Public administration - Knowledge (XXG)

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the city should be conceived as an extension of the home where families could be safe and children cared for. Clean streets, clean water, playgrounds, educational curricular reform, and juvenile courts, are examples of reforms associated with this movement. Industrial citizenship focused on the problems and risks of labor force participation in a laissez-faire, newly industrialized economy. Reforms that mitigated workplace problems such as child labor, unsanitary workplaces, excessive work schedules, risks of industrial accidents, and old age poverty were the focus of these efforts. Organized settlement women's reform efforts led to workplace safety laws and inspections. Settlement reformers went on to serve as local, state, and federal administrators. Jane Addams was a garbage inspector, Florence Kelley served as the chief factory inspector for the State of Illinois, Julia Lathrop was the first director of the

656: 1729:) makes it different from the private sector. A positive and negative definition of public management have been proposed. The positive approach as: "praxeological and rightful process of public service for citizens for the sake of their and following generations good through strengthening mutual relationships, competitiveness of national economy and practical increase of social utility through effective allocation of public resources". Negative approach as: "Fiction, whose aim is the possibility of temporal or permanent appropriation of public goods for the implementation of the particular interests of a narrow social group". Studying and teaching about public management are widely practiced in 1285:

voluntary associations that worked to mitigate the excesses of urbanization and industrialization in their towns. Eventually, these voluntary associations became networks that were able to spearhead changes to policy and administration. These women's civic clubs worked to make cities and workplaces safer (cleaner streets, water, sewage, and workplace. As well as workplace regulation) and more suited to the needs of their children (playgrounds, libraries, juvenile courts, child labor laws). These were administrative and policy spaces ignored by their fathers and husbands. The work of these clubs was amplified by newly organized non-profit organizations (

730: 1261:, and civil rights. Thus, the same public policy (and public administration) was to apply to all citizens, inclusive of disability. However, by the 1990s, categorical state systems were strengthened in the United States (Racino, in press, 2014), and efforts were made to introduce more disability content into the public policy curricula with disability public policy (and administration) distinct fields in their own right. Behaviorists have also dominated "intervention practice" (generally not the province of public administration) in recent years, believing that they are in opposition to generic public policy (termed 1106:, which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Fayol developed a systematic, 14-point treatment of private management. Second-generation theorists drew upon private management practices for administrative sciences. A single, generic management theory bleeding the borders between the private and the public sector was thought to be possible. With the general theory, the administrative theory could be focused on governmental organizations. The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy remained the center of criticism. 768:

disagreement about whether the study of public administration can properly be called a discipline, largely because of the debate over whether public administration is a sub-field of political science or a sub-field of administrative science, the latter an outgrowth of its roots in policy analysis and evaluation research. Scholar Donald F. Kettl is among those who view public administration "as a sub-field within political science." According to Lalor, a society with a public authority that provides at least one public good can be said to have a public administration, whereas the absence of either (or

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they had received”. These new scholars demanded more policy-oriented public administrators that incorporated “four themes: relevance, values, equity, and change”. All of these themes would encourage more participation among women and minorities. Stimulated by the events of the '60s, the 1970s brought significant change to the American Society for Public Administration. Racial and ethnic minorities and women members organized to seek greater participation. Eventually, the Conference on Minority Public Administrators and the Section for Women in Public Administration were established.

1158:, the entire concept of public administration expanded to include policymaking and analysis, thus the study of "administrative policy making and analysis" was introduced and enhanced into the government decision-making bodies. Later on, the human factor became a predominant concern and emphasis in the study of public administration. This period witnessed the development and inclusion of other social sciences knowledge, predominantly, psychology, anthropology, and sociology, into the study of public administration (Jeong, 2007). Henceforth, the emergence of scholars such as 1064: 1246:, an Australian not-for-profit e-Democracy project that invites politicians, senior public servants, academics, business people, and other key stakeholders to engage in high-level policy debate. Another example is Brunei's Information Department in deploying Social Media technology to improve its Digital Governance process. The book chapter work concludes that digital dividends can be secured through the effective application of Social Media within the framework of Digital Era Governance. 1127: 1507:

theoretical models that can be scientifically tested. Even though CPA is a weakly formed field as a whole, this sub-field of public administration is an attempt at cross-cultural analysis, a "quest for patterns and regularities of administrative action and behavior." CPA is an integral part to the analysis of public administration techniques. The process of comparison allows for more widely applicable policies to be tested in a variety of situations.

1721:"Public management" is an approach to government administration and nonprofit administration that resembles or draws on private-sector management and business techniques and approaches. These business approaches often aim to maximize efficiency and effectiveness and provide improved customer service. A contrast is drawn with the study of public administration, which emphasizes the social and cultural drivers of government that many contend (e.g., 858:". Public administrators have long been the "eyes and ears" of rulers. In medieval times, the abilities to read and write, as well as, add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public employment. Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies, and levying taxes. As the 4814: 614: 5332: 4778: 1300:, a key leader of the Settlement movement and a pioneer of public administration with “conceiving and spawning” the modern welfare state. The accomplishments of the Settlement movement and their conception of public administration were ignored in the early literature of public administration. The alternative model of Public Administration was invisible or buried for about 100 years until Camilla Stivers published 1484:

states that "public administration, as a subfield within political science ... is struggling to define its role within the discipline". He notes two problems with public administration: it "has seemed methodologically to lag behind" and "the field's theoretical work too often seems not to define it"-indeed, "some of the most interesting recent ideas in public administration have come from outside the field".

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University has stated "Comparative studies are difficult because of the necessity to provide enough information on the socio-political context of national administrative structures and processes for readers to understand why there are differences and similarities." He also asserts, "Although there is sizable literature on comparative public administration it is scattered and dated."

979:, an 1855 German professor from Vienna, is considered the founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world. In the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form of administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept was too restrictive. Von Stein taught that public administration relies on many pre-established disciplines such as 5344: 4790: 1553: 756:, defined public administration "as a public instrument whereby democratic society may be more completely realized." This implies that it must relate itself to concepts of justice, liberty, and fuller economic opportunity for human beings and is thus concerned with "people, with ideas, and with things". James D. Carroll and Alfred M. Zuck called 773:

rhetoric, providing for public goods, and the supply function is satisfied more or less efficiently by public management, whose primary tools are speech acts, producing public goods. The moral purpose of public administration, implicit in its acceptance of its role, is the maximization of the opportunities of the public to satisfy its wants.

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by the feminine experience of policy and administration. While they saw the relevance of the traditional public administration values (efficiency, effectiveness, etc.) and practices of their male reformist counterparts, they also emphasized social justice and social equity. Jane Addams, for example, was a founder of the

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opposed to merely the customers of a business (the patrons). In New Public Management, people are viewed as economic units not as democratic participants which is the hazard of linking an MBA (business administration, economic and employer-based model) too closely with the public administration (governmental,

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There have been several issues that have hampered the development of comparative public administration, including the major differences between Western countries and developing countries; the lack of curriculum on this sub-field in public administration programs; and the lack of success in developing

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were instrumental in crafting the alternative, feminine inspired, model of public administration. This settlement model of public administration, had two interrelated components – municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship. Municipal housekeeping called for cities to be run like a caring home,

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Contemporary scholars are reclaiming a companion public administration origin story that includes the contributions of women. This has become known as the “alternative” or “settlement” model of public administration. During the 19th century upper-class women in the United States and Europe organized

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Another new public service model is what has been called New Public Governance, an approach that includes a centralization of power; an increased number, role, and influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization of appointments to the senior public service; and, the assumption that the

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in public administration. The DPA is an applied-research doctoral degree in the field of public administration, focusing on the practice of public administration more than on its theoretical aspects. The Ph.D. is typically sought by individuals aiming to become professors of public administration or

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Comparative public administration or CPA is defined as the study of administrative systems in a comparative fashion or the study of public administration in other countries. Today, there is a section of the American Society for Public Administration that specializes in comparative administration. It

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of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase". This

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programs, in cases where the students from both the Master's in Public Administration (MPA) and Master's in Business Administration (MBA) programs take many of the same courses. In some programs, the MPA (or MAPA) is more clearly distinct from the MBA, in that the MPA often emphasizes substantially

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Settlement workers explicitly fought for social justice as they campaigned for reform. They sought policy changes that would improve the lives of immigrants, women, children, sick, old, and impoverished people. Both municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship applied an ethic of care informed

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Universities offer undergraduate level Bachelor's degrees in Public Administration or Government, Political Science, and International Affairs with an academic concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration. At several universities undergraduate-level public administration and

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Some critics argue that the New Public Management concept of treating people as "customers" rather than "citizens" is an inappropriate borrowing from the private sector model, because businesses see customers as a means to an end (profit), rather than as the proprietors of government (the owners),

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where studies of policy processes and the structures, functions, and behavior of public institutions and their relationships with broader society take place. The study and application of public administration is founded on the principle that the proper functioning of an organization or institution

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also gave public administrators new responsibilities. These events were manifest in the public administration profession through the new public administration movement. “Under the stimulating patronage of Dwight Waldo, some of the best of the younger generation of scholars challenged the doctrine

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Dating back to antiquity, states have required officials like pages, treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government. Before the 19th century, the staffing of most public administrations was rife with nepotism, favoritism, and political patronage, which was often

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excavations is limited. However, the presence of complex civilization and public facilities such as granaries and bathhouses, along with the existence of large cities, indicates the likelihood of centralized governance. The uniformity in the artifacts and brick sizes suggests that there was some

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definition of the Public Administration sector (NAICS 91) states that public administration "... comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations, and the administration of

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More recently, scholars claim that "public administration has no generally accepted definition" because the "scope of the subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define." Public administration is a field of study (i.e., a discipline) and an occupation. There is much

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both) a public authority or the provision of at least one public good implies the absence of a public administration. He argues that public administration is the public provision of public goods in which the demand function is satisfied more or less effectively by politics, whose primary tool is

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One public administration scholar, Donald Kettl, argues that "public administration sits in a disciplinary backwater", because "for the last generation, scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study like implementation, public management, and formal bureaucratic theory". Kettl

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defined public administration as the "public leadership of public affairs directly responsible for executive action." In democracies, it usually has to do with such leadership and executive action in terms that respect and contribute to the dignity, worth, and potential of the citizen. One year

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Administrators tend to work with both paper documents and computer files: "There has been a significant shift from paper to electronic records during the past two decades. Although government institutions continue to print and maintain paper documents as 'official records,' the vast majority of

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Comparative public administration lacks a curriculum, which has prevented it from becoming a major field of study. This lack of understanding of the basic concepts that build this field's foundation has ultimately led to its lack of use. For example, William Waugh, a professor at Georgia State

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During the 1950s, the United States experienced prolonged prosperity and solidified its place as a world leader. Public Administration experienced a kind of heyday due to the successful war effort and successful post-war reconstruction in Western Europe and Japan. Government was popular as was

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In the United States, the academic field of public administration draws heavily on political science and administrative law. Some MPA programs include economics courses to give students a background in micro-economic issues (markets, rationing mechanisms, etc.) and macroeconomic issues (e.g.,

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Some modern authors define NPM as a combination of splitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more fragmented agencies, encouraging competition between different public agencies, and encouraging competition between public agencies and private firms and using economic incentives lines (e.g.,

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adopted and reformed federal agencies using NPM approaches. In the 1990's, new public management became prevalent throughout the bureaucracies of the US, the UK, and to a lesser extent, in Canada. The original public management theories have roots attributed to policy analysis, according to

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Notable scholars of public administration have come from a wide range of fields. In the period before public administration existed as its own independent sub-discipline of political science, scholars contributing to the field came from economics, sociology, management, political science,

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programs based on them." This includes "legislative activities, taxation, national defense, public order and safety, immigration services, foreign affairs and international assistance, and the administration of government programs are activities that are purely governmental in nature."

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Stimulated by events during the 1960s such as an active civil rights movement, the Vietnam War and war protests, assassinations of a president and civil rights leaders, and an active women's movement, public administration changed course somewhat. Landmark legislation such as the

991:. He called public administration an integrating science and stated that public administrators should be concerned with both theory and practice. He argued that public administration is a science because knowledge is generated and evaluated according to the scientific method. 3488:. Burnier, D. (2022). The long road of administrative memory: Jane Addams, Frances Perkins and care-centered administration. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.), Handbook on Gender and Public Administration. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA, USA, Edward Elgar Publishing. 1500: 685:

In an academic context, public administration has been described as the study of government decision-making; the analysis of policies and the various inputs that have produced them; and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies. It is also a subfield of

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There are a number of international public administration organizations. The Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management (CAPAM) includes the 56 member states of the Commonwealth from India and the UK to Nauru. The oldest organization is the

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advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.

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There was a call by citizens for efficient administration to replace ineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public administration would have to distance itself from politics to answer this call and remain effective. Elected officials supported these reforms. The

1709:(EROPA) is a state-membership based organization, open to other organizations and individuals, headquartered in the Philippines with centers and membership organized around the Asia Pacific region. EROPA organizes annual conferences and publishes a journal 1404:

is an in-house structure that ensures that public service staffing is done in an unbiased, ethical and values-based manner. The basic functions of the HR system are employee benefits, employee health care, compensation, and many more (e.g., human rights,

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Universities can offer undergraduate and graduate degrees in Public Administration or Government, Political Science, and International Affairs with a concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration. Graduate degrees include the

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The separation of politics and administration advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant role in public administration today. However, the dominance of this dichotomy was challenged by second-generation scholars, beginning in the 1940s.

1232:) sector. Nevertheless, the NPM model (one of four described by Elmore in 1986, including the "generic model") is still widely accepted at multiple levels of government (e.g., municipal, state/province, and federal) and in many OECD nations. 933:(400–337 BC), may have had the most influence, and could be considered its founders, if they are not valuable as rare pre-modern examples of the abstract theory of administration. Creel writes that, in Shen Buhai, there are the "seeds of the 3545:

Shields, P. (2017). Jane Addams: pioneer in American sociology, social work and public administration. In Shields, P. (Ed.), Jane Addams: Progressive Pioneer of Peace, Philosophy, Sociology, Social Work and Public Administration, pp. 43–67.

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Gulick developed a comprehensive, generic theory of organization that emphasized the scientific method, efficiency, professionalism, structural reform, and executive control. Gulick summarized the duties of administrators with an acronym;

937:", and that, if one wishes to exaggerate, it would "no doubt be possible to translate Shen Buhai's term Shu, or technique, as 'science'", and argue that he was the first political scientist, though Creel does "not care to go this far". 3555:

Shields, Patricia (2023). 'Jane Addams and Public Administration: Clarifying Industrial Citizenship', in Patricia M. Shields, Maurice Hamington, and Joseph Soeters (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Jane Addams pp. 305-326. Oxford Academic

1296:(e.g., income for the old, unemployment insurance, aid for dependent children and the disabled, child labor prohibitions and limits on hours worked, etc.) were supported by leaders of the Settlement movement. Richard Stillman credits 900:(1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only." Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination, the 836:

presents a detailed scheme to remove the enemies in the guise of friends. The Charvaka stalwart, Brihaspati, is more ancient than Kautilya and Somadeva. He appears to be contemporaneous with the Harappa and Mohenjo-daro cultures.

1151:, examines the reorganization of government. Brownlow subsequently founded the Public Administration Service (PAS) at the university, an organization that provided consulting services to all levels of government until the 1970s. 2930:

Shields, P. M., & Elias, N. M. (2022). Introduction to the Handbook on Gender and Public Administration. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.)Handbook on Gender and Public Administration. pp.1 – 19. Edward Elgar Publishing.

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form of centralized governance. Although speculation regarding social hierarchies and class structures is plausible, the absence of discernible elite burial sites also suggests that most citizens were almost equal in status.

1098:, Paul Appleby, Frank Goodnow, and Willam Willoughby. The new generation of organizational theories no longer relied upon logical assumptions and generalizations about human nature like classical and enlightened theorists. 1627:

different ethical and sociological criteria that pertain to administering government programs for the public good that have not been key criteria for business managers, who typically aim to maximize profit or share price.

1239:, focusing on themes of reintegrating government responsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization (exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage). 1043:

that scientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the " best way" to do things or carry out an operation. Taylor's technique was introduced to private industrialists, and later to various government organizations.

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NISPAcee is a network of experts, scholars and practitioners who work in the field of public administration in central Europe and Eastern Europe, including the Russian Federation and the Caucasus and Central Asia.

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Public administration encompasses the execution, oversight, and management of government policies and the management of public affairs. The field involves the organization, operation, and strategic coordination of

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Foye-Cox, N. (2006). Women in public administration: breaking new ground. In Felbinger, C. and Haynes, W. (Eds.), Profiles of Outstanding Women in Public Administration, pp. 7–42. American Society for Public

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in the public sector. Public administrators play a significant role in devising and executing policies, managing shared resources, and ensuring the efficient functioning of government agencies and programs.

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Schick, A. (1975). The trauma of politics: public administration in the sixties. In Mosher, F. (Ed.), American Public Administration: Past, Present, Future, pp. 142–80. University of Alabama Press. (p.

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To staff these institutions, they created the oldest meritocracy in the world, in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics

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The Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD), based in Caracas, Venezuela, is a regional network of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America.

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Shields, P. (2022). The origins of the settlement model of public administration. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.), Handbook on Gender and Public Administration. pp. 35-52. Edward Elgar Publishing

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Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), 'Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration, 32(8): 704–27.

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Omar, A. M. (2020). Digital Era Governance and Social Media: The Case of Information Department Brunei. In Employing Recent Technologies for Improved Digital Governance (pp. 19–35). IGI Global.

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are two second-generation scholars. Gulick, Urwick, and the new generation of administrators built on the work of contemporary behavioral, administrative, and organizational scholars including

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Newman, M.A. (2004). Madam Secretary: Frances Perkins. In Felbinger, C. and Hanes, W. (Eds.), Outstanding Women in Public Administration: Leaders, Mentors, and Pioneers, pp. 83–102. Routledge.

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is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of government, the role of bureaucracy in supporting democratic governments, budgets, governance, and public affairs take place.

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In academia, the field of public administration consists of several sub-fields. Scholars have proposed several different sets of sub-fields. One of the proposed models uses five "pillars":

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legal—specifically administrative law—and other related fields. More recently, scholars from public administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories.

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Schachter, H.L. (2011). The New York School of Philanthropy, the Bureau of Municipal Research, and the trail of the missing women: a public administration history detective story.

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By the 1920s, scholars of public administration had responded to Wilson's solicitation and textbooks in this field were introduced. Distinguished scholars of that period include

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McGuire, J.T. (2011). Continuing an alternative view of public administration: Mary van Kleeck and industrial citizenship, 1918–1927. Administration & Society, 43(1), 66–86.

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also describes the Charvaka method of defeating the nation's enemies, referring to thirteen disguised enemies in the kingdom with selfish interests who should not be spared.

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performance pay for senior executives or user-pay models). NPM treats individuals as "customers" or "clients" (in the private sector sense), rather than as citizens.

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Burnier, D. (2022). The long road of administrative memory: Jane Addams, Frances Perkins and care-centered administration. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.),

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Jerome B. McKinney and Lawrence C. Howard. Public Administration: Balancing Power and Accountability. 2nd Ed. 1998: Praeger Publishing, Westport, CT. p. 62

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Burnier, D. (2008). Erased history: Frances Perkins and the emergence of care-centered public administration. Administration & Society, 40(4), 403–22.

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Stillman II, R. (1998). Creating the American State: The Moral Reformers and the Modern Administrative World They Made. University of Alabama Press p. 82.

5542: 1696:(NASPAA), has developed several relationships around the world. They include sub regional and National forums like CLAD, INPAE and NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA. 1605: 1115:

President Eisenhower. In the 1960s and 1970s, the government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The costly

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as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy. Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system.

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civilizations had organized bodies of public servants, suggesting the presence of some form of public administration. Numerous references exist to

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researchers. Individuals pursuing a Ph.D. in public administration often pursue more theoretical dissertation topics than their DPA counterparts.

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progressed and the military powers extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for a sophisticated public administration grew.

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non-profit management education is packaged together (along with international relations and security studies) in a degree in political science.

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In the late 1980s, yet another generation of public administration theorists began to displace the last. The new theory, which came to be called

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Aucoin, Peter (2008). "New Public Management and the Quality of Government: Coping with the New Political Governance in Canada", Conference on

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Fry, Brian R. 1989. Mastering Public Administration; from Max Weber to Dwight Waldo. Chatham, New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers, Inc. p. 80

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refers to "the management of public programs", or the "translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day", and also to the

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In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public services model in response to the dominance of NPM. A successor to NPM is

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Stivers, C. (2000). Bureau Men, Settlement Women: Constructing Public Administration in the Progressive Era. University Press of Kansas.

2267:"Electronic Records and Document Management Systems: A New Tool for Enhancing the Public's Right to Access Government-Held Information?" 3763: 5615: 4074: 3618: 3295: 2629: 1609: 1080: 729: 510: 2682: 1170:(1952), Frank Marini 'Towards a New Public Administration' (1971), and others that have contributed positively in these endeavors. 2874: 1769: 1409:). The executives managing the HR director and other key departmental personnel are also part of the public administration system. 1203:-style models, organizational ideas and values to improve the efficiency and service-orientation of the public sector. During the 878:, including, possibly, the first highly centralized bureaucratic state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an 5567: 2081: 1881: 1253:

In the mid-1980s, the goal of community programs in the United States was often represented by terms such as independent living,

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Denhardt, Robert B.; Vinzant Denhardt, Janet (November–December 2000). "The new public service: serving rather than steering".

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records are now created and stored in electronic format." Pictured here is Stephen C. Dunn, Deputy Comptroller for the US Navy.

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Shields, P. (2017). Jane Addams: pioneer in American sociology, social work and public administration. In Shields, P. (Ed.),

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Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.

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of the public authorities and the adjustment of one or the other to achieve desirable effects and avoid undesirable ones.

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Public administration is both an academic discipline and a field of practice; the latter is depicted in this picture of

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Shields, P. (2022). The origins of the settlement model of public administration. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.),

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to explain policy outcomes such as the success or failure of reform efforts or the persistence of suboptimal outcomes.

5375: 5212: 4187: 2829: 2788: 2023: 1995: 1923: 1851: 1014: 820:, mentions a symposium of philosophers from various faiths held in 1578 at Akbar's instance. It is believed that some 761: 573: 3267:, Berkeley, CA: Research and Training Center on Public Policy And Independent Living, World Institute on Disability, 3225:; Watson, Sara; Pfeiffer, David (1992). "A case for including disability policy issues in public policy curricula". 2953:

Rubin, M. (1990). Women in ASPA: the fifty-year climb toward equality. Public Administration Review, 50(2), 277–87.

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There are two types of doctoral degrees in public administration: the Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) and the

5348: 4794: 2018: 1789: 1781: 1567: 753: 106: 77: 828:," Fazl refers to the Charvaka law-makers emphasizing "good work, judicious administration, and welfare schemes." 5552: 5537: 5470: 5237: 5189: 4449: 4177: 2963:

Kamensky, John M. (May–June 1996). "Role of the "Reinventing Government" movement in Federal management reform".

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about Bachelor's degrees and undergraduate concentrations, but information on this within the article is missing.

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One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed' in the imperial bureaucracy of China.

1179: 1051:(ASPA) the leading professional group for public administration was founded in 1939. ASPA sponsors the journal 1033: 348: 238: 3366:

Burnier, D. (2008). Erased history: Frances Perkins and the emergence of care-centered public administration.

1862:, and the Bachelor and Master of Public Policy & Management and the Executive Public Management Master of 825: 3450:

Burnier, D. (2021). Hiding in plain sight: recovering public administration’s lost Legacy of social justice,

5562: 5517: 5495: 5480: 4933: 4592: 4480: 4375: 3212:, SOG and the Quality of Government Institute, University of Gothenburg, Sweden, 13–15 November 2008, p. 14. 1777: 1623: 1601: 1469: 1229: 1095: 706: 278: 1388:

is the study of the role of the government in the economy. It is the branch of economics that assesses the

5664: 5589: 5547: 5532: 5490: 5368: 4968: 4702: 4422: 4250: 4023: 3130: 1534: 1393: 1258: 1243: 1236: 1204: 515: 457: 403: 1832:, Institute of Public Management and Territorial Governance in Aix-en-Provence, Aix-Marseille University. 5081: 5024: 4903: 4625: 4615: 4577: 4550: 4512: 4304: 4223: 4213: 2008: 1863: 1446: 1254: 1192: 1175: 954: 889: 168: 3525:

Jane Addams: Progressive Pioneer of Peace, Philosophy, Sociology, Social Work and Public Administration

3436:

Jane Addams: Progressive Pioneer of Peace, Philosophy, Sociology, Social Work and Public Administration

3787: 2359: 705:, bringing about a substantive interest in the theoretical aspects of public administration. The 1968 5502: 5064: 4572: 4412: 4385: 4380: 4277: 4121:

Lynn, L. E. Jr. (1996). "Public Management as Art, Science, and Profession." Chatham House, CQ Press.

3837: 2289: 1980: 1870: 1676: 1670: 1542: 1520: 1442: 1425: 1360: 883: 859: 445: 316: 306: 291: 218: 136: 46: 2266: 1382:

is the activity within a government that seeks to allocate scarce resources among unlimited demands.

1063: 5512: 5317: 5086: 5074: 5031: 4752: 4746: 4672: 4587: 4532: 4407: 4272: 4218: 3812: 2666: 1859: 1528: 1357:

is the study of the structure of governmental entities and the many particulars inculcated in them.

1354: 1266: 1159: 1135: 958: 914: 710: 675: 557: 467: 321: 223: 173: 111: 2501: 1713:(ARPA). It has several centers in the region, and assists in networking experts with its members. 1272:

Increasingly, public policy academics and practitioners have utilized the theoretical concepts of

5282: 4697: 4262: 4028: 4018: 3973: 3745: 3703: 3242: 3179: 3111: 2982: 2606:

China not only produced the world's first "bureaucracy", but also the world's first "meritocracy"

2464: 2013: 1948: 1885: 1389: 1370: 984: 595: 188: 2170: 2153: 2145: 2131: 2123: 2112: 2097: 2089: 1472:, a Master of Arts (MA), or a Master of Science (MS) in Public Policy (for the research tract) 1428:

is the managerial function charged with creating the framework within which communities reduce

5410: 5184: 5164: 5109: 4667: 4662: 4650: 4645: 4517: 4507: 4427: 4370: 4314: 4070: 4056: 3961: 3951: 3926: 3916: 3695: 3614: 3291: 3268: 2854: 2756: 2729: 2642:

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along with domestic scandals including the bugging of Democratic Party headquarters (the 1974

999: 687: 590: 264: 126: 121: 82: 55: 42: 2752:

Servants of the State: Managing Diversity & Democracy in the Federal Workforce, 1933–1953

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Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States

3234: 3171: 3142: 3103: 3054: 3036: 3014: 2974: 2811: 2778:

Creel, 1974 p.4, 119 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.

2563: 2394: 2344:

A Report of the Centennial Agendas project of the American Society for Public Administration

2242: 1730: 1726: 1524: 1379: 976: 965:

institutions emphasizing economic and social disciplines, with the goal of societal reform.

540: 296: 150: 3678:

Jreisat, Jamil E. (2005-03-01). "Comparative Public Administration Is Back In, Prudently".

1829: 1501:

Riggs Award for Lifetime Achievement in International and Comparative Public Administration

1126: 1123:

scandal) are two examples of self-destructive government behavior that alienated citizens.

5307: 5297: 5254: 5204: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5014: 5009: 4953: 4943: 4882: 4877: 4692: 4459: 4454: 4267: 2686: 1366: 1334: 1325: 764:," "the beginning of public administration as a specific and influential field of study." 748: 618: 600: 425: 410: 1745:

In the US, the American Society for Public Administration. Indiana University Bloomington

1422:

is research into and the practice of operating nonprofit organizations and their effects.

2679: 1480:

write of a long history behind the constitutional legitimacy of government bureaucracy.

5454: 5292: 5261: 5249: 5217: 5159: 5124: 5119: 5051: 4913: 4908: 4861: 4807: 4655: 4567: 4562: 4319: 4240: 4235: 4166: 3557: 3355:

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2003: 1613: 1538: 1461: 1385: 1213: 1200: 1148: 1087: 1025: 1010: 1003: 988: 757: 496: 415: 369: 311: 3146: 3076:, (2008) "Global Public Policy, Transnational Policy Communities and their Networks", 1741:

Many entities study public management in particular, in various countries, including:

613: 5648: 5449: 5434: 5405: 5391: 5302: 5227: 5179: 5004: 4963: 4958: 4938: 4928: 4758: 4714: 4677: 4607: 4582: 4492: 4390: 4336: 4331: 3749: 3707: 3691: 3092:"Citizen, Customer, Partner: Rethinking the Place of the Public in Public Management" 2614: 2385:

Haveman, R. H. (1987). "Policy analysis and evaluation research after twenty years".

1943: 1429: 1321: 921:

Though Chinese administration cannot be traced to any one individual, figures of the

855: 679: 420: 398: 373: 203: 38: 3003:(1986). "Graduate education in public management: working the seams of government". 2420: 2333:

Vol. 8. no. 2 pp. 169–75. Clapp attributed part of this definition to Charles Beard.

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Schachter, H.L. (2002). Women, progressive-era reform, and scientific management.

2815: 1013:. He first formally recognized public administration in an 1887 article entitled " 4022: 3312: 2750: 2526: 1566:

Please expand the to include this information. Further details may exist on the

840:

Archaeological evidence regarding kings, priests, and palaces in the Harappa and

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Hunt, K. (2006). Women as citizens: changing the polity. In Simonton, D. (Ed.),

3314:

Understanding Policy Change: How to Apply Political Economy Concepts in Practice

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Public administration and disability community services administration in the US

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Public Administration – Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of Government

3965: 3930: 3699: 3340:

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3311:

Corduneanu-Huci, Cristina; Hamilton, Alexander; Masses Ferrer, Issel (2012).

2933:

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India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations

2246: 2135: 1953: 1933: 1840: 1120: 980: 953:

in order to train a new class of public administrators. The universities of

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Raczkowski, K. (2016). "Public Management: Theory and Practice." Springer

2551: 1990: 1985: 1293: 1289:), usually situated in industrialized city slums filled with immigrants. 1103: 910: 833: 829: 821: 795: 585: 545: 228: 213: 193: 62: 3115: 3091: 1913:, examines the efficiency and effectiveness of two or more governments. 1250:

public service is promiscuously partisan for the government of the day.

5507: 5277: 4284: 3915:. Cham, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London: Springer. p. 15. 3246: 3107: 2787:

Paul R. Goldin, p.16 Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism.

1208: 962: 801: 500: 158: 4088:

The State of Public Administration: Issues, Challenges and Opportunity

3183: 2986: 4081:

Research in public administration: reflections on theory and practice

3724:

Waugh, William L Jr. (Spring 2004). "Comparative Politics: Review of

3227:

Journal of Policy Analysis and Management (Curriculum and Case Notes)

1836: 1514: 550: 492: 390: 4124:

Lynn, L. E. Jr. (2006). "Public Management: Old and New." Routledge.

3238: 2327:

Clapp, Gordon. 1948. "Public Administration in an Advancing South",

3764:"What is the difference between public and private administration?" 3425:. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA, USA, Edward Elgar Publishing. 3383:. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA, USA, Edward Elgar Publishing. 2978: 4830: 4135: 3041:"New public management is dead – long live digital-era governance" 2552:"THE PARADIGMS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION RE-EXAMINED: A REFLECTION" 1754: 1642: 1309: 1125: 1079:'s fact-value dichotomy was a key contender for Wilson's proposed 1062: 1009:

The father of public administration in the US is considered to be

998: 875: 728: 5360: 5019: 2926: 2924: 1694:

Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration

1515:

Bachelor's degrees, academic concentrations, and academic minors

5364: 4834: 4139: 3652:"Emergency Management Definition, Vision, Missions, Principles" 3330:

Shields, P. M., & Elias, N. M. (2022). Introduction to the

2726:

The Higher Civil Service in the United States: Quest for Reform

4326: 1905:

through the Regenesys School of Public Management and MANCOSA.

1546: 1337:

was Secretary of Labor during the F. Roosevelt Administration

1195:, was proposed by David Osborne and Ted Gaebler in their book 2644:

Ecology and the Environment: Perspectives from the Humanities

2346:. Washington, DC; American Society for Public Administration. 1856:

Politics, Administration & International Relations (PAIR)

1675:

For notable institutions, see the Knowledge (XXG) article on

1468:

in Public Administration (for the management tract), and the

1320:

The Settlement movement and its leaders such as Jane Addams,

3993: 3816: 3265:

An Independent Living Approach to Disability Policy Studies

2312:

Appleby, Paul 1947. "Toward Better Public Administration",

2104:

and Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences

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In Ireland, the Institute of Public Administration, Dublin.

1134:

alienated U.S. citizens from their government. Pictured is

913:

claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and

30:

This article is about the discipline. For the journal, see

27:

Academic discipline; implementation or management of policy

4051:

Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007).

3881: 3841: 2580:

Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt (2005)

2354: 2352: 1310:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

3882:"Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration" 1855: 1806: 1622:

Some public administration programs have similarities to

812:'s contributions to laws and governance. An excerpt from 2360:"Public Administration | the Canadian Encyclopedia" 2231:"Minnowbrook: Tradition, Idea, Spirit, Event, Challenge" 3886:

Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration

2059:

Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences

1875:

Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration (IDHEAP)

1707:

Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration

1279: 4053:

Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction.

3904: 3902: 1828:, National Institute of Territorial Studies, and the 1749: 898:

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thinkers may have participated in the symposium. In "

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Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory

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Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction

2849:

Ibrahim, Jeong Chun Hai; Nawi, Nor Fadzlina (2007).

2755:. University of Georgia Press. pp. 8, 200–201. 2235:

Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory

5598: 5463: 5398: 5270: 5203: 5100: 5050: 4997: 4891: 4739: 4723: 4470: 4196: 4109:

The Change Masters: Corporate Entrepreneurs at Work

3417: 3415: 3407:

The Routledge History of Women in Europe Since 1700

3349: 3347: 3210:

New Public Management and the Quality of Government

2107:International Journal of Public Sector Management, 1848:

German University of Administrative Sciences Speyer

1373:

serves as an empirical approach to decision making.

1070:(1892–1993) was an expert on public administration. 3326: 3324: 3263:(1993), "Introduction", in Brown, Susan T. (ed.), 2613: 2037:International Institute of Administrative Sciences 1690:International Institute of Administrative Sciences 1363:serves as a normative approach to decision making. 721:, a pivotal movement within the discipline today. 694:The mid-twentieth century saw the rise of German 3090:Thomas, John Clayton (November–December 2013). 1280:Women's civic clubs and the Settlement movement 4065:Smith, Kevin B. and Licari, Michael J. (2006) 2197:. 6th Ed. 2009: Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont CA. 1764:Housing, Infrastructure and Communities Canada 1656:List of notable public administration scholars 1355:Organizational theory in public administration 5376: 4846: 4151: 3475: 3473: 3456:https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2021.1891796 2724:Mark W. Huddleston; William W. Boyer (1996). 2604:. University of Michigan Press. p. 128. 2461:"Definition Public Administration (NAICS 91)" 1316:The Settlement Model of Public Administration 1147:, chaired by University of Chicago professor 778:North American Industry Classification System 636: 8: 5632:Civil service reform in developing countries 3947:Public management : theory and practice 3912:Public management : theory and practice 3423:Handbook on Gender and Public Administration 3381:Handbook on Gender and Public Administration 3336:Handbook on Gender and Public Administration 3332:Handbook on Gender and Public Administration 3039:; Bastow, Simon; Tinkler, Jane (July 2006). 2844: 2842: 2728:. University of Pittsburgh Pre. p. 15. 2195:Public Administration: An Action Orientation 1893:Cyprus International Institute of Management 1813: 1807:Institute of Public Administration Australia 1750:Institute of Public Administration of Canada 4086:Donald Menzel and Harvey White (eds) 2011. 3613:. New York: Worth Publications. p. 2. 3131:"The new public management and its critics" 2680:Full text of the Northcote-Trevelyan Report 2049:Dutch Association for Public Administration 5383: 5369: 5361: 4853: 4839: 4831: 4158: 4144: 4136: 3978:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3446: 3444: 2208:The Politics of the Administrative Process 2040:American Society for Public Administration 1606:Master of Public Policy and Administration 1049:American Society for Public Administration 752:later, Gordon Clapp, then Chairman of the 643: 629: 50: 3058: 3006:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 2593:Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142. 2490:. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 2447:A General Theory of Public Administration 2054:Indian Institute of Public Administration 1755:Observatoire de l'Administration publique 1218:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 3864:"Homepage – NISPAcee Information Portal" 2660: 2658: 2582:The Oxford Handbook of Public Management 2414: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2069:Royal Institute of Public Administration 2064:Korea Institute of Public Administration 1242:One example of the deployment of DEG is 654: 4118:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2636:China is the world's oldest meritocracy 2206:Kettl, Donald and James Fessler. 2009. 2186: 1909:Comparative public management, through 1039:The Principles of Scientific Management 61: 3971: 3338:. pp.1 – 19. Edward Elgar Publishing. 2853:. Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. 2616:Unsettled: an anthropology of the Jews 2140:Public Works Management & Policy, 1966:List of Public Administration Journals 1257:, inclusion, community participation, 1216:in his 1986 article published in the " 4037:(1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. 3719: 3717: 3334:. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.) 3195: 3193: 2570:– via Sabinet African Journals. 2421:"The Future of Public Administration" 2163:Public Administration and Development 2044:Chinese Public Administration Society 1971:List of public administration schools 1770:Institute of Local Government Studies 1760:Federation of Canadian Municipalities 1711:Asian Review of Public Administration 1458:Master of Public Administration (MPA) 1199:. The new model advocated the use of 1164:The Elements of Public Administration 796:Charvaka § Public_administration 7: 5343: 4789: 4111:. Hemel Hempstead: Unwin Paperbacks. 4055:Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. 4031:; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M. (eds.). 2076:Public management academic resources 1376:Public budgeting and public finance 3944:Raczkowski, Konrad (14 July 2015). 2804:Journal of Public Affairs Education 2600:Tan, Chung; Geng, Yinzheng (2005). 2366:from the original on March 28, 2017 1860:Zeppelin University Friedrichshafen 1432:to hazards and cope with disasters. 947:King Frederick William I of Prussia 5606:National civil service commissions 3840:. CLAD. 2007-08-29. Archived from 3452:Administrative Theory & Praxis 2399:10.1111/j.1541-0072.1987.tb00775.x 1884:, the graduate business school of 1451:Political science § Education 25: 3813:"NASPAA International Web Portal" 3730:Perspectives on Political Science 3726:Comparative Bureaucratic Systems, 3597:Classics of Public Administration 3595:Shafritz, J.M., A.C. Hyde. 2007. 3317:. Washington DC.: The World Bank. 3129:Mathiasen, David (31 July 2000). 1610:Master of Nonprofit Organizations 1494:Comparative public administration 1476:national debt). Scholars such as 1081:politics-administration dichotomy 511:Biology and political orientation 5342: 5331: 5330: 4812: 4801: 4788: 4777: 4776: 4079:White, Jay D. and Guy B. Adams. 3692:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2005.00447.x 3611:Public Finance and Public Policy 2556:Journal of Public Administration 2290:"What Is Public Administration?" 2082:Public Policy and Administration 1882:SDA Bocconi School of Management 1816:École nationale d'administration 1551: 1117:American intervention in Vietnam 691:relies on effective management. 672:public policy and administration 612: 4731:List of social science journals 3815:. Globalmpa.net. Archived from 3637:The Economics of Public Finance 2502:"The lost city of Mohenjo Daro" 1976:Master of Public Administration 1961:Doctor of Public Administration 1911:government performance auditing 1637:Doctor of Public Administration 1598:Master of Public Administration 1407:Americans with Disabilities Act 1361:Ethics in public administration 1302:Bureau Men and Settlement Women 874:may have originated in ancient 32:Public Administration (journal) 5670:Subfields of political science 4688:Science and technology studies 4034:New International Encyclopedia 1824:School of Public Affairs, the 1758:, and various projects of the 1499:is responsible for the annual 1292:Reforms that emerged from the 969:was a well-known professor of 760:'s publication of his essay, " 717:, gave rise to the concept of 506:Theories of political behavior 132:Political history of the world 1: 5130:Needle and syringe programmes 4984:Universal access to education 3862:Studio, Floyd; Andruch, Ján. 3357:. University Press of Kansas. 3147:10.1016/S1096-7494(00)87433-4 2877:. Aspanet.org. Archived from 2828:Wilson, Woodrow. June 1887. " 2816:10.1080/15236803.2023.2205805 1854:, the Bachelor and Master of 1470:Master of Public Policy (MPP) 1055:, which was founded in 1940. 967:Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi 849:Antiquity to the 19th century 521:Critique of political economy 4024:"Civil Administration" 3680:Public Administration Review 3512:Administration & Society 3499:Administration & Society 3368:Administration & Society 3163:Public Administration Review 3096:Public Administration Review 2966:Public Administration Review 2698:Walker, David (2003-07-09). 2667:"China: A Teaching Workbook" 2550:Basheka, B.C. (March 2012). 2330:Public Administration Review 2315:Public Administration Review 1801:Erasmus University Rotterdam 1488:Public administration theory 1207:(1993–2001), Vice President 1053:Public Administration Review 790:India in the 6th century BCE 682:is created and implemented. 661:U.S. federal public servants 102:Outline of political science 5213:Publicly funded health care 3909:Raczkowski, Konrad (2016). 3396:. Harvard University Press. 3149:– via Science Direct. 2834:Political Science Quarterly 2830:The Study of Administration 2775:Creel, What Is Taoism?, 94 2210:. Washington D.C.: CQ Press 2193:Robert and Janet Denhardt, 2024:The Study of Administration 1996:Professional administration 1924:Administration (government) 1852:Hertie School of Governance 1837:Public Governance Institute 1683:International organizations 1138:, a U.S. bombing operation. 1015:The Study of Administration 907:Her Majesty's Civil Service 762:The Study of Administration 5686: 4104:. Cambridge: Polity Press. 3728:Tummala, Krishna K., ed". 3078:Journal of Policy Sciences 2749:Rung, Margaret C. (2002). 2620:. Viking Compass. p. 2488:The Jain Teachers of Akbar 2463:. Ic.gc.ca. Archived from 2229:O'Leary, Rosemary (2011). 2118:Public Management Review, 2115:, Emerald Group Publishing 2019:Theories of administration 1790:UK local democracy project 1782:London School of Economics 1668: 1653: 1634: 1595: 1532: 1518: 1440: 949:created professoriates in 941:Europe in the 18th century 902:Northcote–Trevelyan Report 793: 754:Tennessee Valley Authority 107:Index of politics articles 36: 29: 5624: 5326: 5238:National health insurance 5190:Supervised injection site 4868: 4772: 4173: 4090:. New York: M. E. Sharpe. 3742:10.1080/10457090409600740 3609:Gruber, Jonathan (2005). 3290:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 3286:Racino, Julie A. (2015). 2875:"Our Web Site Has Moved!" 1929:Administrative discretion 1903:Regenesys Business School 1814: 1794:London Health Observatory 1786:University College London 1774:Newcastle Business School 1402:Human resource management 1263:ecological systems theory 1168:Policy and Administration 935:civil service examination 905:led to implementation of 719:New Public Administration 5616:Civil service by country 5233:Single-payer health care 5042:Universal basic services 4989:Universal basic services 3736:(2). Philadelphia: 119. 3523:Shields, P. (ed.)(2017) 3409:, pp. 216–58. Routledge. 2685:22 December 2014 at the 2318:Vol. 7, No. 2 pp. 93–99. 1180:Civil Rights Act of 1964 1166:(1946), Paul H. Appleby 892:, the British consul in 860:European imperialist age 713:under the leadership of 4934:Public good (economics) 4376:international relations 4069:, LA: Roxbury Pub. Co. 3176:10.1111/0033-3352.00117 2612:Konner, Melvin (2003). 2486:Smith, Vincent (1917). 2445:Lalor, Stephen (2014). 1778:Warwick Business School 1624:business administration 1602:Master of Public Policy 1591: 1096:Fredrick Winslow Taylor 741:bureaucratic structures 516:Political organisations 279:International relations 117:Politics by subdivision 5611:Government occupations 4703:Quantum social science 4107:Kanter, R. M. (1985). 3438:, pp. 43–67. Springer. 3019:10.1002/pam.4050060107 2669:. Columbia University. 2387:Policy Studies Journal 1562:is missing information 1535:Academic concentration 1466:Master of Science (MS) 1394:government expenditure 1259:deinstitutionalization 1237:digital era governance 1205:Clinton Administration 1197:Reinventing Government 1139: 1071: 1006: 866:Roots in ancient China 735: 707:Minnowbrook Conference 664: 5655:Public administration 5445:Public administration 5082:Public infrastructure 4919:Public administration 4904:Free-culture movement 4740:Other categorizations 4593:International studies 4578:History of technology 4513:Communication studies 4396:public administration 4116:The Market Experience 3060:10.1093/jopart/mui057 2247:10.1093/jopart/muq066 2009:Public policy schools 1864:University of Potsdam 1677:public policy schools 1669:Further information: 1447:Public policy degrees 1441:Further information: 1255:community integration 1193:New Public Management 1176:Equal Pay Act of 1963 1129: 1066: 1002: 983:, political science, 955:Frankfurt an der Oder 945:In the 18th century, 890:Thomas Taylor Meadows 732: 668:Public administration 658: 596:Political campaigning 336:Public administration 169:Collective leadership 5660:Management education 5464:By country/territory 4573:Historical sociology 4114:Lane, R. E. (1991). 4100:Janicke, M. (1990). 3599:. Wadsworth: Boston. 3392:Skocpol, T. (1992). 3353:Stivers, C. (2000). 1981:Municipal government 1871:University of Geneva 1869:In Switzerland, the 1799:In the Netherlands, 1671:Public policy school 1665:Notable Institutions 1543:Student organization 1443:Public policy school 1426:Emergency management 1420:Nonprofit management 1154:Concurrently, after 995:In the United States 709:, which convened at 446:Separation of powers 317:Political psychology 292:Comparative politics 270:political scientists 257:Academic disciplines 137:Political philosophy 47:Nonprofit management 5318:Public viewing area 5087:Public water system 5075:Municipal broadband 5032:Public broadcasting 4753:Geisteswissenschaft 4747:Behavioral sciences 4673:Political sociology 4588:Information science 4533:Development studies 4019:Kirchwey, George W. 1529:Bachelor of Science 1462:Master of Arts (MA) 1267:Urie Bronfenbrenner 1160:Fritz Morstein Marx 1136:Operation Arc Light 1036:. Taylor argued in 959:University of Halle 884:civil service tests 711:Syracuse University 676:academic discipline 619:Politics portal 468:Election commission 439:Government branches 322:Political sociology 174:Confessional system 112:Politics by country 5283:Government auction 4969:Public procurement 4808:Society portal 4295:auxiliary sciences 3792:www.britannica.com 3634:Jain, P C (1974). 3223:Elmore, Richard F. 3118:– via JSTOR. 3108:10.1111/puar.12109 3001:Elmore, Richard F. 2531:www.britannica.com 2014:Teleadministration 1949:Community services 1886:Bocconi University 1805:In Australia, the 1390:government revenue 1371:program evaluation 1140: 1086:Luther Gulick and 1072: 1007: 985:administrative law 854:referred to as a " 736: 678:which studies how 665: 302:Political analysis 234:Semi-parliamentary 5640: 5639: 5411:Government agency 5358: 5357: 5185:Public university 5165:Public open space 5110:Drinking fountain 5070:Telecommunication 4828: 4827: 4668:Political economy 4663:Political ecology 4518:Community studies 4508:Cognitive science 4471:Interdisciplinary 4371:Political science 4095:Public management 4061:978-983-195-253-5 3957:978-3-319-20312-6 3922:978-3-319-20312-6 3659:training.fema.gov 3037:Dunleavy, Patrick 2860:978-983-195-253-5 2781:Creel 1964: 155–6 2419:Kettl, Donald F. 2175:Wiley (publisher) 2158:SAGE Publications 2102:SAGE Publications 1901:In South Africa, 1731:developed nations 1723:Graham T. Allison 1717:Public management 1618:Master of Science 1585: 1584: 1521:Bachelor's degree 1287:Settlement Houses 1274:political economy 1145:Hoover Commission 688:political science 653: 652: 601:Political parties 541:Electoral systems 265:Political science 239:Semi-presidential 151:Political systems 127:Political history 122:Political economy 43:Political science 18:Public management 16:(Redirected from 5677: 5578:Northern Ireland 5385: 5378: 5371: 5362: 5346: 5345: 5334: 5333: 5245:Social insurance 5092:Waste management 5060:Electric utility 5037:Public transport 4954:Public ownership 4873:Municipalization 4855: 4848: 4841: 4832: 4816: 4806: 4805: 4792: 4791: 4780: 4779: 4683:Regional science 4528:Cultural studies 4503:Business studies 4160: 4153: 4146: 4137: 4038: 4026: 4005: 4004: 4002: 4001: 3990: 3984: 3983: 3977: 3969: 3941: 3935: 3934: 3906: 3897: 3896: 3894: 3892: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3859: 3853: 3852: 3850: 3849: 3834: 3828: 3827: 3825: 3824: 3809: 3803: 3802: 3800: 3799: 3784: 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5205:Social services 5199: 5155:Public hospital 5150:Public computer 5145:Public bookcase 5096: 5046: 5015:Law enforcement 5010:Fire department 4993: 4944:Public interest 4887: 4883:Progressive tax 4878:Nationalization 4864: 4862:Public services 4859: 4829: 4824: 4800: 4768: 4735: 4719: 4693:Science studies 4477:Administration 4466: 4192: 4169: 4167:Social sciences 4164: 4134: 4097: 4045: 4043:Further reading 4017: 4014: 4009: 4008: 3999: 3997: 3992: 3991: 3987: 3970: 3958: 3943: 3942: 3938: 3923: 3908: 3907: 3900: 3890: 3888: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3861: 3860: 3856: 3847: 3845: 3836: 3835: 3831: 3822: 3820: 3811: 3810: 3806: 3797: 3795: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3772: 3770: 3762: 3761: 3757: 3723: 3722: 3715: 3677: 3676: 3672: 3663: 3661: 3654: 3650: 3649: 3645: 3633: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3608: 3607: 3603: 3594: 3590: 3585: 3581: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3554: 3550: 3544: 3540: 3535: 3531: 3522: 3518: 3509: 3505: 3496: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3478: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3449: 3442: 3433: 3429: 3420: 3413: 3404: 3400: 3391: 3387: 3378: 3374: 3365: 3361: 3352: 3345: 3329: 3322: 3310: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3285: 3284: 3280: 3261:Zola, Irving K. 3259: 3258: 3254: 3239:10.2307/3325146 3221: 3220: 3216: 3207: 3203: 3198: 3191: 3159: 3158: 3154: 3128: 3127: 3123: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3072: 3068: 3033:Margetts, Helen 3031: 3030: 3026: 2999: 2998: 2994: 2962: 2961: 2957: 2952: 2948: 2944:Administration. 2942: 2938: 2929: 2922: 2916: 2912: 2906: 2902: 2897: 2893: 2884: 2882: 2873: 2872: 2868: 2861: 2848: 2847: 2840: 2827: 2823: 2801: 2800: 2796: 2774: 2770: 2763: 2748: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2723: 2722: 2718: 2709: 2707: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2687:Wayback Machine 2678: 2674: 2664: 2663: 2656: 2641: 2632: 2611: 2599: 2592: 2588: 2579: 2575: 2568:10520/EJC121371 2549: 2548: 2544: 2535: 2533: 2525: 2524: 2520: 2511: 2509: 2500: 2499: 2495: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2470: 2468: 2459: 2458: 2454: 2444: 2443: 2439: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2418: 2417: 2406: 2384: 2383: 2379: 2369: 2367: 2358: 2357: 2350: 2341: 2337: 2326: 2322: 2311: 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Appleby 727: 649: 611: 606: 605: 536: 535: 526: 525: 483: 482: 473: 472: 441: 440: 431: 430: 426:Public interest 411:Domestic policy 401: 394: 393: 382: 381: 346: 339: 338: 327: 326: 288: 281: 274: 267: 259: 258: 249: 248: 154: 153: 142: 141: 97: 96: 87: 56:Politics series 49: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5683: 5681: 5673: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5647: 5646: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5634: 5625: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5592: 5590:European Union 5587: 5582: 5581: 5580: 5573:United Kingdom 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5499: 5498: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5467: 5465: 5461: 5460: 5458: 5457: 5455:Public service 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5402: 5400: 5396: 5395: 5390: 5388: 5387: 5380: 5373: 5365: 5356: 5355: 5353: 5352: 5340: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5293:Public holiday 5290: 5285: 5280: 5274: 5272: 5268: 5267: 5265: 5264: 5262:Youth services 5259: 5258: 5257: 5252: 5250:Social pension 5242: 5241: 5240: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5218:Public housing 5215: 5209: 5207: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5160:Public library 5157: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5125:Infrastructure 5122: 5120:Free education 5117: 5112: 5106: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5078: 5077: 5067: 5062: 5056: 5054: 5052:Public utility 5048: 5047: 5045: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5028: 5027: 5025:Savings system 5020:Postal service 5017: 5012: 5007: 5001: 4999: 4998:Basic services 4995: 4994: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4914:Product sample 4911: 4909:Free newspaper 4906: 4901: 4895: 4893: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4860: 4858: 4857: 4850: 4843: 4835: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4822: 4810: 4798: 4786: 4773: 4770: 4769: 4767: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4749: 4743: 4741: 4737: 4736: 4734: 4733: 4727: 4725: 4721: 4720: 4718: 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4112: 4105: 4096: 4093: 4092: 4091: 4084: 4077: 4063: 4049: 4044: 4041: 4040: 4039: 4013: 4010: 4007: 4006: 3985: 3956: 3936: 3921: 3898: 3873: 3854: 3829: 3804: 3779: 3755: 3713: 3670: 3643: 3626: 3619: 3601: 3588: 3579: 3570: 3561: 3548: 3538: 3529: 3516: 3514:, 43(1), 3–21. 3503: 3490: 3481: 3469: 3460: 3440: 3427: 3411: 3398: 3385: 3372: 3359: 3343: 3320: 3303: 3296: 3278: 3252: 3214: 3201: 3189: 3152: 3121: 3102:(6): 786–796. 3082: 3066: 3024: 2992: 2979:10.2307/976448 2955: 2946: 2936: 2920: 2910: 2900: 2891: 2866: 2859: 2838: 2821: 2810:(3): 275–279. 2794: 2792: 2791: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2768: 2761: 2741: 2734: 2716: 2690: 2672: 2665:Bodde, Derke. 2654: 2652: 2651: 2639: 2630: 2609: 2586: 2573: 2542: 2518: 2493: 2478: 2467:on May 6, 2013 2452: 2437: 2404: 2393:(1): 191–218. 2377: 2348: 2335: 2320: 2305: 2281: 2258: 2221: 2212: 2199: 2185: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2178: 2177: 2160: 2138: 2116: 2105: 2077: 2074: 2072: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2038: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2026: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2004:Policy Studies 2001: 1998: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1973: 1968: 1963: 1958: 1957: 1956: 1946: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1920: 1918: 1915: 1907: 1906: 1899: 1896: 1889: 1880:In Italy, the 1878: 1867: 1844: 1833: 1810: 1803: 1797: 1766: 1746: 1738: 1735: 1718: 1715: 1684: 1681: 1666: 1663: 1654:Main article: 1651: 1648: 1632: 1629: 1614:Master of Arts 1593: 1590: 1583: 1582: 1559: 1557: 1550: 1539:Academic minor 1516: 1513: 1495: 1492: 1438: 1437:Academic field 1435: 1434: 1433: 1423: 1415: 1414:Other branches 1412: 1411: 1410: 1399: 1398: 1397: 1386:Public finance 1383: 1374: 1364: 1358: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1331:Women's Bureau 1317: 1314: 1281: 1278: 1265:, of the late 1214:Richard Elmore 1201:private sector 1188: 1185: 1149:Louis Brownlow 1111: 1108: 1088:Lyndall Urwick 1060: 1057: 1026:Lyndall Urwick 1011:Woodrow Wilson 1004:Woodrow Wilson 996: 993: 989:public finance 942: 939: 925:emphasizing a 867: 864: 850: 847: 794:Main article: 791: 788: 786: 783: 758:Woodrow Wilson 726: 723: 651: 650: 648: 647: 640: 633: 625: 622: 621: 608: 607: 604: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 582: 581: 565: 560: 555: 554: 553: 543: 537: 533: 532: 531: 528: 527: 524: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 490: 484: 481:Related topics 480: 479: 478: 475: 474: 471: 470: 465: 460: 455: 449: 448: 442: 438: 437: 436: 433: 432: 429: 428: 423: 418: 416:Foreign policy 413: 408: 395: 389: 388: 387: 384: 383: 380: 379: 378: 377: 363: 358: 353: 340: 334: 333: 332: 329: 328: 325: 324: 319: 314: 312:Policy studies 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 277: 275: 263: 260: 256: 255: 254: 251: 250: 247: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 155: 149: 148: 147: 144: 143: 140: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 98: 95:Primary topics 94: 93: 92: 89: 88: 86: 85: 80: 75: 69: 66: 65: 59: 58: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5682: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5665:Public policy 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5643: 5633: 5630: 5627: 5626: 5623: 5617: 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C. 4025: 4020: 4016: 4015: 4011: 3995: 3989: 3986: 3981: 3975: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3953: 3949: 3948: 3940: 3937: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3918: 3914: 3913: 3905: 3903: 3899: 3887: 3883: 3877: 3874: 3869: 3865: 3858: 3855: 3844:on 2017-07-18 3843: 3839: 3833: 3830: 3819:on 2014-05-17 3818: 3814: 3808: 3805: 3793: 3789: 3783: 3780: 3769: 3768:www.cmich.edu 3765: 3759: 3756: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3720: 3718: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3686:(2): 231–42. 3685: 3681: 3674: 3671: 3660: 3653: 3647: 3644: 3639: 3638: 3630: 3627: 3622: 3620:0-7167-8655-9 3616: 3612: 3605: 3602: 3598: 3592: 3589: 3583: 3580: 3574: 3571: 3565: 3562: 3559: 3552: 3549: 3542: 3539: 3533: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3517: 3513: 3507: 3504: 3500: 3494: 3491: 3485: 3482: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3464: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3447: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3424: 3418: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3402: 3399: 3395: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3376: 3373: 3369: 3363: 3360: 3356: 3350: 3348: 3344: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3315: 3307: 3304: 3299: 3297:9781466579828 3293: 3289: 3282: 3279: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3256: 3253: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3233:(1): 167–73. 3232: 3228: 3224: 3218: 3215: 3211: 3205: 3202: 3196: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3170:(6): 549–59. 3169: 3165: 3164: 3156: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3141:(1): 90–111. 3140: 3136: 3132: 3125: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3067: 3061: 3056: 3053:(3): 467–94. 3052: 3048: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3028: 3025: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3007: 3002: 2996: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2973:(3): 247–55. 2972: 2968: 2967: 2959: 2956: 2950: 2947: 2940: 2937: 2934: 2927: 2925: 2921: 2914: 2911: 2904: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2881:on 2011-12-03 2880: 2876: 2870: 2867: 2862: 2856: 2852: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2825: 2822: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2798: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2776: 2772: 2769: 2764: 2758: 2754: 2753: 2745: 2742: 2737: 2731: 2727: 2720: 2717: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2681: 2676: 2673: 2668: 2661: 2659: 2655: 2649: 2645: 2640: 2637: 2633: 2631:9780670032440 2627: 2623: 2618: 2617: 2610: 2607: 2603: 2598: 2597: 2596: 2590: 2587: 2583: 2577: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2546: 2543: 2532: 2528: 2522: 2519: 2507: 2503: 2497: 2494: 2489: 2482: 2479: 2466: 2462: 2456: 2453: 2448: 2441: 2438: 2422: 2415: 2413: 2411: 2409: 2405: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2381: 2378: 2365: 2361: 2355: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2339: 2336: 2332: 2331: 2324: 2321: 2317: 2316: 2309: 2306: 2295: 2291: 2285: 2282: 2268: 2262: 2259: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2225: 2222: 2216: 2213: 2209: 2203: 2200: 2196: 2190: 2187: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2148:(electronic) 2147: 2143: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2126:(electronic) 2125: 2121: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2080: 2079: 2075: 2070: 2067: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2047: 2045: 2042: 2039: 2036: 2035: 2030: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000:Public policy 1999: 1997: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1987: 1984: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1967: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1955: 1952: 1951: 1950: 1947: 1945: 1944:Civil society 1942: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1921: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1904: 1900: 1897: 1894: 1890: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1808: 1804: 1802: 1798: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1756: 1751: 1747: 1744: 1743: 1742: 1737:Organizations 1736: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1691: 1682: 1680: 1678: 1672: 1664: 1662: 1657: 1649: 1647: 1644: 1638: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1589: 1579: 1569: 1563: 1558: 1554: 1549: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1502: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1479: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1436: 1431: 1430:vulnerability 1427: 1424: 1421: 1418: 1417: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1400: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1384: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1353: 1352: 1351: 1346:Core branches 1345: 1340: 1338: 1336: 1332: 1327: 1323: 1322:Julia Lathrop 1315: 1313: 1311: 1305: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1288: 1277: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1251: 1247: 1245: 1240: 1238: 1233: 1231: 1225: 1221: 1219: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1187:1980s - 1990s 1186: 1184: 1181: 1177: 1171: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1137: 1133: 1128: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1110:1950s - 1970s 1109: 1107: 1105: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1084: 1082: 1078: 1077:Luther Gulick 1069: 1068:Luther Gulick 1065: 1058: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1022:Luther Gulick 1018: 1016: 1012: 1005: 1001: 994: 992: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 940: 938: 936: 932: 928: 924: 919: 916: 912: 908: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 885: 881: 877: 873: 870:The field of 865: 863: 861: 857: 856:spoils system 848: 846: 843: 838: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 816:, written by 815: 811: 807: 803: 797: 789: 784: 782: 779: 774: 771: 765: 763: 759: 755: 750: 745: 742: 731: 724: 722: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 701:'s theory of 700: 697: 692: 689: 683: 681: 680:public policy 677: 673: 669: 663:at a meeting. 662: 657: 646: 641: 639: 634: 632: 627: 626: 624: 623: 620: 615: 610: 609: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 579: 575: 571: 570: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 552: 549: 548: 547: 544: 542: 539: 538: 530: 529: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 498: 494: 491: 489: 486: 485: 477: 476: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 450: 447: 444: 443: 435: 434: 427: 424: 422: 421:Civil society 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 405: 400: 399:Public policy 397: 396: 392: 386: 385: 375: 371: 367: 366: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 350: 345: 342: 341: 337: 331: 330: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 285: 280: 276: 271: 266: 262: 261: 253: 252: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 219:Parliamentary 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 204:Hybrid regime 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 156: 152: 146: 145: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 103: 100: 99: 91: 90: 84: 81: 79: 76: 74: 71: 70: 68: 67: 64: 60: 57: 53: 52: 48: 44: 40: 39:Public policy 33: 19: 5642: 5628: 5444: 5431:Merit system 5347: 5335: 5288:Public float 5223:Job creation 5175:Public space 5102:Public works 4979:Public value 4974:Public trust 4918: 4817: 4793: 4781: 4751: 4558:Food studies 4498:Area studies 4485: 4395: 4251:mathematical 4246:econometrics 4204:Anthropology 4115: 4108: 4101: 4087: 4080: 4066: 4052: 4032: 3998:. 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