133: 6130: 6127: 6126: 6125: 6123: 6118: 6110: 6106: 6105:0-691-08678-8 6102: 6098: 6094: 6091: 6090: 6086: 6078: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6050: 6049:Columba livia 6041: 6038: 6033: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5982: 5979: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5933: 5930: 5925: 5921: 5914: 5911: 5900:on 2012-02-09 5899: 5895: 5891: 5890: 5885: 5878: 5875: 5862: 5855: 5852: 5847: 5841: 5837: 5830: 5827: 5814: 5808: 5805: 5793:. LiveScience 5792: 5785: 5782: 5777: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5744: 5742: 5738: 5726: 5719: 5718: 5710: 5707: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5690: 5682: 5675: 5672: 5667: 5661: 5657: 5656: 5648: 5645: 5640: 5634: 5630: 5625: 5624: 5615: 5612: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5572: 5569: 5556: 5552: 5546: 5543: 5531: 5527: 5521: 5518: 5513: 5512: 5507: 5503: 5497: 5494: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5460: 5452: 5449: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5409: 5406: 5393: 5389: 5383: 5380: 5367: 5363: 5360:Crosby, J.T. 5356: 5353: 5348: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5313:(3): e17746. 5312: 5308: 5304: 5302: 5293: 5290: 5284: 5279: 5272: 5269: 5257: 5253: 5246: 5239: 5236: 5228:September 26, 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5206: 5197: 5194: 5186: 5182: 5181: 5180:Gobabeb Times 5176: 5169: 5166: 5154: 5153:New Scientist 5150: 5143: 5140: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5110: 5105: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5054: 5051: 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4282: 4278: 4271: 4268: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4226: 4218: 4215: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4173: 4165: 4163: 4159: 4147: 4141: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4115: 4106: 4103: 4091: 4084: 4081: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4041: 4038: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4005: 4002: 3997: 3985: 3977: 3971: 3967: 3960: 3957: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3921: 3918: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3878: 3876: 3867: 3864: 3853:on 2009-09-07 3852: 3848: 3842: 3839: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3813: 3805: 3803: 3799: 3788:on 2014-03-26 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3769: 3767: 3763: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3737: 3734: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3713: 3705: 3702: 3697: 3691: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3663: 3654: 3651: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3632: 3628: 3627: 3619: 3616: 3613: 3610: 3605: 3599: 3595: 3588: 3585: 3580: 3574: 3570: 3563: 3560: 3547: 3543: 3537: 3534: 3528: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3504: 3501: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3469: 3466: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3443: 3436: 3434: 3432: 3428: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3402: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3369: 3359: 3355: 3349: 3346: 3334: 3328: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3277: 3274: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3250: 3243: 3240: 3227: 3220: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3193: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3150: 3147: 3142: 3136: 3132: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3117: 3104: 3100: 3094: 3091: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3037: 3034: 3029: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3009: 3006: 2993: 2989: 2982: 2979: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2960: 2956: 2949: 2946: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2923: 2916: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2874: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2851: 2850:Ranina ranina 2843: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2808: 2805: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2773: 2771: 2767: 2754: 2747: 2744: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2705: 2698: 2695: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2677:Mammal Review 2671: 2668: 2655: 2648: 2645: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2616: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2588: 2581: 2578: 2573: 2569: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2532: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2497: 2494: 2489: 2483: 2475: 2471: 2464: 2461: 2448: 2442: 2439: 2435: 2433:9781489925138 2429: 2425: 2424: 2416: 2413: 2408: 2406:9780199142606 2402: 2398: 2397: 2389: 2386: 2373: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2355: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2334: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2305: 2303: 2300: 2298: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2278: 2273: 2266: 2261: 2254: 2249: 2232: 2231:Marine iguana 2226: 2221: 2217: 2211: 2206: 2202: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2181: 2176: 2172: 2166: 2161: 2148: 2146: 2144: 2140: 2134: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2121:parasitoidism 2118: 2114: 2113:filterfeeding 2110: 2106: 2098: 2096: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2054: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2030: 2028: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2009: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1890: 1886: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1869:ocean sunfish 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1825: 1824: 1817: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1786: 1782: 1781: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1738: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1728: 1723: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1701: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1663: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1640: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1625: 1621: 1614: 1612: 1610: 1602: 1600: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1589: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1560:Physiologists 1557: 1556:per unit mass 1553: 1549: 1545: 1540: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1520: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1468: 1466: 1462: 1460: 1456: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1420: 1415: 1405: 1400: 1392: 1390: 1388: 1387:mole crickets 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1331: 1325: 1321: 1320: 1311: 1290: 1271: 1251: 1232: 1230: 1222: 1221: 1214: 1212: 1211: 1206: 1205: 1200: 1199: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1160:The scorpion 1158: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1135:whipscorpions 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1118: 1113: 1111: 1106: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1087: 1082: 1078: 1076: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1027: 1021: 1019: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1004: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 977:Barbary sheep 974: 970: 965: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 939: 937: 935: 931: 923: 921: 918: 917:geometer moth 914: 897: 895: 891: 883: 878: 874: 870: 868: 866: 865: 860: 856: 855:hopping mouse 852: 848: 844: 840: 832:) in mid-leap 831: 826: 821: 813: 811: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 735: 732: 717: 711: 703: 701: 699: 698:gossamer silk 695: 691: 684: 680: 676: 673: 670: 666: 664: 660: 656: 655: 654: 651: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 629: 620: 618: 616: 612: 608: 604: 595: 591: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 559: 555: 547: 545: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 526:independently 522: 518: 514: 510: 504: 500: 492: 488: 484: 479: 473:Active flight 472: 469: 461: 459: 457: 453: 449: 448:water strider 445: 440: 438: 434: 430: 426: 425: 419: 411: 410: 405: 398: 396: 394: 393: 387: 385: 381: 377: 373: 372: 367: 366: 361: 357: 356: 350: 348: 344: 340: 336: 329: 325: 318: 316: 314: 309: 307: 302: 298: 293: 291: 290: 284: 280: 276: 272: 271:pectoral fins 268: 264: 260: 255: 253: 249: 248:catching prey 245: 238: 234: 225: 218: 215: 207: 205: 202: 200: 196: 192: 184: 182: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 147: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 122:, a suitable 121: 117: 112: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 50: 47:performing a 46: 41: 35: 34: 19: 6865: 6856:Eye movement 6610:Hand-walking 6498: 6114: 6096: 6058: 6054: 6048: 6040: 5995: 5991: 5981: 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Retrieved 5898:the original 5887: 5877: 5865:. Retrieved 5854: 5835: 5829: 5819:December 20, 5817:. Retrieved 5807: 5797:December 20, 5795:. Retrieved 5784: 5757: 5753: 5728:. Retrieved 5716: 5709: 5698:the original 5693: 5687: 5674: 5654: 5647: 5622: 5614: 5581: 5577: 5571: 5559:. Retrieved 5555:the original 5545: 5533:. Retrieved 5526:"Echeneidae" 5520: 5509: 5496: 5463: 5457: 5451: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5398:December 15, 5396:. Retrieved 5392:the original 5382: 5370:. Retrieved 5366:the original 5355: 5310: 5306: 5300: 5292: 5271: 5260:. Retrieved 5255: 5251: 5238: 5226:. Retrieved 5204: 5196: 5185:the original 5178: 5168: 5157:. Retrieved 5152: 5142: 5132:December 16, 5130:. Retrieved 5126:the original 5121: 5112: 5067: 5063: 5053: 5026: 5022: 5012: 5002:December 16, 5000:. Retrieved 4996:the original 4986: 4951: 4947: 4937: 4910: 4906: 4896: 4877: 4849: 4843: 4808: 4804: 4798: 4786: 4777: 4771: 4744: 4740: 4730: 4718:. Retrieved 4713: 4703: 4691:. Retrieved 4680: 4668:. 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