141:(GIS) have also been employed to augment phenomenological approaches. Due to the intensive nature of phenomenological methods, sample sizes tend to be small, making it difficult to validate relationships identified through phenomenological research. However, for relationships such as intervisibility between archaeological monuments and landscape features, GIS analyses such as visibility analyses can quickly provide estimations of this experience for a large number of archaeological features. Researchers have paired visibility analyses with models of movement to better understand Spanish colonial surveillance and the effects of colonial architecture in the Andean Highlands. Similar approaches have also been used to model soundsheds in Chaco Canyon, to better understand Ancestral Puebloan ritual and political theater. However, Geographical Information Systems modeling has been critiqued for reifying the Cartesian model of space, and the abstract nature of GIS analyses are far removed from the usually embodied, experiential focus of phenomenological methodologies.
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that imitates an embodied experience without having to travel to the location. This allows for any researcher to verify and reproduce experiences of intervisibility, dimension, orientation, or other phenomenologically relevant observations. It can also provide experiences of a place that may not be available today by reconstructing elements of the landscape, removing modern structures, or simulating different environmental contexts. GIS and VRM are also being combined into augmented reality in an effort to "bridge the gap" and bring GIS insights into the phenomenological experience. Nevertheless, Pollard and
Gillings say that their efforts in Virtual Reality Modeling are not intended to replace direct observation entirely, as it is impossible to simulate all of the bodily experiences of being at an actual place. Furthermore, like GIS, Virtual Reality Modeling has been critiqued for continuing to maintain a Cartesian model of space and centering of visual experience over other embodied experiences.
66:(1994), in which he proposed phenomenology as a technique to discover more about historical peoples and how they interacted with the landscapes in which they lived. Drawing on ethnographic examples from around the world, Tilley proposed that physical connections to the landscape were especially a part of the lives of non-industrial societies and that land “becomes humanized” as specific myths and stories get tied to places in the landscape. Therefore, “Spatial experience is not innocent and neutral, but invested with power relating to age, gender, social position, and relationships with others.” Phenomenological techniques seek to understand this humanized space to gain further insight to how peoples living in hunter-gatherer and agricultural societies related to those landscapes.
89:, but limits the ways these approaches handle material culture. By enforcing the nature/culture divide, Thomas says culture-historical approaches tend to treat the material as mostly unimportant, focusing on the mental and cultural aspects material culture, while processual archaeology treats culture as not in mind or body, but rather the interaction between people and their environments. As such, Thomas says neither approach allowed archaeologists to study culture directly. Thomas says phenomenology, in contrast, understands material culture in its relationship to a "Being-in-the-world" and therefore culture is not embedded in any one entity but rather the relationships between entities across time. This interpretation of phenomenological approaches prefigures
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Therefore, it cannot be assumed that modern human experiences of a space will closely match those of the past simply because they may share a similar physical form. Barret and Ko say that Tilley's idea of a culturally neutral body separated from its history itself relies on a
Cartesian separation of body and mind that is at odds with Heidegger's phenomenology which Tilley takes as a foundation for his methods. Therefore, they say that archaeological phenomenology as practiced is premised on a rejection of processual archaeology's claim to seek generalization cross-cultural historical processes, and a rejection of scientific archaeology's methodological consensus, rather than a philosophical alignment with phenomenology.
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monument's orientations often miss the features Tilley ascribes to them, or if they are oriented with the described feature they are often ignoring other landscape features which
Fleming says are much more prominent Furthermore, Fleming says that Tilley's interpretations of Mesolithic megalithic structures fails to account for "the problem of differential site destruction", wherein structures that were constructed near rock outcrops are more likely to survive than those in appealing agricultural areas. Fleming says this difference could explain the apparent prevalence of megalithic structures near outcroppings observed by Tilley.
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says that archaeologists can use phenomenology to better understand prehistoric humanized space. Phenomenological methods therefore include approaching a place from different directions, experiencing it from every angle, spending time there, and exploring its relationships to other landmarks such that one starts to develop “a feeling for the place.” Tilley says that this process allows one to make observations one never could have otherwise. Phenomenological methods are therefore highly reliant on the archaeologists own senses of sight, smell, and hearing as they enter and move about the landscape that they are studying.
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Others have critiqued the data and interpretations of Tilley and other phenomenological research. Andrew
Fleming, says that many of Tilley’s claims that certain megalith structures are oriented so their major axis points to particular landscape features are incorrect. Rather, Fleming claims that the
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claim that the common use of human bodies between archaeologists and past peoples implies that both groups will engage with the material world in a similar way, the body itself is culturally constituted and bodily engagement with the world will be shaped and controlled by social norms and practices.
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Virtual
Reality Modeling (VRM) is one method that has been proposed for augmenting phenomenological approaches. Virtual reality representations overcome shortcomings of two dimensional representations such as maps, diagrams or pictures and allow researchers to digitally move through a space in a way
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Phenomenological approaches have been supported by a great number of archaeologists and are often used in fieldwork alongside other, more traditional methods. Typical examples of the phenomenological approach to landscapes include
Christopher Tilley's own recording of the Dorset Cursus, and Tilly's
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proposes that all people who seek to engage with and understand a non-neutral 'humanized' space have a human body, and will therefore engage with the landscape in similar ways. By paying close attention to, and documenting, their bodily engagement with the archaeological site and landscape, Tilley
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Phenomenological approaches have been the subject of much debate within archaeology, with critics saying the methods are unscientific, subjective, and require an assumption that modern human experiences of a landscape approximate the experiences those of people in the past. Others, however, have
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According to Joanna Brück, phenomenology "has provoked considerable discussion within the discipline", receiving criticism from members of the archaeological community who deem it to be "unscientific" and "subjective". Brück says the crucial phenomenological question is “whether contemporary
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in Puglia, Italy, in an effort to more explicitly define phenomenological methodologies. Other researchers have used phenomenology to explore the subjectivity of archaeologists, embracing poetic descriptions of history, and performative tellings of the past as well as archeological ones,
130:, or narrative descriptions are said to be inadequate to produce phenomenological knowledge or understanding, as they cannot be substituted for first-hand experience. Other archaeologists have found various representational tools useful for expanding one's phenomenological analyses.
122:, phenomenological approaches in archaeology are focused on an embodied experience of the archaeological landscape. Therefore, representational forms of archaeological features such as diagrams, pictures, statistical analyses,
47:(actions, rituals, social events, and relationships between people and places). Phenomenology therefore treats the landscape as a network of places, each of which bears meaning and is connected through movements and narratives.
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found the framework useful in analyses using
Geographical Information Systems and Virtual Reality Modeling, despite early phenomenologists in archaeology rejecting these representations in favor of embodied experiences.
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proposed 'scientific' treatment of space as an abstract and empty locus for action. In contrast, phenomenology proposes a 'humanized' space which is embedded with meaning and is created through
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U.K. Chapter of
Computer Applications and Quanitative Methods in Archaeology: proceedings of the Fourth Meeting, Cardiff University, 27 and 28 February 1999
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in the past. It views space as socially produced and is concerned with the ways people experience and understand spaces, places, and
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Cummings, V. (2000). "Landscapes in motion. Interactive computer imagery and the
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view of the world which separates mind and body, and nature and culture. Thomas says that this split is a cultural product of
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Phenomenological approaches in archaeology first came to widespread attention among archaeologists with the publication of
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encounters with the landscape can ever approximate the actual experience of people in the past” and that, in spite of
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Experiencing the past? The development of a phenomenological archaeology in
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Entangled : an archaeology of the relationships between humans and things
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Neolithic Spaces: Social and Sensory Landscapes of the First Farmers of Italy
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Neolithic Spaces: Social and Sensory Landscapes of the First Farmers of Italy
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Phenomenology in Practice: Towards a methodology for a ‘subjective’ approach
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624:. BAR international series. Oxford, England: Archaeopress. pp. 11–20.
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231:"A phenomenology of landscape: A crisis in British landscape archaeology?"
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1095:"The power of rocks: topography and monument construction on Bodmin Moor"
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785:"Performance Space, Political Theater, and Audibility in Downtown Chaco"
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189:, England. It was also used to develop an understanding of the famous
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The Materiality of Stone: Explorations in Landscape Archaeology (2004)
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Application of sensory experiences to interpret an archaeological site
650:. Liz Falconer, Mari Carmen Gil Ortega. Hauppauge, New York. 2018.
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Virtual worlds : concepts, applications and future directions
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Stone Worlds: Narrative and Reflexivity in Landscape Archaeology
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Time, culture, and identity : an interpretative archaeology
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A phenomenology of landscape : places, paths, and monuments
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A phenomenology of landscape : places, paths, and monuments
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882:"Romancing the stones: Towards a virtual and elemental Avebury"
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Stories from the landscape : archaeologies of inhabitation
746:"Phenomenology and the Megaliths of Wales: a Dreaming Too Far?"
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Time, Culture and Identity : An Interpretative Archaeology
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Wernke, Steven A.; Kohut, Lauren E.; Traslaviña, Abel (2017).
73:
Julian Thomas proposed phenomenology as a way of overcoming a
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Bender, Barbara; Hamilton, Sue; Tilley, Christopher (2007).
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The Power of Rocks: Landscape and Topography on Bodmin Moor
832:. Adrian M. Chadwick. Oxford, England: Archaeopress. 2004.
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A Phenomenology of Landscape: Places, Paths and Monuments
431:"Landscape Phenomenology, GIS and the Role of Affordance"
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A Phenomenology of Landscape: Places, Paths and Monuments
1072:(Ist ed.). Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press Inc.
1203:"Phenomenological Approaches in Landscape Archaeology"
1145:(1st ed.). London: Accordia Research Institute.
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Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites
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39:movement in the early 1990s and was a reaction to
1023:"Megaliths and post-modernism: the case of Wales"
560:Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute
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229:Barrett, John C.; Ko, Ilhong (October 2009).
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114:Phenomenology in Alternative Representations
933:Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory
783:Witt, David; Primeau, Kristy (2018-12-27).
435:Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory
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678:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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134:Geographical Information Systems
1272:European Journal of Archaeology
980:European Journal of Archaeology
591:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
479:Tilley, Christopher Y. (1994).
395:. Wayne Bennett. Oxford: Berg.
389:Tilley, Christopher Y. (2004).
139:Geographic information systems
124:geographic information systems
83:Culture-historical archaeology
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1111:10.1080/00438243.1996.9980338
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235:Journal of Social Archaeology
1933:Phenomenological methodology
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1093:Tilley, Christopher (1996).
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1287:Tilley, Christopher. 1994.
37:Post-processual archaeology
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1363:Johann Joachim Winckelmann
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358:10.1017/S1380203805001583
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1021:Fleming, Andrew (2005).
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886:Archaeological Dialogues
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392:The materiality of stone
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145:Virtual Reality Modeling
120:The Materiality of Stone
41:Processual archaeology's
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519:Thomas, Julian (1999).
429:Gillings, Mark (2012).
177:and Barbara Bender and
1166:Pearson, Mike (2001).
860:: CS1 maint: others (
485:. Oxford, U.K.: Berg.
339:Brück, Joanna (2005).
87:Processual archaeology
1928:Archaeological theory
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1449:Archaeological diving
1439:Archaeological theory
682:) CS1 maint: others (
525:. London: Routledge.
1393:Augustus Pitt Rivers
1388:William Henry Holmes
1353:Archaeological sites
927:Eve, Stuart (2012).
585:Hodder, Ian (2012).
554:Hodder, Ian (2011).
285:. Oxford, UK: Berg.
172:Notable Applications
161:Christopher Tilley's
61:Christopher Tilley's
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1373:Heinrich Schliemann
1169:Theatre/archaeology
718:2017JArSc..84...22W
195:villaggi trincerati
1907:History portal
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25:phenomenology
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1745:Archaeometry
1719:Experimental
1653:Near Eastern
1612:Near Eastern
1607:Mesopotamian
1561:Contemporary
1378:Arthur Evans
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1825:Transgender
1750:Battlefield
1526:Prehistoric
1486:Burnt layer
1423:George Bass
1337:Archaeology
187:Bodmin Moor
128:simulations
97:Methodology
21:archaeology
1922:Categories
1848:by country
1780:Industrial
1775:Indigenous
1724:Underwater
1670:Calceology
1592:Australian
1570:Geographic
1556:Historical
1491:Excavation
666:1023002870
292:0854969195
207:References
183:Bronze Age
33:landscapes
1785:Landscape
1658:Osteology
1541:Classical
1227:0084-6570
1055:162704935
1047:0003-598X
1027:Antiquity
1008:146497935
1000:1461-9571
953:1072-5369
914:145291018
906:1380-2038
856:cite book
848:607349943
811:2624-599X
789:Acoustics
770:0262-5253
712:: 22–39.
674:cite book
607:758385613
463:145353092
455:1072-5369
367:1380-2038
263:143694737
255:1469-6053
212:Footnotes
191:Neolithic
154:Criticism
79:Modernity
75:Cartesian
1895:Category
1877:Journals
1795:Mortuary
1790:Maritime
1765:Funerary
1760:Feminist
1755:Conflict
1733:Thematic
1648:Medieval
1602:Egyptian
1597:Oceanian
1582:American
1546:Medieval
1536:Biblical
1413:Max Uhle
1252:. 2005.
1188:45064746
541:50175236
501:30895684
411:54882015
301:30895684
55:Overview
1855:Periods
1690:Virtual
1675:Digital
1577:African
1479:Sondage
1345:History
961:4988300
714:Bibcode
198:of the
1844:Sites
1770:Gender
1633:Aerial
1617:Nubian
1464:Survey
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1838:Lists
1820:Queer
1800:Music
1587:Asian
1115:JSTOR
1051:S2CID
1004:S2CID
957:S2CID
910:S2CID
459:S2CID
259:S2CID
1805:Nazi
1223:ISSN
1184:OCLC
1174:ISBN
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996:ISSN
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902:ISSN
862:link
844:OCLC
834:ISBN
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684:link
680:link
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487:ISBN
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297:OCLC
287:ISBN
251:ISSN
85:and
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