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69:: Azobenzene undergoes a E to Z photoisomerization in which the Z isomer is more polar, has shorter bonds, and a bent and twisted geometry. Hydrazone undergoes photoisomerization with long thermal half lives of thousands of years. Spiropyran and Merocyanine undergo ring opening/closing mechanisms upon photo irradiation. Diarylethene and donor-acceptor Stenhouse adducts exhibit changes in color upon photoisomerization. Stilbene is a model photoswitch for studying photochemistry.
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states. Light can be used to switch between these states, resulting in remote control of a drug's activity. Photoswitches have also been shown modulate surface energy properties which can control how the photoswitchable shell interacts with nanoparticles. Pharmaceutical encapsulation and distribution
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When a photochromic compound is incorporated into a suitable catalytic molecule, photoswitchable catalysis can result from the reversible changes in geometric conformation upon irradiation with light. As one of the most widely studied photoswitches, azobenzene has been shown to be an effective switch
130:
Although the mechanism for photoisomerization is still debated amongst most scientists, increasing evidence supports cis-/trans- isomerization of polyenes favoring the hula twist rather than the one-bond-flip. The one-bond-flip isomerizes at the reactive double bond while the hula twist undergoes a
188:
kinetics. Photoswitches can be in solution or in the solid state; however, switching in the solid state is more difficult to observe due to the lack of molecular freedom of motion, solid packing, and the fast thermal reversion to the ground state. Through chemical modification,
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used in electronics. Through the attachment of photoswitches onto the surfaces of various substrates, the work function can be changed. For example, the incorporation of diarylethenes as a self-assembled monolayer on a gold surface shows promise in optoelectronic devices.
356:
Due to one of the photoisomers being more stable than the other, isomerization from the stable to metastable isomer results in a conversion of light energy into free energy as a form of a chemical potential and has applications in storing solar energy.
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can be achieved when the irradiation of light no longer converts one form of an isomer into another; however, a mixture of cis- and trans- isomers will always exist with a higher percentage of one versus the other depending on the photoconditions.
2306:
Rifaie-Graham, Omar; Yeow, Jonathan; Najer, Adrian; Wang, Richard; Sun, Rujie; Zhou, Kun; Dell, Tristan N.; Adrianus, Christopher; Thanapongpibul, Chalaisorn; Chami, Mohamed; Mann, Stephen; de Alaniz, Javier Read; Stevens, Molly M. (2022-11-07).
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states as a function of the photostationary state. Incorporation of photoswitches into nematic liquid crystals can change self-assembly, crystal packing, and the light reflecting properties of the supramolecular interactions.
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to generate long term stable polymer shapes. Light-gated optical windows that can change the absorbance properties can be made by chirally doping liquid crystals with hydrazone photoswitches or by kinetically trapping various
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Zhang X, Koz B, Bisoyi HK, Wang H, Gutierrez-Cuevas KG, McConney ME, et al. (December 2020). "Electro- and Photo-Driven
Orthogonal Switching of a Helical Superstructure Enabled by an Axially Chiral Molecular Switch".
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Through the incorporation of photoswitches into biological molecules, biological processes can be regulated through controlled irradiation with light. This includes photocontrol of peptide conformation and activity,
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Diarylethenes form stable molecular conduction junctions when placed between graphene electrodes at low and room temperature and act as a photo-electrical switch. By combining a photoswitch, containing various
252:, etc. Rhodopsins are highly efficient photochromic compounds that can undergo fast photoisomerization and are associated with various retinal proteins along with light-gated channels and pumps in microbes.
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Advances in vision restoration with photochromic compounds has been investigated. Fast isomerization allows retinal cells to turn on when activated by light and advances in acrylamide-azobenzene-quaternary
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475:. The first incorporates the phototunability of various functional groups so reactivity can be modulated in one of the isomeric forms, while the second strategy incorporates light-driven valence bond
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Norikane Y, Tamaoki N (July 2004). "Light-driven molecular hinge: a new molecular machine showing a light-intensity-dependent photoresponse that utilizes the trans-cis isomerization of azobenzene".
221:
The absorption of a photon converting cis-retinal to trans-retinal. Once converted, the trans-retinal can disassociate from Opsin. Once converted back to the cis- isomer, it can reform
Rhodopsin.
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340:
Photoswitches have been used in the generation of three-dimensional animations and images. The display utilizes a medium composed of a class of photoswitches (known as spirhodamines) and
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technology to generate structured light in three dimensions. UV light and green light patterns are aimed at the dye solution, which initiates photoactivation and thus creates the 'on'
1015:
Navrátil R, Wiedbrauk S, Jašík J, Dube H, Roithová J (March 2018). "Transforming hemithioindigo from a two-way to a one-way molecular photoswitch by isolation in the gas phase".
2079:
Jia C, Migliore A, Xin N, Huang S, Wang J, Yang Q, et al. (June 2016). "Covalently bonded single-molecule junctions with stable and reversible photoswitched conductivity".
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storage with better performance. Novel azo-carrying photoswitches are introduced as molecular hinges, which can be used in the design of molecular machines and optical devices.
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for regulating catalytic activity due to its isomerization from the E to Z conformation with light, and its ability to thermally relax back to the E isomer in dark conditions.
230:
One of the more prevalent biological examples in the human body that undergoes structural changes upon light irradiation includes the class of membrane-bound photoreceptors,
387:, and better energy storage. By changing the chemical properties of the pores, adsorption and desorption of gases can be tuned for advancements in smart membrane materials.
333:
is connected to a circuit that measures how much electricity the cell generates. The circuit decides and gives the output, according to the setting of minimum and maximum
43:
about double bonds in the molecule can lead to changes in the cis- or trans- configuration. These photochromic molecules are being considered for a range of applications.
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at targeted locations with light has been demonstrated due to the unique change in properties and size of microencapsulated nanostructures with photochromic components.
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Photoswitches are studied in biology, materials chemistry, and physics and have a wide variety of potential applications, especially in the framework of nanotechnology.
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upon irradiation with light. When UV and visible light were irradiated upon opposites sides of the membrane, a storage potential and pH gradient were generated.
139:
73:
A photochromic compound can change its configuration or structure upon irradiation with light. Several examples of photochromic compounds include:
131:
conformational isomerization at the adjacent single bond. However, the interconversion of stereoisomers of stilbene proceeds via one-bond-flip.
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399:
has been used to form nanoparticles which can selectively expose enzymes in response to light, allowing them to mimic some functions of cells.
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of DNA and RNA, regulation of enzymatic activity, and photoregulated ion channels. For example, optical control of ligand binding in human
109:
Upon isomerization from the absorption of light, a π-to-π or n-to-π electronic transition can occur with the subsequent release of light (
2415:
Moran MJ, Magrini M, Walba DM, Aprahamian I (October 2018). "Driving a Liquid
Crystal Phase Transition Using a Photochromic Hydrazone".
2758:
458:, photoswitches are being investigated as a means to control activity. By including a photoswitch in a drug, the drug assumes several
2586:
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820:
Pu SZ, Sun Q, Fan CB, Wang RJ, Liu G (2016-04-14). "Recent advances in diarylethene-based multi-responsive molecular switches".
184:
which measures the effectiveness of absorbed light to induce photoisomerization. Quantum yield is modeled and calculated using
288:
has been demonstrated to influence its allosteric binding properties. Also, red-shifted azobenzenes have been used to control
193:
the wavelengths of absorption needed to cause isomerizaiton leads to low light induced switching which has applications in
289:
39:
compounds are the necessary building blocks for light driven molecular motors and machines. Upon irradiation with light,
2924:
668:
Qian H, Pramanik S, Aprahamian I (July 2017). "Photochromic
Hydrazone Switches with Extremely Long Thermal Half-Lives".
376:
58:: Upon irradiation with light, photoisomerization occurs changing the spatial geometry and properties of the molecule.
2309:"Photoswitchable gating of non-equilibrium enzymatic feedback in chemically communicating polymersome nanoreactors"
1927:"A red-shifted, fast-relaxing azobenzene photoswitch for visible light control of an ionotropic glutamate receptor"
1651:
Inuzuka K, Becker RS (July 1968). "Mechanism of photoisomerization in the retinals and implications in rhodopsin".
1193:
Abourashed EA (2017-02-24). "Review of
Stilbenes: Applications in Chemistry, Life Sciences and Materials Science".
418:
1354:"Determining the Photoisomerization Quantum Yield of Photoswitchable Molecules in Solution and in the Solid State"
968:"Engineering of Norbornadiene/Quadricyclane Photoswitches for Molecular Solar Thermal Energy Storage Applications"
2683:"Visualizing intracellular particles and precise control of drug release using an emissive hydrazone photochrome"
584:
Cameron D, Eisler S (2018). "Photoswitchable double bonds: Synthetic strategies for tunability and versatility".
98:
24:
2622:
1108:
341:
62:
2009:
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Liu RS (July 2001). "Photoisomerization by hula-twist: a fundamental supramolecular photochemical reaction".
1148:"Design and Synthesis of Donor–Acceptor Stenhouse Adducts: A Visible Light Photoswitch Derived from Furfural"
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is a type of molecule that can change its structural geometry and chemical properties upon irradiation with
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2751:
3064:
472:
281:
118:
855:
Berkovic G, Krongauz V, Weiss V (May 2000). "Spiropyrans and
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2839:
2524:
Kazem-Rostami M, Moghanian A (2017). "Hünlich base derivatives as photo-responsive Λ-shaped hinges".
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Polosukhina A, Litt J, Tochitsky I, Nemargut J, Sychev Y, De
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1303:
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1058:
Polosukhina A, Litt J, Tochitsky I, Nemargut J, Sychev Y, De
Kouchkovsky I, et al. (July 2012).
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632:
326:
322:
2134:
740:"The evolution of spiropyran: fundamentals and progress of an extraordinarily versatile photochrome"
2209:
Sun CL, Wang C, Boulatov R (2019). "Applications of
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1292:"The case of medium-dependent dual mechanisms for photoisomerization: one-bond-flip and hula-twist"
459:
1876:
Putri RM, Zulfikri H, Fredy JW, Juan A, Tananchayakul P, Cornelissen JJ, et al. (July 2018).
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have shown restoration of visual responses in blind mice. Companies involved in this area include
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185:
40:
1837:"Reversible photocontrol of biological systems by the incorporation of molecular photoswitches"
703:
Bandara HM, Burdette SC (March 2012). "Photoisomerization in different classes of azobenzene".
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1991:
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Ratner M (February 2021). "Light-activated genetic therapy to treat blindness enters clinic".
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1411:"Solid-state photoswitching molecules: structural design for isomerization in condensed phase"
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Incorporation of photoswitching molecules such as donor-acceptor Stenhouse adducts into
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1109:"The (photo)chemistry of Stenhouse photoswitches: guiding principles and system design"
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levels in its open and closed geometrical conformation, into a film composed of either
32:
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51:
1586:"Microbial and animal rhodopsins: structures, functions, and molecular mechanisms"
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that can uptake of gaseous molecules like carbon dioxide as well as contribute to
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
545:
Kassem S, van Leeuwen T, Lubbe AS, Wilson MR, Feringa BL, Leigh DA (May 2017).
513:
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1987:
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97:, acrylamide-azobenzene-quaternary ammonia, donor-acceptor Stenhouse adducts,
94:
78:
74:
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2334:
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1995:
1835:
Szymański W, Beierle JM, Kistemaker HA, Velema WA, Feringa BL (August 2013).
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841:
605:
308:
Depending on the isomeric state, photoswitches have the potential to replace
3014:
2100:
412:
245:
231:
117:) or heat when electrons transit from an excited state to a ground state. A
90:
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2401:
2352:
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2195:
2154:"A volumetric three-dimensional digital light photoactivatable dye display"
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1911:
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438:. Through irradiation of light, writing, erasing, and reading can parallel
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1519:
681:
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268:
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The three rates completely describe the isomerization from A to B where
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1942:
1853:
1836:
1601:
1479:"Photoswitchable catalysis based on the isomerisation of double bonds"
1442:
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structures can be achieved through photoisomerization of bistable
345:
213:
138:
61:
50:
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334:
1753:"Photochemical restoration of visual responses in blind mice"
1060:"Photochemical restoration of visual responses in blind mice"
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One of the most important properties of a photoswitch is its
35:
upon a change in its shape whereas a machine does. However,
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927:"Hydrazone-based switches, metallo-assemblies and sensors"
2368:"Shape-Persistent Actuators from Hydrazone Photoswitches"
1409:
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434:
photoswitches have been promising for use in rewritable
375:
Incorporation of photoswitchable molecules into porous
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2030:
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1878:"Photoprogramming Allostery in Human Serum Albumin"
329:, charge transport can be controlled with light. A
1107:Lerch MM, Szymański W, Feringa BL (March 2018).
319:highest and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
2623:"Photopharmacology: beyond proof of principle"
2752:
8:
2010:"The future of electronics is photoswitches"
1634:"Photochemical reaction | chemical reaction"
2259:"Enlightening Materials with Photoswitches"
2032:"Enlightening Materials with Photoswitches"
1704:"Biophysics of rhodopsins and optogenetics"
621:"Enlightening Materials with Photoswitches"
363:has been shown to shuttle protons across a
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2745:
2737:
2651:11370/d6714f52-c2c8-4e48-b345-238e98bcc776
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2649:
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2342:
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2152:Patel SK, Cao J, Lippert AR (July 2017).
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1315:
1083:
991:
942:
796:
755:
644:
521:
471:Photoswitches have been investigated for
2630:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2417:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2372:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1931:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1524:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1352:Stranius K, Börjesson K (January 2017).
670:Journal of the American Chemical Society
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488:
407:Chiral shape driven transformations in
161:is the fraction of photons absorbed by
2930:Motion-triggered contact insufficiency
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1290:Liu RS, Hammond GS (October 2000).
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2135:"How do photoelectric cells work?"
498:"The Future of Molecular Machines"
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14:
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925:Su X, Aprahamian I (March 2014).
3078:
2504:"Organic Photochromic Compounds"
1560:"Photochemical Changes in Opsin"
1152:The Journal of Organic Chemistry
822:Journal of Materials Chemistry C
1894:10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.8b00184
473:self-healable polymer materials
144:Photoisomerization from A to B:
290:ionotropic glutamate receptors
1:
1257:Accounts of Chemical Research
972:Accounts of Chemical Research
547:"Artificial molecular motors"
271:, and Nanoscope Therapeutics.
2925:Miniature snap-action switch
1769:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.05.022
1207:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00089
1076:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.05.022
984:10.1021/acs.accounts.0c00235
391:Nanoreactors and cell mimics
176:is the volume of the sample.
31:, a switch does not perform
2526:Organic Chemistry Frontiers
1428:10.1016/j.mtadv.2020.100058
1195:Journal of Natural Products
496:Aprahamian I (March 2020).
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1720:10.1007/s12551-020-00645-0
514:10.1021/acscentsci.0c00064
172:is the Avogadro constant,
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2775:
1988:10.1016/j.ica.2017.08.041
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56:Photoswitchable Molecules
25:electromagnetic radiation
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1415:Materials Today Advances
1113:Chemical Society Reviews
931:Chemical Society Reviews
785:Chemical Society Reviews
779:Klajn R (January 2014).
744:Chemical Society Reviews
705:Chemical Society Reviews
551:Chemical Society Reviews
377:metal organic frameworks
371:Guest uptake and release
342:digital light processing
3060:Vandal-resistant switch
2905:Magnetic proximity fuze
2101:10.1126/science.aaf6298
1976:Inorganica Chimica Acta
1638:Encyclopedia Britannica
1483:Chemical Communications
248:and the control of the
3005:Silicone rubber keypad
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2284:10.1002/adma.201905966
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1317:10.1073/pnas.210323197
646:10.1002/adma.201905966
467:Self-healing materials
327:n-doped semiconductors
296:Potential applications
222:
177:
153:is the quantum yield,
70:
59:
3065:Wireless light switch
2158:Nature Communications
217:
142:
119:photostationary state
65:
54:
2840:Electric switchboard
2511:Universitat Konstanz
2429:10.1021/jacs.8b09622
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1802:Nature Biotechnology
1564:Chemistry LibreTexts
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219:Retinal Photoswitch:
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2178:10.1038/ncomms15239
2170:2017NatCo...815239P
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2093:2016Sci...352.1443J
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1665:1968Natur.219..383I
1530:(19): 13210–13225.
1370:2017NatSR...741145S
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1158:(23): 11316–11329.
1029:2018PCCP...20.6868N
637:2020AdM....3205966G
502:ACS Central Science
331:photo-electric cell
2810:Contact protection
2800:Centrifugal switch
2700:10.1039/C9SC05321B
2538:10.1039/C6QO00653A
2263:Advanced Materials
2139:Explain that Stuff
2036:Advanced Materials
1496:10.1039/C9CC01891C
1358:Scientific Reports
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1037:10.1039/C8CP00096D
944:10.1039/C3CS60385G
834:10.1039/C6TC00110F
798:10.1039/C3CS60181A
757:10.1039/C9CS00203K
717:10.1039/C1CS15179G
625:Advanced Materials
563:10.1039/C7CS00245A
365:polymeric membrane
223:
178:
71:
60:
41:photoisomerization
3087:
3086:
3070:Zero speed switch
2693:(11): 3016–3021.
2642:10.1021/ja413063e
2565:10.1021/ol049082c
1943:10.1021/ja408104w
1854:10.1021/cr300179f
1602:10.1021/cr4003769
1489:(46): 6477–6486.
1444:Angewandte Chemie
1378:10.1038/srep41145
1269:10.1021/ar000165c
1241:978-0-8053-8329-4
1164:10.1021/jo502206g
1023:(10): 6868–6876.
904:10.1021/cr980070c
869:10.1021/cr9800715
828:(15): 3075–3093.
750:(12): 3406–3424.
676:(27): 9140–9143.
460:biological active
456:photopharmacology
450:Photopharmacology
244:, the release of
195:photopharmacology
29:molecular machine
3107:
3082:
2910:Magnetic starter
2900:Lightning switch
2850:Half-moon switch
2820:Crossover switch
2790:Battery isolator
2761:
2754:
2747:
2738:
2731:
2730:
2720:
2702:
2687:Chemical Science
2678:
2672:
2671:
2653:
2627:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2594:(6): 1214–1222.
2583:
2577:
2576:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2508:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2455:
2449:
2448:
2412:
2406:
2405:
2395:
2378:(3): 1196–1200.
2363:
2357:
2356:
2346:
2328:
2313:Nature Chemistry
2303:
2297:
2296:
2286:
2269:(20): e1905966.
2254:
2243:
2242:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2189:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2087:(6292): 1443–5.
2076:
2070:
2069:
2059:
2042:(20): e1905966.
2027:
2018:
2017:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1954:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1905:
1888:(7): 2215–2224.
1873:
1867:
1866:
1856:
1841:Chemical Reviews
1832:
1826:
1825:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1780:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1731:
1699:
1693:
1692:
1673:10.1038/219383a0
1648:
1642:
1641:
1630:
1624:
1623:
1613:
1590:Chemical Reviews
1581:
1575:
1574:
1572:
1571:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1539:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1498:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1430:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1389:
1349:
1340:
1339:
1329:
1319:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1190:
1184:
1183:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1119:(6): 1910–1937.
1104:
1098:
1097:
1087:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1012:
1006:
1005:
995:
978:(8): 1478–1487.
963:
957:
956:
946:
922:
916:
915:
898:(5): 1717–1740.
892:Chemical Reviews
887:
881:
880:
863:(5): 1741–1754.
857:Chemical Reviews
852:
846:
845:
817:
811:
810:
800:
776:
770:
769:
759:
735:
729:
728:
700:
694:
693:
665:
659:
658:
648:
631:(20): e1905966.
616:
610:
609:
598:10.1002/poc.3858
581:
575:
574:
557:(9): 2592–2621.
542:
536:
535:
525:
493:
454:In the field of
250:circadian rhythm
93:, nobormadiene,
16:Type of molecule
3115:
3114:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3090:
3089:
3088:
3083:
3074:
3050:Transfer switch
3030:Strowger switch
3025:Stepping switch
3020:Staircase timer
2975:Railroad switch
2935:Nintendo Switch
2915:Magnetic switch
2890:Latching switch
2865:Inertial switch
2860:Infinite switch
2815:Crossbar switch
2780:Analogue switch
2771:
2765:
2735:
2734:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2625:
2620:
2619:
2615:
2585:
2584:
2580:
2553:Organic Letters
2550:
2549:
2545:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2506:
2501:
2500:
2496:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2365:
2364:
2360:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2256:
2255:
2246:
2208:
2207:
2203:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2131:Woodford, Chris
2129:
2128:
2124:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2029:
2028:
2021:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1937:(47): 17683–6.
1924:
1923:
1919:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1750:
1749:
1745:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1659:(5152): 383–5.
1650:
1649:
1645:
1632:
1631:
1627:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1569:
1567:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1351:
1350:
1343:
1302:(21): 11153–8.
1289:
1288:
1284:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1242:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1145:
1144:
1140:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1014:
1013:
1009:
965:
964:
960:
924:
923:
919:
889:
888:
884:
854:
853:
849:
819:
818:
814:
778:
777:
773:
737:
736:
732:
702:
701:
697:
667:
666:
662:
618:
617:
613:
583:
582:
578:
544:
543:
539:
495:
494:
490:
485:
477:tautomerization
469:
452:
436:optical storage
429:
427:Optical storage
405:
403:Liquid crystals
393:
381:optoelectronics
373:
354:
306:
298:
258:
228:
212:
203:
171:
151:
137:
128:
115:phosphorescence
107:
49:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3113:
3111:
3103:
3102:
3092:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3077:
3075:
3073:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2955:Placebo button
2952:
2947:
2942:
2940:Optical switch
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2920:Mercury switch
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2805:Company switch
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2766:
2764:
2763:
2756:
2749:
2741:
2733:
2732:
2673:
2636:(6): 2178–91.
2613:
2578:
2559:(15): 2595–8.
2543:
2532:(2): 224–228.
2516:
2494:
2450:
2407:
2358:
2319:(1): 110–118.
2298:
2244:
2217:(6): 268–283.
2201:
2144:
2122:
2071:
2019:
2001:
1966:
1917:
1868:
1847:(8): 6114–78.
1827:
1808:(2): 126–127.
1792:
1743:
1714:(2): 355–361.
1694:
1643:
1625:
1576:
1551:
1510:
1469:
1450:(20): 4787–8.
1434:
1401:
1341:
1282:
1247:
1240:
1220:
1185:
1138:
1099:
1050:
1007:
958:
937:(6): 1963–81.
917:
882:
847:
812:
771:
730:
711:(5): 1809–25.
695:
660:
611:
576:
537:
508:(3): 347–358.
487:
486:
484:
481:
468:
465:
451:
448:
428:
425:
409:liquid crystal
404:
401:
392:
389:
372:
369:
353:
352:Energy storage
350:
305:
302:
297:
294:
257:
254:
227:
224:
211:
208:
202:
199:
169:
149:
136:
133:
127:
124:
106:
103:
48:
45:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3112:
3101:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3081:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3055:Vacuum switch
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2985:Rotary switch
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2785:Banyan switch
2783:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2774:
2769:
2762:
2757:
2755:
2750:
2748:
2743:
2742:
2739:
2728:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2624:
2617:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2582:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2547:
2544:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2520:
2517:
2512:
2505:
2498:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2454:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2411:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2302:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2253:
2251:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2211:ChemPhotoChem
2205:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2126:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2075:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1763:(2): 271–82.
1762:
1758:
1754:
1747:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1695:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1647:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1629:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1596:(1): 126–63.
1595:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1577:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1514:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1435:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1405:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1286:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1263:(7): 555–62.
1262:
1258:
1251:
1248:
1243:
1237:
1233:
1232:
1224:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1103:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1070:(2): 271–82.
1069:
1065:
1061:
1054:
1051:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1011:
1008:
1003:
999:
994:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
962:
959:
954:
950:
945:
940:
936:
932:
928:
921:
918:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
886:
883:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
851:
848:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
816:
813:
808:
804:
799:
794:
791:(1): 148–84.
790:
786:
782:
775:
772:
767:
763:
758:
753:
749:
745:
741:
734:
731:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
699:
696:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
664:
661:
656:
652:
647:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
615:
612:
607:
603:
599:
595:
592:(10): e3858.
591:
587:
580:
577:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
541:
538:
533:
529:
524:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
492:
489:
482:
480:
478:
474:
466:
464:
461:
457:
449:
447:
445:
441:
437:
433:
426:
424:
421:
420:
414:
410:
402:
400:
398:
390:
388:
386:
382:
378:
370:
368:
366:
362:
358:
351:
349:
347:
343:
338:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
314:
311:
303:
301:
295:
293:
291:
287:
286:serum albumin
283:
279:
278:transcription
273:
272:
270:
266:
255:
253:
251:
247:
243:
240:
237:
233:
225:
220:
216:
209:
207:
200:
198:
196:
192:
187:
183:
182:quantum yield
175:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
145:
141:
135:Quantum yield
134:
132:
125:
123:
120:
116:
112:
105:Isomerization
104:
102:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
68:
64:
57:
53:
46:
44:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3045:Touch switch
3000:Sense switch
2950:Piezo switch
2944:
2895:Light switch
2885:Limit switch
2880:Knife switch
2845:Float switch
2690:
2686:
2676:
2633:
2629:
2616:
2591:
2587:
2581:
2556:
2552:
2546:
2529:
2525:
2519:
2510:
2497:
2464:
2460:
2453:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2375:
2371:
2361:
2316:
2312:
2301:
2266:
2262:
2214:
2210:
2204:
2161:
2157:
2147:
2138:
2125:
2084:
2080:
2074:
2039:
2035:
2013:
2004:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1934:
1930:
1920:
1885:
1881:
1871:
1844:
1840:
1830:
1805:
1801:
1795:
1760:
1756:
1746:
1711:
1707:
1697:
1656:
1652:
1646:
1637:
1628:
1593:
1589:
1579:
1568:. Retrieved
1566:. 2013-10-02
1563:
1554:
1527:
1523:
1513:
1486:
1482:
1472:
1447:
1443:
1437:
1418:
1414:
1404:
1364:(1): 41145.
1361:
1357:
1299:
1295:
1285:
1260:
1256:
1250:
1230:
1223:
1198:
1194:
1188:
1155:
1151:
1141:
1116:
1112:
1102:
1067:
1063:
1053:
1020:
1016:
1010:
975:
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