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fireflies, and carboxy-PTIO, a Nitric Oxide scavenger, has been shown to inhibit the response. Additionally, the tracheolar end organ was find to contain a high concentration of the enzyme nitric oxide synthase. Nitric oxide has been implicated with the action of decreasing respiration in the mitochondria. This effect on the mitochondria has been found to be influenced by surrounding light conditions with more light decreasing the action of nitric oxide on the mitochondria and less light increasing its action. In addition to ambient light, the light produced by the photocytes can also play an inhibitory role on the effect of nitric oxide. The photocytes have been described as containing a vacuole that plays a role in signaling with the extracellular environment. It has been found that octopamine triggers an adenylate cyclase which plays a role in triggering bioluminescence in the photocytes in fireflies. A reaction among D-luciferin, luciferase, and ATP has been implicated in the mechanism of light production in firefly photocytes. The fluorescent response was also found to be greater in basic conditions than in acidic conditions.
222:
intracellular mechanisms contribute to light production in the photocytes. Nervous and intracellular mechanisms contribute to light production in the photocytes. It has been shown that fireflies can modify the amount of oxygen that travels through their trachea system to the light organ which plays a role in oxygen availability for light production. They do this by modifying the amount of fluid present within the trachea system. Because oxygen diffuses more slowly through water than in a gaseous form, this allows fireflies to effectively change the amount of oxygen reaching the photocytes. Spiracles can be opened and closed to control the amount of air that is able to pass through the tracheal system, but this control mechanism is only used as a response to a stressor.
231:
frequency of nervous impulses has been found to be proportional to the intensity of the stimulus applied. A high frequency of nervous impulse was found to lead to a constant latency. The light organ is inactive in the absence of nerve impulses. Constant nerve signaling was shown to coincide with constant emission of light from the light organ with a higher frequency coinciding with a higher amplitude of light emitted up to 30 impulses per second. Impulses beyond this frequency were not found to be associated with a more intense glow. The fact that the frequency of nerve impulses was able to exceed beyond the maximum intensity of light emission suggests some limitations in the mechanism either arising from the
328:, the photocyte exhibits a quick flash and then emits light that slowly fades in intensity. Stimulation by isoproterenol was found to cause an only a slow fading illumination. The amplitude of the quick flash, referred to as the "fast response", was higher when the concentration of neurotransmitter stimulating it increased. A great dal of variation in luminescence was exhibited in the photocytes of different fish. Variation also existed depending on what time of year the photocytes were collected from the fish. Stimulation from phenylephrine was found to produce a less intense response than that of epinephrine or norepinephrine.
256:. The depolarization of the photocyte following nervous stimulation was found to be one-hundred times slower than the with the other two kinds of junctions and this slow response cannot be attributed to the rate of diffusion because the synapse between the neuron and photocyte is relatively small. It has been found that the neurons that control the light mechanism terminate at the tracheal cells rather than the photocytes themselves.
426:
contains two cytoplasmic regions: cortical and yolky, and the region of cytoplasm that daughter cells receive when the egg divides determine what they differentiate into. It was found that whether cortical cells exhibited bioluminescence or not was dependent on whether they inherited yolk in their cytoplasm with the cells containing yolk producing light and the cells without yolk not producing any light.
269:
membrane results in an increase of the rate of diffusion of ions across it. The depolarization of the photocyte was found to occur 0.5 seconds following nervous impulse culminating at one second with the maximum degree of depolarization observed. A higher frequency of nervous stimulation was associated with a smaller depolarization event. Exposure to
36:
532:. It is hypothesized that the luciferase of click beetles evolved separately from that in fireflies being the result of two gene duplications of the acyl-CoA synthetase gene suggesting analogy instead of homology between the groups. Additional genes have been found to be related to the storage of luciferin.
627:
to peroxisomes is not well understood, this finding is valuable for its potential to aid in the determination of peroxisome targeting mechanisms. If the cell produces a large amount of luciferase, some of the protein ends up in the cytoplasm. It is unknown what feature of the luciferase enzyme causes
175:
was the source of reaction energy for photocytes, but since ATP only produces a fraction of the energy of the luciferase reaction, any resulting light wave-energy would be too small for detection by a human eye. The wavelengths produced by most photocytes fall close to 490 nm; although light as
731:
and between 2.5 and 4.5 micrometers in the adult photocytes of the
Asiatic firefly. The size and shape of photocytes can exhibits a great deal of diversity among the species they are found in. The different types of granules have been observed together within individual photocytes. The illumination
610:
decreases the intracellular oxygen concentration which reduces the amount available for light production. The mitochondria of the photocyte exists near the perimeter of the cell while the peroxisome is typically found closer to the middle of the cell. It is worth noting that not all bioluminescence
708:
pathways in the photocyte of the firefly have been hypothesized to play a role in decreasing the activity of the mitochondria to make oxygen available for the production of light in fireflies. Because the neurons that control the lighting mechanism of the photocytes terminate at the tracheal cells
682:
were found to have a diameter of eight to ten micrometers. The mitochondria of the photocytes were found to be very large with abnormally organized cristae surrounding the nucleus of the cell. The rough endoplasmic reticulum of the photocytes were found to exist close to the cell membrane. Several
352:
to bioluminesce in the blue range. The species has been found to possess a luciferase compound. The luciferase has been isolated to clusters of photocytes that exist at the tip off the arms and around the spines. What are believed to be photocytes based on evidence have been found around the spine
268:
of photocytes was found to exist in a range between 50 and 65 millivolts. It is generally accepted that the emission of light was found to occur after depolarization of the photocyte membrane although some have argued that the depolarization follows the emission of light. The depolarization of the
527:
The variation in coloring among different species of firefly has been determined to be due to differences in the amino acid sequences of the luciferases expressed in their photocytes. Two luciferase genes have been identified in the genomes of fireflies. They are luc1-type and luc2-type. There is
391:
have even been shown to be able to preserve their ability to produce light even after long periods of hibernation. It is currently unknown how these snails are able to maintain their ability to produce light for long periods of time, but theories have been proposed possibly relating it to the way
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is believed to play this role partly due to the fact that it has already been implicated in a plethora of signaling roles in tissues among several, diverse clades of animal including insects. In fact, concentrations of nitric oxide on the order of 70 ppm have been found to result in flashing in
230:
Research has shown that applying 5 to 15 volts of electricity for 50 ms to the segmental nerve that innervates the light organ leads to a glow 1.5 seconds after that lasts for five to ten seconds. Stimulation of the segmental nerve has been found to lead to several different nerve impulses, and
425:
into photocytes, and they separate from other lineages of cells in the differential division. The subsequent maturation of the photocytes and intensification of light produced develop rapidly, occurring within ten hours of the first observed instance of bioluminescence. The egg of the organism
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The second type of photocyte granule contains a large crystal surrounded by several small crystals within a matrix with no definite shape or form. T microtubules in the type two granules are associated with the face of the crystal. In addition ferritin has been found to be associated with the
221:
larvae occurs in the roughly 2,000 photocytes located in the heavily innervated light organ of the insect which is much simpler than that of the adult organism. The transparent photocytes of the larvae are clearly distinguishable from the opaque dorsal layer cells that cover them. Nervous and
421:, the ability to produce light is first observed upon the development of the plate cilia cells, and the bioluminescent cells found in the embryo share many characteristics with the photocytes observed in the adult organism. The M macromere lineage of cells are the ones that
554:
Fish generally use bioluminescence for camouflage to hide from predators. Endogenous photocytes are more commonly used for bioluminescence than other means like bacteria. Some fish may use the bioluminescence produced by their photocytes as a means of communication.
518:
has been shown to exhibit bioluminescence although the exact mechanism is not known. It is believed that it shares homology with other genera of beetles however. The first time the entire genome of a bioluminescent beetle was determined was in 2017 with
523:
a species of firefly, and in 2018, three more species of bioluminescent beetle had their genomes sequenced. Biolumiescence in beetles has been shown to serve multiple purposes including the deterrence of predators and the attraction of mates.
597:
genus. It is hypothesized that terrestrial mollusks that use bioluminescence developed it as a strategy to deter predation. The green color emanated by the mollusk's photocytes is thought to be the most visible color to nocturnal predators.
722:
The shape of the photocyte granules ranges from more round to more elliptical, and there are three types of photocyte granules. The bioluminescent reaction is confined to the granules. The granules range from 0.6 to 2.5 micrometers in the
459:. It is thought that luminescence has other functions as well due to camouflage not being a logical explanation for the luminescence on the lateral sides of the shark. Bioluminescence is believed to have only evolved in sharks among the
244:
of the photocyte which plays a role in its light emitting mechanism, and greater depolarization events were found to be associated with more intense lightning. The nerve innervating the light organ containing photocytes has only two
239:
have been shown to lead to the sporadic, discontinuous emission to light. It was also found that a higher frequency of action potentials lead to a higher likelihood of any emission of light. Nerve impulses are associated with a
986:
Aprille JR, Lagace CJ, Lewis SM, Michel T, Modica-Napolitano JS, Trimmer BA, et al. (2002). "Mechanism of
Firefly Flash Control: Nitric Oxide Inhibition of Oxygen Consumption in Lantern Mitochondria is Reversed by Light".
579:. Bioluminescence is widely spread among cephalopods, but much rarer among the other classes of mollusk. Most species of bioluminescent mollusk that have been discovered are found in the ocean with the exception of the genera
740:
The first type of photocyte granule has been found to contain between two and twelve microtubules. In addition, the matrix of the type I granule lacks a uniform shape or structure with ferritin distributed throughout.
434:
Luciferins have been shown to be largely conserved among different species while luciferases show a greater degree of diversity. Eighty percent of the species that exhibit bioluminescence exist in aquatic habitats.
378:
bioluminescence has been observed to come from the spines emanating from the arms from photocytes within the spinal ganglia. Acetylcholine has been found to be able to stimulate the photocytes to produce light.
249:, but they branch repeatedly allowing the numerous photocytes to be innervated with each cell being associated with several nerve terminals with each terminal possibly being associated with several synapses.
295:
Photocytes are found distributed unevenly near the plate cilia cells. Gastric cells form a barrier that keep the photocytes away from the opening of the radially canal which they are found to exist along.
762:
The type III granules are characterized by the fact that they contain several tubules with thick walls. The ferritin present in the granules is associated with filament-like features contained in them.
252:
It was found that the junction between at the end of the neuron innervating the light organ differs from the kind of junction found between two different neurons or between neurons and muscles in the
1102:
Delroisse J, Ullrich-Lüter E, Blaue S, Eeckhaut I, Flammang P, Mallefet J (July 2017). "Fine structure of the luminous spines and luciferase detection in the brittle star
Amphiura filiformis".
1338:
Claes JM, Mallefet J (2008). "Early development of bioluminescence suggests camouflage by counter-illumination in the velvet belly lantern shark
Etmopterus spinax (Squaloidea: Etmopteridae)".
546:
and other species of sea star is widely believed to function in protection against predators. By attracting predators to one arm and losing the arm, the sea star is able to escape predation.
1148:
Deheyn D, Mallefet J, Jangoux M (January 2000). "Cytological changes during bioluminescence production in dissociated photocytes from the ophiuroid
Amphipholis squamata (Echinodermata)".
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cells which otherwise limit the natural diffusion of oxygen from blood vessels; the resulting reaction with the luciferase and luciferin produces light energy and a by-product (usually
400:
Adrenaline stimulates photocytes to emit light for many species of fish. It is believed that sympathetic nervous impulses provide the stimulus that causes photocytes to emit light.
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It was discovered that bioluminescent snails are able to exercise a great deal of control over light emission, but the way in which they exercise control over it is still unknown.
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have been found to contain a Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum. They have also been found to contain up to six different kinds of vesicles within their cytoplasm.
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was shown to have an inhibitory effect on the fast response but no effect on the slow response. The photocytes of
Porichthys are known to be extensively innervated.
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within the photocytes. When mammalian cells were modified to produce the enzyme, it was found that they were targeted to the mammalian peroxisome as well. Because
1550:
Germain G, Anctil M (1988-01-01). "Luminescent activity and ultrastructural characterization of photocytes dissociated from the coelenterate
Renilla köllikeri".
511:. In fact, every bioluminescent beetle species studied has been shown to use very similar mechanisms for light production in the photocyte. The beetle genus,
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in the firefly light organ occurs in the granules of the photocyte. Some fluorescent protein has been found to exist in the posterior region of the organ.
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small vesicles, on the order of 0.25 micrometers, were found in the cell, and differently shaped granules containing diverse contents were also observed.
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nerve plexus, mucous cells, and what are believed to be pigment cells. It has been found that luminescence is controlled by the animal's nervous system.
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types found among photocytes are specific to the species to which they belong. This would seem to be the result of consistent evolutionary divergence.
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The mitochondria is believed to be important in controlling the supply of oxygen available for making light in fireflies. An increased rate of
105:). They contain special structures called photocyte granules. These specialized cells are found in a range of multicellular animals including
1515:
Green LF (1979-01-01). "The fine structure of the light organ of the New
Zealand glow-worm Arachnocampa luminosa (Diptera: Mycetophilidae)".
1008:
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Because the compounds that exhibit bioluminescence are typically fluorescent, fluorescence can be used to identify photocytes in organisms.
948:
Aprille JR, Lagace CJ, Modica-Napolitano J, Trimmer BA (June 2004). "Role of nitric oxide and mitochondria in control of firefly flash".
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or rough endoplasmic reticulum and were found to be 250 micrometers by 120 micrometers overall with a depth of 25 to 30 micrometers.
332:
was shown to inhibit the effect of stimulation by phenylephrine completely and of epinephrine and norepinephrine to a lesser degree.
1594:
Neuwirth M (1981-01-01). "Ultrastructure of granules and immunocytochemical localization of luciferase in photocytes of fireflies".
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Zaccone G, Abelli L, Salpietro L, Zaccone D, Macrì B, Marino F (July 2011). "Nervous control of photophores in luminescent fishes".
72:
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Krönström J, Mallefet J (2010). "Evidence for a widespread involvement of NO in control of photogenesis in bioluminescent fish".
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it to be targeted to the peroxisome since no particular protein sequences related to peroxisome targeting have been discovered.
660:. Instead of having photocyte granules, the photocytes of the organism were shown to undergo the luciferase reaction in their
495:. It has been determined that the luciferases and luciferin protein expressed in the photocytes of all species of firefly is
1062:
Christophe B, Baguet F (January 1985). "The adrenergic control of the photocyte luminescence of the
Porichthys photophore".
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found in freshwater and terrestrial habitats respectively; however, more recent research has discovered luminescence in the
46:
1421:
Smalley KN, Tarwater DE, Davidson TL (April 1980). "Localization of fluorescent compounds in the firefly light organ".
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of the fish is responsible for triggering bioluminescence in the photocytes. As a response to being triggered by an
313:
54:
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Overall, the evolution of light producing cells (photocytes) is believed to have happened twice in sharks through
918:"Neural Excitation of the Larval Firefly Photocyte: Slow Depolarization Possibly Mediated by A Cyclic Nucleotide"
451:
1635:
1027:
Freeman G, Reynolds GT (March 1973). "The development of bioluminescence in the ctenophore
Mnemiopsis leidyi".
422:
709:
instead of the photocytes, there must be some process that mediates the transference of the signal to them.
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The variations of color seen in different photocytes are usually the result of color filters that alter the
285:, results in the emission of light but without any corresponding depolarization of the photocyte membrane.
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evidence that suggests that Luc1-type evolved from a gene duplication of the gene that encodes for
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1204:"A new discovery of the bioluminescent terrestrial snail genus Phuphania (Gastropoda: Dyakiidae)"
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Pholyotha A, Yano D, Mizuno G, Sutcharit C, Tongkerd P, Oba Y, et al. (September 2023).
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substrate. In some species the release occurs continually without the precursor impulse via
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Lake JA, Clark MW, Henderson E, Fay SP, Oakes M, Scheinman A, et al. (June 1985).
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129:. Although some fungi are bioluminescent, they do not have such specialized cells.
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It was found that the luciferase enzyme produced in fireflies is localized to the
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
463:. The function of bioluminescence among sharks has not been fully ascertained.
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tissue, functioning singly or in a group, or as part of a larger apparatus (a
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799:"Eubacteria, halobacteria, and the origin of photosynthesis: the photocytes"
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863:"Firefly genomes illuminate the evolution of beetle bioluminescent systems"
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of the photocytes is confined to the granules where the reaction occurs.
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Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology
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449:. Evidence suggests that the bioluminescent properties of the shark,
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Duchatelet L, Claes JM, Delroisse J, Flammang P, Mallefet J (2021).
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has been found to be triggered through an adrenergic mechanism. The
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or the cell's light producing process. Additionally, a series of
1458:"Firefly luciferase is targeted to peroxisomes in mammalian cells"
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581:
492:
138:
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126:
1299:"Glow on Sharks: State of the Art on Bioluminescence Research"
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was found to contain a circular nucleus, and large amounts of
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191:. The range of colors varies between bioluminescent species.
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Cell that specializes in catalyzing enzymes to produce light
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Bioluminescence has only been observed in three classes of
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with that expressed in beetle species within the families
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certain fungi are able to maintain their bioluminescence.
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that specializes in catalyzing enzymes to produce light (
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crystals. Type II granules are hypothesized to exist in
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Keller GA, Gould S, Deluca M, Subramani S (May 1987).
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Mechanical stimulation to spines on the arm can cause
168:). The reaction occurs in the peroxisome of the cell.
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impulses which stimulate the photocyte to release the
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97:). Photocytes typically occur in select layers of
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176:energetic as 250 nm is reportedly possible.
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160:is then actively gated through surrounding
137:Light production may first be triggered by
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471:All five families of luminescent beetle,
73:Learn how and when to remove this message
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767:Identification techniques and culturing
357:is able to stimulate the cells through
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226:Neural mechanism of light production
989:Integrative and Comparative Biology
950:Integrative and Comparative Biology
491:are categorized into the Lampyroid
187:, thanks to the other parts of the
183:of the light prior to exiting the
25:
867:Current Opinion in Insect Science
171:Researchers once postulated that
1395:10.1111/j.1463-6395.2009.00438.x
1360:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2008.02006.x
861:Oba Y, Schultz DT (April 2022).
34:
455:, came about as a mechanism of
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148:into a "reaction chamber" of
133:Mechanism of light production
1608:10.1016/0040-8166(81)90030-6
1564:10.1016/0040-8166(88)90017-1
1529:10.1016/0040-8166(79)90056-9
1273:10.1016/j.acthis.2010.03.007
1076:10.1016/0742-8413(85)90020-9
1041:10.1016/0012-1606(73)90321-7
995:. WORLD SCIENTIFIC: 25–28.
1652:
1228:10.1038/s41598-023-42364-y
1001:10.1142/9789812776624_0004
888:10.1016/j.cois.2022.100879
693:The photocytes present in
664:. The cells do not have a
314:sympathetic nervous system
194:The exact combinations of
1124:10.1016/j.jcz.2017.05.001
1013:– via ResearchGate.
404:Embryological development
1150:Cell and Tissue Research
602:Structure and organelles
1483:10.1073/pnas.84.10.3264
1340:Journal of Fish Biology
1164:(inactive 2024-04-14).
922:journals.biologists.com
824:10.1073/pnas.82.11.3716
430:Evolution of photocytes
260:Intracellular mechanism
218:Photurius pennsylvanica
729:Photuris pennsylvanica
521:Pyrocoelia pectoralis,
467:Evolution in fireflies
254:neuromuscular junction
206:Anatomy and physiology
1316:10.3390/oceans2040047
1162:10.1007/s004419900144
1104:Zoologischer Anzeiger
1029:Developmental Biology
650:endoplasmic reticulum
641:Arachnocampa luminosa
633:Arachnocampa luminosa
550:Other species of fish
396:Other species of fish
1435:10.1177/28.4.7373026
962:10.1093/icb/44.3.213
752:Amphiurus filiformis
695:Amphipholis squamata
688:Amphipholis squamata
461:cartilaginous fishes
374:Amphipholis squamata
366:Amphipholis squamata
306:Light production in
215:Light production in
1474:1987PNAS...84.3264K
1352:2008JFBio..73.1337C
1220:2023NatSR..1315137P
1116:2017ZooAn.269....1D
879:2022COIS...5000879O
815:1985PNAS...82.3716L
706:Signal transduction
701:Signal transduction
615:Organelle targeting
544:Amphiura filiformis
542:Bioluminescence in
537:Amphiura filiformis
530:acyl-CoA synthetase
359:nicotinic receptors
349:Amphiura filiformis
341:Amphiura filiformis
1208:Scientific Reports
678:The photocytes of
309:Porichthys notatus
53:You can assist by
1596:Tissue & Cell
1552:Tissue & Cell
1517:Tissue & Cell
1468:(10): 3264–3268.
1261:Acta Histochemica
1010:978-981-238-156-9
809:(11): 3716–3720.
680:Renilla köllikeri
673:Renilla köllikeri
638:The photocyte of
625:protein targeting
485:Sinopyrophoridae,
452:Etmopterus spinax
440:Etmopterus spinax
418:Mnemiopsis leidyi
410:Mnemiopsis leidyi
290:Mnemiopsis leidyi
271:neurotransmitters
266:resting potential
237:action potentials
154:osmotic diffusion
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747:
738:
720:
703:
691:
676:
666:golgi apparatus
636:
617:
604:
561:
552:
540:
505:Rhagophthalidae
477:Rhagophthalidae
469:
443:
432:
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95:bioluminescence
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15:
12:
11:
5:
1649:
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1627:
1622:
1621:
1602:(3): 599–607.
1577:
1558:(5): 701–720.
1542:
1523:(3): 457–465.
1507:
1448:
1429:(4): 323–329.
1408:
1389:(4): 474–483.
1383:Acta Zoologica
1373:
1330:
1309:(4): 822–842.
1286:
1267:(4): 387–394.
1251:
1189:
1156:(1): 115–128.
1137:
1089:
1070:(2): 359–365.
1054:
1016:
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975:
956:(3): 213–219.
933:
902:
848:
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318:norepinephrine
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279:norepinephrine
261:
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242:depolarization
227:
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211:Firefly larvae
209:
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166:carbon dioxide
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1035:(1): 61–100.
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355:Acetylcholine
351:
350:
342:
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331:
327:
326:phenylephrine
323:
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111:coelenterates
108:
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66:
56:
50:
48:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
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1214:(1): 15137.
1211:
1207:
1178:cite journal
1153:
1149:
1107:
1103:
1067:
1063:
1057:
1032:
1028:
992:
988:
953:
949:
925:. Retrieved
921:
870:
866:
806:
802:
770:
761:
754:photocytes.
751:
748:
739:
728:
721:
711:Nitric oxide
704:
694:
692:
687:
679:
677:
672:
658:microtubules
654:mitochondria
639:
637:
632:
618:
605:
592:
586:
580:
562:
553:
543:
541:
536:
526:
520:
512:
484:
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476:
472:
470:
450:
444:
439:
433:
416:
414:
409:
399:
388:
386:
372:
370:
365:
347:
345:
340:
330:Phentolamine
307:
305:
300:
294:
289:
263:
251:
229:
217:
214:
193:
178:
170:
156:. Molecular
136:
113:(cnidaria),
86:
84:
69:
60:
47:copy editing
45:may require
44:
608:respiration
569:Cephalopoda
501:Phengodidae
473:Phengodidae
447:convergence
322:epinephrine
275:epinephrine
121:(including
927:2024-02-26
873:: 100879.
775:References
621:peroxisome
573:Gastropoda
509:Elateridae
497:homologous
489:Lampyridae
481:Elateridae
457:camouflage
301:Porichthys
283:synephrine
273:including
196:luciferase
189:photophore
181:wavelength
146:luciferase
119:arthropoda
107:ctenophora
103:photophore
99:epithelial
63:April 2024
55:editing it
18:Photocytes
1403:0001-7272
1368:0022-1112
1325:2673-1924
1132:0044-5231
1084:0306-4492
662:cytoplasm
648:, smooth
646:ribosomes
594:Phuphania
389:Phuphania
334:Clonidine
200:luciferin
150:luciferin
87:photocyte
1630:Category
1572:18620241
1281:20598350
1246:37704646
1237:10499882
1170:10654075
1110:: 1–12.
970:21676698
897:35091104
758:Type III
718:Granules
588:Quantula
577:Bivalvia
565:mollusks
559:Mollusks
383:Mollusks
185:endoderm
162:tracheal
115:annelids
1616:7324034
1502:3554235
1470:Bibcode
1443:7373026
1348:Bibcode
1216:Bibcode
1112:Bibcode
1049:4150750
875:Bibcode
843:3858845
811:Bibcode
745:Type II
233:synapse
123:insects
1614:
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1537:494236
1535:
1500:
1493:304849
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1441:
1401:
1366:
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1303:Oceans
1279:
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1234:
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834:397858
831:
736:Type I
725:larval
656:, and
575:, and
507:, and
281:, and
158:oxygen
143:enzyme
127:fishes
125:) and
582:Latia
493:clade
324:, or
247:axons
139:nerve
89:is a
1612:PMID
1568:PMID
1533:PMID
1498:PMID
1439:PMID
1399:ISSN
1364:ISSN
1321:ISSN
1277:PMID
1242:PMID
1184:link
1166:PMID
1128:ISSN
1080:ISSN
1045:PMID
1005:ISBN
966:PMID
893:PMID
839:PMID
585:and
487:and
415:For
264:The
198:and
91:cell
1604:doi
1560:doi
1525:doi
1488:PMC
1478:doi
1431:doi
1391:doi
1356:doi
1311:doi
1269:doi
1265:113
1232:PMC
1224:doi
1158:doi
1154:299
1120:doi
1108:269
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883:doi
829:PMC
819:doi
371:In
173:ATP
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