31:
574:
291:, west longitudes (i.e., longitudes measured positively to the west) are used when the rotation is prograde, and east longitudes (i.e., longitudes measured positively to the east) when the rotation is retrograde. In simpler terms, imagine a distant, non-orbiting observer viewing a planet as it rotates. Also suppose that this observer is within the plane of the planet's equator. A point on the Equator that passes directly in front of this observer later in time has a higher planetographic longitude than a point that did so earlier in time.
1714:
364:
181:
1750:
548:, where its north and south polar radii differ by approximately 6 km (4 miles), however this difference is small enough that the average polar radius is used to define its ellipsoid. The Earth's Moon is effectively spherical, having almost no bulge at its equator. Where possible, a fixed observable surface feature is used when defining a reference meridian.
1726:
1762:
1738:
1774:
1218:, a scalene (triaxial) ellipsoid is a better fit than the oblate spheroid. For highly irregular bodies, the concept of a reference ellipsoid may have no useful value, so sometimes a spherical reference is used instead and points identified by planetocentric latitude and longitude. Even that can be problematic for
1195:
in 2005; the
Daphnean ridge was discovered in 2017. The ridge on Iapetus is nearly 20 km wide, 13 km high and 1300 km long. The ridge on Atlas is proportionally even more remarkable given the moon's much smaller size, giving it a disk-like shape. Images of Pan show a structure similar
249:). The location of the prime meridian as well as the position of the body's north pole on the celestial sphere may vary with time due to precession of the axis of rotation of the planet (or satellite). If the position angle of the body's prime meridian increases with time, the body has a direct (or
302:
is defined as the counter-clockwise direction around the planet, as seen from above its north pole, and the north pole is whichever pole more closely aligns with the Earth's north pole. Longitudes traditionally have been written using "E" or "W" instead of "+" or "−" to indicate this polarity. For
1353:
Davies, M. E., T. R. Colvin, P. G. Rogers, P. G. Chodas, W. L. Sjogren, W. L. Akim, E. L. Stepanyantz, Z. P. Vlasova, and A. I. Zakharov, "The
Rotation Period, Direction of the North Pole, and Geodetic Control Network of Venus," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 97, £8, pp. 13,14 1-13,151,
336:
bodies have a natural reference longitude passing through the point nearest to their parent body: 0° the center of the primary-facing hemisphere, 90° the center of the leading hemisphere, 180° the center of the anti-primary hemisphere, and 270° the center of the trailing hemisphere. However,
651:
so that the difference of the major and minor semi-axes is 21.385 km (13 mi). This is only 0.335% of the major axis, so a representation of Earth on a computer screen would be sized as 300 pixels by 299 pixels. This is rather indistinguishable from a sphere shown as
318:, the only other planet with a solid surface visible from Earth, a thermocentric coordinate is used: the prime meridian runs through the point on the equator where the planet is hottest (due to the planet's rotation and orbit, the Sun briefly
1618:
Lemoine, Frank G.; Goossens, Sander; Sabaka, Terence J.; Nicholas, Joseph B.; Mazarico, Erwan; Rowlands, David D.; Loomis, Bryant D.; Chinn, Douglas S.; Caprette, Douglas S.; Neumann, Gregory A.; Smith, David E.; Zuber, Maria T. (2013).
543:
For rigid-surface nearly-spherical bodies, which includes all the rocky planets and many moons, ellipsoids are defined in terms of the axis of rotation and the mean surface height excluding any atmosphere. Mars is actually
1188:. These ridges closely follow the moons' equators. The ridges appear to be unique to the Saturnian system, but it is uncertain whether the occurrences are related or a coincidence. The first three were discovered by the
1147:
Generally any celestial body that is rotating (and that is sufficiently massive to draw itself into spherical or near spherical shape) will have an equatorial bulge matching its rotation rate. With
284:, even this criterion fails (because its magnetosphere is very complex and does not really rotate in a steady fashion), and an agreed-upon value for the rotation of its equator is used instead.
1424:
Archinal, Brent A.; A'Hearn, Michael F.; Bowell, Edward L.; Conrad, Albert R.; et al. (2010). "Report of the IAU Working Group on
Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2009".
634:
157:; it requires the specification of physical reference points or surfaces with fixed coordinates, such as a specific crater for the reference meridian or the best-fitting
739:
1270:
852:
828:
760:
198:
1245:. Many projections would lose their elegant and popular properties. For this reason spherical reference surfaces are frequently used in mapping programs.
1475:
1384:
Davies, M. E., P. G. Rogers, and T. R. Colvin, "A Control
Network of Triton," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 96, E l, pp. 15, 675-15, 681, 1991.
1310:
577:
Comparison of the rotation period (sped up 10 000 times, negative values denoting retrograde), flattening and axial tilt of the planets and the Moon
1799:
1209:
30:
1405:
Davies, M. E., and R. A. Berg, "Preliminary
Control Net of Mars,"Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 76, No. 2, pps. 373-393, January 10, 1971.
1363:
Davies, M. E., and R. A. Berg, "Preliminary
Control Net of Mars,"Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 76, No. 2, pps. 373-393, January 10, 1971.
1694:
306:
The modern standard for maps of Mars (since about 2002) is to use planetocentric coordinates. Guided by the works of historical astronomers,
233:
The longitude systems of most of those bodies with observable rigid surfaces have been defined by references to a surface feature such as a
1546:
Ardalan, A. A.; Karimi, R.; Grafarend, E. W. (2009). "A New
Reference Equipotential Surface, and Reference Ellipsoid for the Planet Mars".
1344:
Davies, M. E., S. E. Dwornik, D. E. Gault, and R. G. Strom, NASA Atlas of
Mercury, NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office, 1978.
532:
and mapping other planetary bodies including planets, their satellites, asteroids and comet nuclei. Some well observed bodies such as the
268:
and most of the satellites are in this category. For many of the satellites, it is assumed that the rotation rate is equal to the mean
1602:
1530:
220:
1414:
Davies, M. E., "Surface
Coordinates and Cartography of Mercury," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 80, No. 17, June 10, 1975.
1335:
Davies, M. E., "Surface
Coordinates and Cartography of Mercury," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 80, No. 17, June 10, 1975.
1265:
1205:
559:. Since they have no permanent observable features, the choices of prime meridians are made according to mathematical rules.
202:
341:
due to non-circular orbits or axial tilts causes this point to move around any fixed point on the celestial body like an
414:
77:
69:
1804:
743:
in which he included a proof that a rotating self-gravitating fluid body in equilibrium takes the form of an oblate
1794:
1704:
326:, giving it more sunlight). By convention, this meridian is defined as exactly twenty degrees of longitude east of
319:
73:
1311:
https://naif.jpl.nasa.gov/pub/naif/toolkit_docs/Tutorials/pdf/individual_docs/17_frames_and_coordinate_systems.pdf
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261:
93:
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Small moons, asteroids, and comet nuclei frequently have irregular shapes. For some of these, such as Jupiter's
1322:
170:
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1241:; however, triaxial ellipsoids would render many computations more complicated, especially those related to
573:
191:
276:, since their surface features are constantly changing and moving at various rates, the rotation of their
1275:
610:
39:
1713:
1677:
1375:, Thomas A. Hauge, et al.: Control Networks for the Galilean Satellites: November 1979 R-2532-JPL/NASA
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452:
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The WGS84 parameters are listed in the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency publication TR8350.2
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of revolution for which the equatorial radius is larger than the polar radius, such that they are
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In the absence of other information, the axis of rotation is assumed to be normal to the mean
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1226:, in that latitude and longitude don't always uniquely identify a single surface location.
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555:, an effective surface for an ellipsoid is chosen as the equal-pressure boundary of one
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is always measured positively to the east, regardless of which way the planet rotates.
277:
269:
150:
126:
35:
363:
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1172:. Equatorial ridges are a feature of at least four of Saturn's moons: the large moon
250:
234:
134:
1476:"USGS Astrogeology: Rotation and pole position for the Sun and planets (IAU WGCCRE)"
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1290:
1234:
1177:
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102:
17:
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volcanic plateau, a continent-size region of elevated terrain, and its antipodes.
492:. The main departures from the ellipsoid expected of an ideal fluid are from the
180:
1559:
1513:
Wieczorek, M. A. (2007). "Gravity and Topography of the Terrestrial Planets".
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other than Earth. Similar coordinate systems are defined for other solid
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752:
682:
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406:
205: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1158:
is the planet with the largest equatorial bulge in our Solar System.
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1066:
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696:
484:) has been measured using flight paths of satellite missions such as
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311:
84:
1396:– Copyright 2000 – 2010 European Space Agency. All rights reserved.
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the flattening to highlight the concept of any planet's oblateness.
1737:
101:. The coordinate systems for almost all of the solid bodies in the
866:
591:
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118:
29:
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710:
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1196:
to that of Atlas, while the one on Daphnis is less pronounced.
34:
Chart of lunar maria with lines of longitude and latitude. The
714:
417:). The reference surfaces for some planets (such as Earth and
358:
303:
example, −91°, 91°W, +269° and 269°E all mean the same thing.
281:
174:
778:
Equatorial bulge of the Solar Systems major celestial bodies
1621:"High‒degree gravity models from GRAIL primary mission data"
241:
is that pole of rotation that lies on the north side of the
375:
1702:
840:
816:
613:
444:, by means of physical quantities analogous to the
280:is used as a reference instead. In the case of the
1631:(8). American Geophysical Union (AGU): 1676–1698.
846:
822:
628:
625:
253:) rotation; otherwise the rotation is said to be
1693:Book III Proposition XIX Problem III, p. 407 in
1323:"Planetocentric and planetographic coordinates"
1166:Equatorial bulges should not be confused with
1271:List of tallest mountains in the Solar System
540:now have quite precise reference ellipsoids.
8:
1426:Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy
751:). The amount of flattening depends on the
409:) can be defined as orthogonal to the mean
1237:, etc.) tend to be better approximated by
776:
1654:
1644:
839:
815:
624:
614:
612:
440:can be expressed with respect to a given
221:Learn how and when to remove this message
1625:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
1394:Where is zero degrees longitude on Mars?
1210:Map projection of the triaxial ellipsoid
153:for other planetary bodies, such as the
1709:
1303:
605:(equatorial radius): 6 378 137.0 m
459:of the reference ellipsoid surface) or
647:(polar radius): 6 356 752.3142 m,
636:(inverse flattening): 298.257 223 563
7:
1501:First map of extraterrestrial planet
310:established the meridian of Mars at
203:adding citations to reliable sources
521:Ellipsoid of revolution (spheroid)
401:may be similarly defined. The zero
629:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{f}}\,\!}
25:
1772:
1760:
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1736:
1724:
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1591:Mars The story of the Red Planet
1523:10.1016/B978-044452748-6.00156-5
362:
179:
1800:Astronomical coordinate systems
1266:Astronomical coordinate systems
671:values in the Solar System are
190:needs additional citations for
1206:Triaxial ellipsoidal longitude
245:of the Solar System (near the
1:
528:are also useful for defining
322:at noon at this point during
68:) is a generalization of the
27:Coordinate system for planets
662:typically greatly exaggerate
415:poles of astronomical bodies
48:planetary coordinate system
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1589:Cattermole, Peter (1992).
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1560:10.1007/s11038-009-9342-7
1503:– Center of Astrophysics.
1446:10.1007/s10569-010-9320-4
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551:For gaseous planets like
94:selenographic coordinates
1695:Andrew Motte translation
1548:Earth, Moon, and Planets
1293:(Topography of the Moon)
713:. The flattening of the
660:pix. Thus illustrations
451:(compared to a constant
296:planetocentric longitude
289:planetographic longitude
171:Prime meridian (planets)
640:from which one derives
399:planetocentric latitude
395:Planetographic latitude
161:as zero-level surface.
149:is a generalization of
1515:Treatise on Geophysics
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824:
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1276:Planetary cartography
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771:Further information:
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567:Further information:
467:(above and below the
272:. In the case of the
50:(also referred to as
40:near side of the Moon
38:is the centre of the
33:
1595:Springer Netherlands
1517:. pp. 165–206.
838:
814:
755:and the balance of
729:Origin of flattening
611:
530:geodetic coordinates
526:Reference ellipsoids
509:) has been measured
453:nominal Earth radius
199:improve this article
105:were established by
1637:2013JGRE..118.1676L
1482:on October 24, 2011
1438:2011CeMDA.109..101A
1262:(geography of Mars)
1239:triaxial ellipsoids
1176:and the tiny moons
1138:1 : 31.22
1129:1 : 58.54
1098:1 : 27.71
1089:1 : 43.62
1046:1 : 10.21
1012:1 : 15.41
889:1 : 299.4
779:
757:gravitational force
590:ellipsoid to model
449:geocentric distance
18:Longitude (planets)
1805:Coordinate systems
1646:10.1002/jgre.20118
1286:Topography of Mars
1255:Apparent longitude
1200:Triaxial ellipsoid
1058:1 : 5.62
1024:1 : 9.59
984:1 : 13.1
972:1 : 13.3
844:
820:
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626:
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505:(the geoid of the
374:. You can help by
81:coordinate systems
44:
1795:Planetary science
1281:Planetary surface
1169:equatorial ridges
1162:Equatorial ridges
1145:
1144:
938:1 : 175
929:1 : 170
898:1 : 232
847:{\displaystyle f}
823:{\displaystyle f}
761:centrifugal force
747:of revolution (a
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517:twin satellites.
457:geocentric radius
438:Vertical position
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308:Merton E. Davies
243:invariable plane
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111:Rand Corporation
107:Merton E. Davies
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1597:. p. 185.
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147:planetary datum
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127:Galilean moons
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53:planetographic
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446:topographical
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377:
373:
370:This section
368:
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348:
346:
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321:
317:
313:
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279:
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274:giant planets
271:
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262:orbital plane
258:
256:
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248:
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194:
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188:This section
186:
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1628:
1624:
1613:
1590:
1584:
1551:
1547:
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1514:
1508:
1496:
1484:. Retrieved
1480:the original
1470:
1429:
1425:
1419:
1410:
1401:
1389:
1380:
1368:
1359:
1349:
1340:
1331:
1317:
1306:
1291:Selenography
1228:
1213:
1190:
1167:
1165:
1146:
738:
735:Isaac Newton
732:
666:
650:
639:
598:values are
595:
585:
550:
542:
524:
500:
498:
475:
473:
436:
398:
394:
393:
380:
376:adding to it
371:
332:
314:crater. For
305:
299:
295:
293:
288:
286:
259:
232:
217:
211:January 2020
208:
197:Please help
192:verification
189:
146:
113:, including
103:Solar System
92:
64:
63:
59:planetodetic
58:
57:
52:
51:
47:
45:
1825:Cartography
1767:Outer space
1755:Spaceflight
1719:Mathematics
1554:(1): 1–13.
1486:October 22,
858:Equatorial
803:period (h)
791:bulge (km)
320:retrogrades
125:, the four
1830:Navigation
1815:Astrometry
1789:Categories
1298:References
1260:Areography
1220:non-convex
1204:See also:
795:Flattening
789:Equatorial
656:pix by 300
569:Flattening
563:Flattening
546:egg shaped
423:ellipsoids
353:See also:
324:perihelion
255:retrograde
239:north pole
169:See also:
155:Mars datum
78:geocentric
76:, and the
70:geographic
1810:Astronomy
1779:Geography
1731:Astronomy
1691:Principia
1680:page 3-1.
1665:2169-9097
1576:119952798
1568:0167-9295
1462:189842666
1454:0923-2958
961:000
955:000
924:00 0
884:00 0
832:Deviation
745:ellipsoid
740:Principia
733:In 1687,
717:is about
486:Mariner 9
465:elevation
339:libration
294:However,
165:Longitude
1249:See also
1153: km
1124:00
880:12,713.6
874:12,756.2
801:Rotation
749:spheroid
709:for the
596:defining
586:For the
502:selenoid
461:altitude
433:Altitude
403:latitude
383:May 2021
349:Latitude
343:analemma
251:prograde
247:ecliptic
97:for the
74:geodetic
1820:Geodesy
1705:Portals
1633:Bibcode
1434:Bibcode
1191:Cassini
1186:Daphnis
1174:Iapetus
1107:Neptune
1040:108,728
1037:120,536
1003:133,708
1000:142,984
996:Jupiter
920:6,752.4
914:6,792.4
808:(kg/m)
806:Density
753:density
704:⁄
690:⁄
683:Jupiter
676:⁄
553:Jupiter
513:by the
494:Tharsis
407:Equator
405:plane (
328:Hun Kal
316:Mercury
266:Mercury
143:Neptune
131:Jupiter
115:Mercury
109:of the
85:planets
1663:
1601:
1574:
1566:
1529:
1460:
1452:
1184:, and
1156:Saturn
1120:48,682
1114:49,528
1080:49,946
1074:51,118
1067:Uranus
1043:11,808
1033:Saturn
932:24.632
892:23.936
861:Polar
798:ratio
699:, and
697:Saturn
667:Other
658:
654:
594:, the
490:Viking
477:areoid
421:) are
312:Airy-0
237:. The
235:crater
135:Triton
133:, and
1743:Stars
1572:S2CID
1458:S2CID
1354:1992.
1235:Mimas
1193:probe
1178:Atlas
1141:−47%
1132:16.11
1101:−36%
1092:17.24
1086:1,172
1061:−45%
1049:10.56
1027:−38%
1018:9.925
1009:9,276
978:9.074
963:891.8
957:964.3
950:Ceres
901:−23%
867:Earth
834:from
783:Body
592:Earth
588:WGS84
515:GRAIL
469:geoid
119:Venus
62:, or
1661:ISSN
1599:ISBN
1564:ISSN
1527:ISBN
1488:2009
1450:ISSN
1224:Eros
1208:and
1135:1638
1095:1270
1021:1326
990:−2%
981:2162
969:72.5
944:+3%
935:3933
907:Mars
895:5515
886:42.6
759:and
711:Moon
695:for
681:for
538:Mars
536:and
534:Moon
507:Moon
499:The
488:and
482:Mars
474:The
419:Mars
397:and
300:East
287:For
145:. A
139:moon
123:Mars
99:Moon
83:for
1651:hdl
1641:doi
1629:118
1556:doi
1552:106
1519:doi
1442:doi
1430:109
1182:Pan
1151:808
1126:846
1055:687
967:000
715:Sun
706:900
652:300
557:bar
471:).
378:.
282:Sun
201:by
141:of
129:of
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1233:,
1231:Io
1216:Io
1180:,
1149:11
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725:.
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1707::
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1436::
1325:.
1118:0
1112:0
1084:0
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1072:0
1053:0
1016:0
1007:0
988:0
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878:0
872:0
842:f
818:f
721:×
719:9
702:1
688:1
674:1
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645:b
620:f
617:1
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463:/
413:(
385:)
381:(
224:)
218:(
213:)
209:(
195:.
42:.
20:)
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