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Pumping lemma for context-free languages

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85: 1098: 734: 1093:{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}(\forall L\subseteq \Sigma ^{*})\\\quad ({\mbox{context free}}(L)\Rightarrow \\\quad ((\exists p\geq 1)((\forall s\in L)((|s|\geq p)\Rightarrow \\\quad ((\exists u,v,w,x,y\in \Sigma ^{*})(s=uvwxy\land |vx|\geq 1\land |vwx|\leq p\land (\forall n\geq 0)(uv^{n}wx^{n}y\in L)))))))\end{array}}} 2722:
While the pumping lemma is often a useful tool to prove that a given language is not context-free, it does not give a complete characterization of the context-free languages. If a language does not satisfy the condition given by the pumping lemma, we have established that it is not context-free. On
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The pumping lemma for context-free languages (called just "the pumping lemma" for the rest of this article) describes a property that all context-free languages are guaranteed to have.
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the other hand, there are languages that are not context-free, but still satisfy the condition given by the pumping lemma, for example
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Any language in each category is generated by a grammar and by an automaton in the category in the same line.
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Section 1.4: Nonregular Languages, pp. 77–83. Section 2.3: Non-context-free Languages, pp. 115–119.
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produces a string that is still in the language. It is often useful to repeat zero times, which removes
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Kreowski, Hans-Jörg (1979). "A pumping lemma for context-free graph languages". In Claus, Volker;
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can contain no more than two distinct symbols. That is, we have one of five possibilities for
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context-free. Conversely, the pumping lemma does not suffice to guarantee that a language
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The property is a property of all strings in the language that are of length at least
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plus one. As there are no strings of this length the pumping lemma is not violated.
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Berstel, Jean; Lauve, Aaron; Reutenauer, Christophe; Saliola, Franco V. (2009).
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Language and Information: Selected Essays on their Theory and Application
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Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft, und Kommunikationsforschung
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Graph-Grammars and Their Application to Computer Science and Biology
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can be shown to be non-context-free by using the pumping lemma in a
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Combinatorics on words. Christoffel words and repetitions in words
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is context free. By the pumping lemma, there exists an integer
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The pumping lemma is often used to prove that a given language
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is non-context-free, by showing that arbitrarily long strings
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Each category of languages, except those marked by a , is a
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is not context-free using a precursor of the pumping lemma.
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context-free; there are other necessary conditions, such as
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Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation
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that cannot be "pumped" without producing strings outside
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does not contain equal numbers of each letter for any
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In particular, neither the 325:is context-free, then there exists some integer 1608:is infinite but does not contain an (infinite) 1447:from the string. This process of "pumping up" 3217: 1154:—that varies between context-free languages. 56:The pumping lemma can be used to construct a 8: 3100:John E. Hopcroft, Jeffrey D. Ullman (1979). 2883: 2806: 2800: 2739: 2712:{\displaystyle L=\{a^{n}b^{n}a^{n}|n>0\}} 2706: 2659: 1740:{\displaystyle L=\{a^{n}b^{n}c^{n}|n>0\}} 1734: 1687: 1650: 1625: 3539:Counter-free (with aperiodic finite monoid) 3249: 3224: 3210: 3202: 2470:For each case, it is easily verified that 1507:is what gives the pumping lemma its name. 3183:Introduction to the Theory of Computation 3083: 2867: 2866: 2849: 2843: 2833: 2823: 2813: 2796: 2795: 2772: 2766: 2756: 2746: 2731: 2692: 2686: 2676: 2666: 2651: 2639:. Therefore, our initial assumption that 2619: 2609: 2599: 2593: 2569: 2556: 2547: 2521: 2497: 2484: 2475: 2445: 2424: 2406: 2372: 2343: 2333: 2315: 2287: 2266: 2248: 2215: 2186: 2176: 2158: 2130: 2109: 2091: 2054: 2040: 2038: 2008: 1978: 1965: 1956: 1930: 1916: 1914: 1888: 1877: 1875: 1829: 1800: 1790: 1780: 1768: 1720: 1714: 1704: 1694: 1679: 1632: 1617: 1594: 1593: 1585: 1538: 1518: 1492: 1472: 1452: 1432: 1412: 1392: 1372: 1352: 1332: 1312: 1286: 1263: 1225: 1205: 1182: 1162: 1135: 1115: 1050: 1037: 995: 981: 967: 956: 920: 855: 847: 775: 758: 738: 736: 704: 674: 661: 652: 623: 609: 607: 578: 567: 565: 541: 503: 459: 430: 422: 420: 400: 376: 356: 330: 310: 286: 260: 236: 223: 214: 188: 168: 148: 124: 93: 3090:Here: Lemma 3, and its use on p.374-375. 1759:which is the pumping length of language 83: 2973: 2075:, it is easily seen that the substring 3431:Linear context-free rewriting language 1533:equal to the maximum string length in 3356:Linear context-free rewriting systems 2635:. This contradicts the definition of 1601:{\displaystyle S\subset \mathbb {N} } 7: 45:that gives a property shared by all 1220:can be split into five substrings, 51:pumping lemma for regular languages 3564:of the category directly above it. 1996:{\displaystyle uv^{i}wx^{i}y\in L} 1820:. The pumping lemma tells us that 1656:{\displaystyle L=\{a^{n}:n\in S\}} 1103:Informal statement and explanation 1012: 917: 883: 826: 805: 755: 745: 692:{\displaystyle uv^{n}wx^{n}y\in L} 255:(lower left and right picture for 14: 1809:{\displaystyle s=a^{p}b^{p}c^{p}} 2646:In 1960, Scheinberg proved that 2643:is context free must be false. 2628:{\displaystyle a^{i}b^{i}c^{i}} 1281:is non-empty and the length of 1177:is a string of length at least 876: 798: 771: 2985:; Rozenberg, Grzegorz (eds.). 2850: 2773: 2693: 2352:{\displaystyle vwx=b^{j}c^{k}} 2195:{\displaystyle vwx=a^{j}b^{k}} 2055: 2041: 1931: 1917: 1889: 1878: 1721: 1200:The pumping lemma states that 1083: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1027: 1024: 1009: 996: 982: 968: 957: 929: 926: 880: 877: 869: 866: 856: 848: 844: 841: 838: 823: 820: 817: 802: 799: 791: 788: 782: 772: 764: 742: 624: 610: 579: 568: 431: 423: 1: 3085:10.1016/s0019-9958(60)90965-7 3031:American Mathematical Society 2581:{\displaystyle uv^{2}wx^{2}y} 2509:{\displaystyle uv^{i}wx^{i}y} 248:{\displaystyle uv^{n}wx^{n}y} 60:that a specific language is 3063:Stephen Scheinberg (1960). 2068:{\displaystyle |vwx|\leq p} 1944:{\displaystyle |vwx|\leq p} 1824:can be written in the form 637:{\displaystyle |vwx|\leq p} 415:or more symbols (i.e. with 143:(upper picture). Repeating 58:refutation by contradiction 3607: 3446:Deterministic context-free 3371:Deterministic context-free 1902:{\displaystyle |vx|\geq 1} 1870:are substrings, such that 1674:For example, the language 1467:with additional copies of 1367:the same number of times ( 592:{\displaystyle |vx|\geq 1} 163:times the derivation part 116:grammar must contain some 108:is sufficiently long, its 32:for context-free languages 3557: 3519:Nondeterministic pushdown 3247: 2433:{\displaystyle vwx=c^{j}} 2392:{\displaystyle j+k\leq p} 2275:{\displaystyle vwx=b^{j}} 2235:{\displaystyle j+k\leq p} 2118:{\displaystyle vwx=a^{j}} 1197:that is in the language. 1150:is a constant—called the 444:{\displaystyle |s|\geq p} 209:obtains a derivation for 3072:Information and Control 2588:does not have the form 2535:{\displaystyle i\neq 1} 2459:{\displaystyle j\leq p} 2301:{\displaystyle j\leq p} 2144:{\displaystyle j\leq p} 2022:{\displaystyle i\geq 0} 1855:{\displaystyle s=uvwxy} 1251:{\displaystyle s=uvwxy} 718:{\displaystyle n\geq 0} 529:{\displaystyle u,v,w,x} 485:{\displaystyle s=uvwxy} 344:{\displaystyle p\geq 1} 3524:Deterministic pushdown 3400:Recursively enumerable 3150:Y. Bar-Hillel (1964). 3148:— Reprinted in: 2890: 2713: 2629: 2582: 2536: 2510: 2460: 2434: 2393: 2353: 2302: 2276: 2236: 2196: 2145: 2119: 2069: 2023: 1997: 1945: 1903: 1856: 1810: 1763:. Consider the string 1749:proof by contradiction 1741: 1657: 1610:arithmetic progression 1602: 1547: 1527: 1501: 1481: 1461: 1441: 1421: 1401: 1381: 1361: 1341: 1327:, such that repeating 1321: 1301: 1275: 1252: 1214: 1191: 1171: 1144: 1124: 1094: 719: 693: 638: 593: 550: 530: 486: 445: 409: 385: 365: 345: 319: 302: 295: 275: 249: 203: 177: 157: 133: 102: 47:context-free languages 25:formal language theory 3118:Here: sect.6.1, p.129 2891: 2714: 2630: 2583: 2537: 2511: 2461: 2435: 2394: 2354: 2303: 2277: 2237: 2197: 2146: 2120: 2070: 2024: 1998: 1946: 1904: 1857: 1811: 1751:. First, assume that 1742: 1658: 1603: 1548: 1528: 1502: 1482: 1462: 1442: 1422: 1402: 1382: 1362: 1342: 1322: 1302: 1276: 1253: 1215: 1192: 1172: 1145: 1125: 1095: 720: 694: 639: 594: 551: 531: 487: 446: 410: 386: 366: 346: 320: 296: 276: 250: 204: 178: 158: 134: 103: 87: 16:Type of pumping lemma 3509:Tree stack automaton 2730: 2650: 2592: 2546: 2520: 2474: 2444: 2405: 2371: 2314: 2286: 2247: 2214: 2157: 2129: 2090: 2037: 2007: 1955: 1913: 1874: 1828: 1767: 1678: 1616: 1584: 1537: 1517: 1491: 1471: 1451: 1431: 1411: 1391: 1371: 1351: 1331: 1311: 1285: 1262: 1224: 1204: 1181: 1161: 1134: 1114: 735: 703: 651: 606: 564: 540: 502: 458: 451:) can be written as 419: 399: 375: 355: 329: 309: 285: 259: 213: 187: 167: 147: 123: 92: 49:and generalizes the 34:, also known as the 3417:range concatenation 3342:range concatenation 2953:to consist only of 2923:to consist only of 2029:. By the choice of 1300:{\displaystyle vwx} 274:{\displaystyle n=0} 202:{\displaystyle vNx} 114:Chomsky normal form 23:, in particular in 3186:. PWS Publishing. 3106:. Addison-Wesley. 2997:10.1007/BFb0025726 2886: 2709: 2625: 2578: 2532: 2506: 2456: 2430: 2389: 2349: 2298: 2272: 2232: 2192: 2141: 2115: 2065: 2033:and the fact that 2019: 2003:for every integer 1993: 1941: 1899: 1852: 1806: 1737: 1671:are context-free. 1653: 1598: 1557:Usage of the lemma 1543: 1523: 1497: 1477: 1457: 1437: 1417: 1397: 1377: 1357: 1337: 1317: 1297: 1274:{\displaystyle vx} 1271: 1248: 1210: 1187: 1167: 1140: 1120: 1090: 1088: 780: 715: 689: 634: 589: 546: 526: 482: 441: 405: 381: 361: 341: 315: 303: 291: 271: 245: 199: 173: 153: 129: 98: 3573: 3572: 3552: 3551: 3514:Embedded pushdown 3410:Context-sensitive 3335:Context-sensitive 3269:Abstract machines 3254:Chomsky hierarchy 3040:978-0-8218-4480-9 3006:978-3-540-35091-0 1546:{\displaystyle L} 1526:{\displaystyle p} 1500:{\displaystyle x} 1480:{\displaystyle v} 1460:{\displaystyle s} 1440:{\displaystyle x} 1420:{\displaystyle v} 1400:{\displaystyle s} 1380:{\displaystyle n} 1360:{\displaystyle x} 1340:{\displaystyle v} 1320:{\displaystyle p} 1213:{\displaystyle s} 1190:{\displaystyle p} 1170:{\displaystyle s} 1143:{\displaystyle p} 1123:{\displaystyle p} 779: 549:{\displaystyle y} 408:{\displaystyle p} 384:{\displaystyle L} 364:{\displaystyle s} 318:{\displaystyle L} 294:{\displaystyle 2} 176:{\displaystyle N} 156:{\displaystyle n} 132:{\displaystyle N} 101:{\displaystyle s} 74:Interchange lemma 3598: 3586:Formal languages 3568: 3565: 3529:Visibly pushdown 3503:Thread automaton 3451:Visibly pushdown 3419: 3376:Visibly pushdown 3344: 3331:(no common name) 3250: 3237:formal languages 3226: 3219: 3212: 3203: 3197: 3173: 3147: 3119: 3117: 3097: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3069: 3060: 3054: 3052: 3028: 3017: 3011: 3010: 2978: 2959: 2952: 2948: 2929: 2922: 2914: 2895: 2893: 2892: 2887: 2870: 2853: 2848: 2847: 2838: 2837: 2828: 2827: 2818: 2817: 2799: 2776: 2771: 2770: 2761: 2760: 2751: 2750: 2718: 2716: 2715: 2710: 2696: 2691: 2690: 2681: 2680: 2671: 2670: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2632: 2631: 2626: 2624: 2623: 2614: 2613: 2604: 2603: 2587: 2585: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2573: 2561: 2560: 2541: 2539: 2538: 2533: 2515: 2513: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2501: 2489: 2488: 2465: 2463: 2462: 2457: 2439: 2437: 2436: 2431: 2429: 2428: 2398: 2396: 2395: 2390: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2356: 2355: 2350: 2348: 2347: 2338: 2337: 2307: 2305: 2304: 2299: 2281: 2279: 2278: 2273: 2271: 2270: 2241: 2239: 2238: 2233: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2199: 2198: 2193: 2191: 2190: 2181: 2180: 2150: 2148: 2147: 2142: 2124: 2122: 2121: 2116: 2114: 2113: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2072: 2071: 2066: 2058: 2044: 2032: 2028: 2026: 2025: 2020: 2002: 2000: 1999: 1994: 1983: 1982: 1970: 1969: 1950: 1948: 1947: 1942: 1934: 1920: 1908: 1906: 1905: 1900: 1892: 1881: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1859: 1858: 1853: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1813: 1812: 1807: 1805: 1804: 1795: 1794: 1785: 1784: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1746: 1744: 1743: 1738: 1724: 1719: 1718: 1709: 1708: 1699: 1698: 1662: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1637: 1636: 1607: 1605: 1604: 1599: 1597: 1580:For example, if 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1552: 1550: 1549: 1544: 1532: 1530: 1529: 1524: 1511:Finite languages 1506: 1504: 1503: 1498: 1486: 1484: 1483: 1478: 1466: 1464: 1463: 1458: 1446: 1444: 1443: 1438: 1426: 1424: 1423: 1418: 1406: 1404: 1403: 1398: 1386: 1384: 1383: 1378: 1366: 1364: 1363: 1358: 1346: 1344: 1343: 1338: 1326: 1324: 1323: 1318: 1306: 1304: 1303: 1298: 1280: 1278: 1277: 1272: 1257: 1255: 1254: 1249: 1219: 1217: 1216: 1211: 1196: 1194: 1193: 1188: 1176: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1149: 1147: 1146: 1141: 1129: 1127: 1126: 1121: 1099: 1097: 1096: 1091: 1089: 1055: 1054: 1042: 1041: 999: 985: 971: 960: 925: 924: 859: 851: 781: 777: 763: 762: 724: 722: 721: 716: 698: 696: 695: 690: 679: 678: 666: 665: 643: 641: 640: 635: 627: 613: 598: 596: 595: 590: 582: 571: 555: 553: 552: 547: 535: 533: 532: 527: 491: 489: 488: 483: 450: 448: 447: 442: 434: 426: 414: 412: 411: 406: 390: 388: 387: 382: 370: 368: 367: 362: 350: 348: 347: 342: 324: 322: 321: 316: 301:, respectively). 300: 298: 297: 292: 280: 278: 277: 272: 254: 252: 251: 246: 241: 240: 228: 227: 208: 206: 205: 200: 182: 180: 179: 174: 162: 160: 159: 154: 138: 136: 135: 130: 107: 105: 104: 99: 80:Formal statement 21:computer science 3606: 3605: 3601: 3600: 3599: 3597: 3596: 3595: 3576: 3575: 3574: 3569: 3566: 3559: 3553: 3548: 3470: 3414: 3393: 3339: 3320: 3243: 3241:formal grammars 3233:Automata theory 3230: 3194: 3176: 3162: 3149: 3126: 3123: 3122: 3114: 3099: 3098: 3094: 3067: 3062: 3061: 3057: 3041: 3026: 3019: 3018: 3014: 3007: 2980: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2957: 2950: 2931: 2927: 2920: 2900: 2839: 2829: 2819: 2809: 2762: 2752: 2742: 2728: 2727: 2682: 2672: 2662: 2648: 2647: 2640: 2636: 2615: 2605: 2595: 2590: 2589: 2565: 2552: 2544: 2543: 2518: 2517: 2493: 2480: 2472: 2471: 2442: 2441: 2420: 2403: 2402: 2369: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2339: 2329: 2312: 2311: 2284: 2283: 2262: 2245: 2244: 2212: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2182: 2172: 2155: 2154: 2127: 2126: 2105: 2088: 2087: 2080: 2076: 2035: 2034: 2030: 2005: 2004: 1974: 1961: 1953: 1952: 1911: 1910: 1872: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1826: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1796: 1786: 1776: 1765: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1710: 1700: 1690: 1676: 1675: 1628: 1614: 1613: 1582: 1581: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1559: 1535: 1534: 1515: 1514: 1489: 1488: 1469: 1468: 1449: 1448: 1429: 1428: 1409: 1408: 1389: 1388: 1369: 1368: 1349: 1348: 1329: 1328: 1309: 1308: 1283: 1282: 1260: 1259: 1222: 1221: 1202: 1201: 1179: 1178: 1159: 1158: 1132: 1131: 1112: 1111: 1105: 1087: 1086: 1046: 1033: 916: 873: 872: 795: 794: 768: 767: 754: 733: 732: 701: 700: 670: 657: 649: 648: 604: 603: 562: 561: 538: 537: 500: 499: 456: 455: 417: 416: 397: 396: 373: 372: 353: 352: 327: 326: 307: 306: 283: 282: 257: 256: 232: 219: 211: 210: 185: 184: 165: 164: 145: 144: 121: 120: 110:derivation tree 90: 89: 88:Proof idea: If 82: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3604: 3602: 3594: 3593: 3588: 3578: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3546: 3544:Acyclic finite 3541: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3494:Turing Machine 3489: 3487:Linear-bounded 3484: 3479: 3477:Turing machine 3473: 3471: 3469: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3443: 3438: 3436:Tree-adjoining 3433: 3428: 3425: 3420: 3412: 3407: 3402: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3391: 3386: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3361:Tree-adjoining 3358: 3353: 3350: 3345: 3337: 3332: 3329: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3318: 3315: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3300: 3297: 3294: 3291: 3288: 3285: 3282: 3279: 3275: 3272: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3256: 3248: 3245: 3244: 3231: 3229: 3228: 3221: 3214: 3206: 3200: 3199: 3192: 3178:Michael Sipser 3174: 3160: 3128:Bar-Hillel, Y. 3121: 3120: 3112: 3092: 3078:(4): 372–375. 3055: 3039: 3033:. p. 90. 3012: 3005: 2983:Ehrig, Hartmut 2972: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2897: 2896: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2852: 2846: 2842: 2836: 2832: 2826: 2822: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2805: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2775: 2769: 2765: 2759: 2755: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2708: 2705: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2689: 2685: 2679: 2675: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2622: 2618: 2612: 2608: 2602: 2598: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2531: 2528: 2525: 2505: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2468: 2467: 2455: 2452: 2449: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2416: 2413: 2410: 2400: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2346: 2342: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2325: 2322: 2319: 2309: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2252: 2242: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2189: 2185: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2152: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2095: 2064: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2050: 2047: 2043: 2018: 2015: 2012: 1992: 1989: 1986: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1940: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1919: 1898: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1884: 1880: 1851: 1848: 1845: 1842: 1839: 1836: 1833: 1803: 1799: 1793: 1789: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1772: 1736: 1733: 1730: 1727: 1723: 1717: 1713: 1707: 1703: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1669:square numbers 1652: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1640: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1596: 1592: 1589: 1558: 1555: 1542: 1522: 1496: 1476: 1456: 1436: 1416: 1396: 1376: 1356: 1336: 1316: 1296: 1293: 1290: 1270: 1267: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1229: 1209: 1186: 1166: 1152:pumping length 1139: 1119: 1104: 1101: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1076: 1073: 1070: 1067: 1064: 1061: 1058: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1002: 998: 994: 991: 988: 984: 980: 977: 974: 970: 966: 963: 959: 955: 952: 949: 946: 943: 940: 937: 934: 931: 928: 923: 919: 915: 912: 909: 906: 903: 900: 897: 894: 891: 888: 885: 882: 879: 875: 874: 871: 868: 865: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 843: 840: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 822: 819: 816: 813: 810: 807: 804: 801: 797: 796: 793: 790: 787: 784: 774: 770: 769: 766: 761: 757: 753: 750: 747: 744: 741: 740: 727: 726: 714: 711: 708: 688: 685: 682: 677: 673: 669: 664: 660: 656: 645: 633: 630: 626: 622: 619: 616: 612: 600: 588: 585: 581: 577: 574: 570: 545: 525: 522: 519: 516: 513: 510: 507: 493: 492: 481: 478: 475: 472: 469: 466: 463: 440: 437: 433: 429: 425: 404: 380: 360: 340: 337: 334: 314: 305:If a language 290: 270: 267: 264: 244: 239: 235: 231: 226: 222: 218: 198: 195: 192: 172: 152: 139:twice on some 128: 97: 81: 78: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3603: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3583: 3581: 3563: 3562:proper subset 3556: 3545: 3542: 3540: 3537: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3496: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3474: 3472: 3467: 3464: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3454: 3452: 3449: 3447: 3444: 3442: 3439: 3437: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3418: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3398: 3397: 3395: 3390: 3389:Non-recursive 3387: 3384: 3382: 3379: 3377: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3354: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3338: 3336: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3324: 3322: 3316: 3313: 3310: 3307: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3286: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3276: 3274: 3273: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3227: 3222: 3220: 3215: 3213: 3208: 3207: 3204: 3195: 3193:0-534-94728-X 3189: 3185: 3184: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3157: 3153: 3146:(2): 143–172. 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3124: 3115: 3113:0-201-02988-X 3109: 3105: 3104: 3096: 3093: 3086: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3066: 3059: 3056: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3036: 3032: 3025: 3024: 3016: 3013: 3008: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2989: 2984: 2977: 2974: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2956: 2947: 2944: 2941: 2938: 2934: 2926: 2918: 2913: 2910: 2907: 2903: 2880: 2877: 2874: 2871: 2863: 2860: 2857: 2854: 2844: 2840: 2834: 2830: 2824: 2820: 2814: 2810: 2803: 2792: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2767: 2763: 2757: 2753: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2733: 2726: 2725: 2724: 2720: 2703: 2700: 2697: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2673: 2667: 2663: 2656: 2653: 2644: 2620: 2616: 2610: 2606: 2600: 2596: 2575: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2529: 2526: 2523: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2401: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2377: 2374: 2344: 2340: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2323: 2320: 2317: 2310: 2295: 2292: 2289: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2256: 2253: 2250: 2243: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2220: 2217: 2187: 2183: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2153: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2086: 2085: 2084: 2062: 2059: 2051: 2048: 2045: 2016: 2013: 2010: 1990: 1987: 1984: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1938: 1935: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1896: 1893: 1885: 1882: 1849: 1846: 1843: 1840: 1837: 1834: 1831: 1801: 1797: 1791: 1787: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1770: 1750: 1731: 1728: 1725: 1715: 1711: 1705: 1701: 1695: 1691: 1684: 1681: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1665:prime numbers 1647: 1644: 1641: 1638: 1633: 1629: 1622: 1619: 1611: 1590: 1587: 1578: 1556: 1554: 1540: 1520: 1512: 1508: 1494: 1474: 1454: 1434: 1414: 1394: 1374: 1354: 1334: 1314: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1268: 1265: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1207: 1198: 1184: 1164: 1155: 1153: 1137: 1117: 1108: 1102: 1100: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1006: 1003: 1000: 992: 989: 986: 978: 975: 972: 964: 961: 953: 950: 947: 944: 941: 938: 935: 932: 921: 913: 910: 907: 904: 901: 898: 895: 892: 889: 886: 863: 860: 852: 835: 832: 829: 814: 811: 808: 785: 759: 751: 748: 730: 712: 709: 706: 686: 683: 680: 675: 671: 667: 662: 658: 654: 646: 631: 628: 620: 617: 614: 601: 586: 583: 575: 572: 559: 558: 557: 543: 523: 520: 517: 514: 511: 508: 505: 498: 479: 476: 473: 470: 467: 464: 461: 454: 453: 452: 438: 435: 427: 402: 394: 378: 358: 338: 335: 332: 312: 288: 268: 265: 262: 242: 237: 233: 229: 224: 220: 216: 196: 193: 190: 170: 150: 142: 126: 119: 115: 111: 95: 86: 79: 77: 75: 71: 70:Ogden's lemma 67: 63: 59: 54: 52: 48: 44: 40: 38: 33: 31: 30:pumping lemma 26: 22: 3498:Nested stack 3441:Context-free 3366:Context-free 3327:Unrestricted 3182: 3151: 3143: 3139: 3132:Micha Perles 3102: 3095: 3075: 3071: 3058: 3022: 3015: 2987: 2976: 2961: 2954: 2945: 2942: 2939: 2936: 2932: 2924: 2916: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2901: 2898: 2721: 2645: 2469: 1673: 1579: 1560: 1509: 1199: 1156: 1151: 1109: 1106: 778:context free 731: 728: 556:, such that 494: 304: 65: 61: 55: 35: 28: 18: 3507:restricted 1307:is at most 391:that has a 118:nonterminal 3580:Categories 3161:0201003732 3136:Eli Shamir 3049:1161.68043 2968:References 2919:≥1 choose 2915:with e.g. 1864:u, v, w, x 497:substrings 37:Bar-Hillel 3461:Star-free 3415:Positive 3405:Decidable 3340:Positive 3264:Languages 3170:783543642 2878:≥ 2864:∈ 2804:∪ 2793:∈ 2527:≠ 2451:≤ 2440:for some 2384:≤ 2359:for some 2293:≤ 2282:for some 2227:≤ 2202:for some 2136:≤ 2125:for some 2060:≤ 2014:≥ 1988:∈ 1936:≤ 1894:≥ 1645:∈ 1591:⊂ 1060:∈ 1019:≥ 1013:∀ 1007:∧ 1001:≤ 979:∧ 973:≥ 954:∧ 922:∗ 918:Σ 914:∈ 884:∃ 870:⇒ 861:≥ 833:∈ 827:∀ 812:≥ 806:∃ 792:⇒ 760:∗ 756:Σ 752:⊆ 746:∀ 710:≥ 684:∈ 629:≤ 584:≥ 436:≥ 336:≥ 141:tree path 112:w.r.t. a 72:, or the 3259:Grammars 3180:(1997). 2542:. Thus, 1862:, where 1667:nor the 1258:, where 1130:, where 699:for all 3482:Decider 3456:Regular 3423:Indexed 3381:Regular 3348:Indexed 2949:choose 2930:s, for 1612:, then 1569:are in 41:, is a 3591:Lemmas 3534:Finite 3466:Finite 3311:Type-3 3302:Type-2 3284:Type-1 3278:Type-0 3190:  3168:  3158:  3110:  3047:  3037:  3003:  1951:, and 1866:, and 393:length 183:⇒...⇒ 27:, the 3492:PTIME 3068:(PDF) 3027:(PDF) 2958:' 2928:' 2367:with 2210:with 1387:) in 644:, and 495:with 43:lemma 39:lemma 3239:and 3188:ISBN 3166:OCLC 3156:ISBN 3108:ISBN 3035:ISBN 3001:ISBN 2899:for 2701:> 2363:and 2206:and 1729:> 1487:and 1427:and 1347:and 1157:Say 536:and 281:and 3080:doi 3045:Zbl 2993:doi 2951:vwx 2921:vwx 2081:vwx 2077:vwx 1816:in 647:3. 602:2. 560:1. 395:of 371:in 62:not 19:In 3582:: 3235:: 3164:. 3144:14 3142:. 3134:; 3130:; 3074:. 3070:. 3043:. 2999:. 2964:. 2083:: 1909:, 1577:. 76:. 66:is 53:. 3427:— 3385:— 3352:— 3317:— 3314:— 3308:— 3305:— 3299:— 3296:— 3293:— 3290:— 3287:— 3281:— 3225:e 3218:t 3211:v 3196:. 3172:. 3116:. 3088:. 3082:: 3076:3 3051:. 3009:. 2995:: 2962:L 2955:a 2946:d 2943:c 2940:b 2937:a 2935:= 2933:s 2925:b 2917:j 2912:d 2909:c 2906:b 2904:= 2902:s 2884:} 2881:1 2875:i 2872:, 2868:N 2861:j 2858:, 2855:i 2851:| 2845:j 2841:d 2835:j 2831:c 2825:j 2821:b 2815:i 2811:a 2807:{ 2801:} 2797:N 2790:l 2787:, 2784:k 2781:, 2778:j 2774:| 2768:l 2764:d 2758:k 2754:c 2748:j 2744:b 2740:{ 2737:= 2734:L 2707:} 2704:0 2698:n 2694:| 2688:n 2684:a 2678:n 2674:b 2668:n 2664:a 2660:{ 2657:= 2654:L 2641:L 2637:L 2621:i 2617:c 2611:i 2607:b 2601:i 2597:a 2576:y 2571:2 2567:x 2563:w 2558:2 2554:v 2550:u 2530:1 2524:i 2504:y 2499:i 2495:x 2491:w 2486:i 2482:v 2478:u 2466:. 2454:p 2448:j 2426:j 2422:c 2418:= 2415:x 2412:w 2409:v 2399:. 2387:p 2381:k 2378:+ 2375:j 2365:k 2361:j 2345:k 2341:c 2335:j 2331:b 2327:= 2324:x 2321:w 2318:v 2308:. 2296:p 2290:j 2268:j 2264:b 2260:= 2257:x 2254:w 2251:v 2230:p 2224:k 2221:+ 2218:j 2208:k 2204:j 2188:k 2184:b 2178:j 2174:a 2170:= 2167:x 2164:w 2161:v 2151:. 2139:p 2133:j 2111:j 2107:a 2103:= 2100:x 2097:w 2094:v 2063:p 2056:| 2052:x 2049:w 2046:v 2042:| 2031:s 2017:0 2011:i 1991:L 1985:y 1980:i 1976:x 1972:w 1967:i 1963:v 1959:u 1939:p 1932:| 1928:x 1925:w 1922:v 1918:| 1897:1 1890:| 1886:x 1883:v 1879:| 1868:y 1850:y 1847:x 1844:w 1841:v 1838:u 1835:= 1832:s 1822:s 1818:L 1802:p 1798:c 1792:p 1788:b 1782:p 1778:a 1774:= 1771:s 1761:L 1757:p 1753:L 1735:} 1732:0 1726:n 1722:| 1716:n 1712:c 1706:n 1702:b 1696:n 1692:a 1688:{ 1685:= 1682:L 1651:} 1648:S 1642:n 1639:: 1634:n 1630:a 1626:{ 1623:= 1620:L 1595:N 1588:S 1575:L 1571:L 1567:s 1563:L 1541:L 1521:p 1495:x 1475:v 1455:s 1435:x 1415:v 1395:s 1375:n 1355:x 1335:v 1315:p 1295:x 1292:w 1289:v 1269:x 1266:v 1246:y 1243:x 1240:w 1237:v 1234:u 1231:= 1228:s 1208:s 1185:p 1165:s 1138:p 1118:p 1084:) 1081:) 1078:) 1075:) 1072:) 1069:) 1066:) 1063:L 1057:y 1052:n 1048:x 1044:w 1039:n 1035:v 1031:u 1028:( 1025:) 1022:0 1016:n 1010:( 1004:p 997:| 993:x 990:w 987:v 983:| 976:1 969:| 965:x 962:v 958:| 951:y 948:x 945:w 942:v 939:u 936:= 933:s 930:( 927:) 911:y 908:, 905:x 902:, 899:w 896:, 893:v 890:, 887:u 881:( 878:( 867:) 864:p 857:| 853:s 849:| 845:( 842:( 839:) 836:L 830:s 824:( 821:( 818:) 815:1 809:p 803:( 800:( 789:) 786:L 783:( 773:( 765:) 749:L 743:( 725:. 713:0 707:n 687:L 681:y 676:n 672:x 668:w 663:n 659:v 655:u 632:p 625:| 621:x 618:w 615:v 611:| 599:, 587:1 580:| 576:x 573:v 569:| 544:y 524:x 521:, 518:w 515:, 512:v 509:, 506:u 480:y 477:x 474:w 471:v 468:u 465:= 462:s 439:p 432:| 428:s 424:| 403:p 379:L 359:s 339:1 333:p 313:L 289:2 269:0 266:= 263:n 243:y 238:n 234:x 230:w 225:n 221:v 217:u 197:x 194:N 191:v 171:N 151:n 127:N 96:s

Index

computer science
formal language theory
pumping lemma
Bar-Hillel
lemma
context-free languages
pumping lemma for regular languages
refutation by contradiction
Ogden's lemma
Interchange lemma

derivation tree
Chomsky normal form
nonterminal
tree path
length
substrings
Finite languages
arithmetic progression
prime numbers
square numbers
proof by contradiction
Ehrig, Hartmut
Graph-Grammars and Their Application to Computer Science and Biology
doi
10.1007/BFb0025726
ISBN
978-3-540-35091-0
Combinatorics on words. Christoffel words and repetitions in words
American Mathematical Society

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