510:. What this means is that for phrase structure rules to be applicable at all, one has to pursue a constituency-based understanding of sentence structure. The constituency relation is a one-to-one-or-more correspondence. For every word in a sentence, there is at least one node in the syntactic structure that corresponds to that word. The dependency relation, in contrast, is a one-to-one relation; for every word in the sentence, there is exactly one node in the syntactic structure that corresponds to that word. The distinction is illustrated with the following trees:
416:
535:. Here phrase structures are not derived from rules that combine words, but from the specification or instantiation of syntactic schemata or configurations, often expressing some kind of semantic content independently of the specific words that appear in them. This approach is essentially equivalent to a system of phrase structure rules combined with a non
453:, etc.). These transformations are not strictly required for generation, as the sentences they produce could be generated by a suitably expanded system of phrase structure rules alone, but transformations provide greater economy and enable significant relations between sentences to be reflected in the grammar.
461:
An important aspect of phrase structure rules is that they view sentence structure from the top down. The category on the left of the arrow is a greater constituent and the immediate constituents to the right of the arrow are lesser constituents. Constituents are successively broken down into their
374:
Beginning with the sentence symbol S, and applying the phrase structure rules successively, finally applying replacement rules to substitute actual words for the abstract symbols, it is possible to generate many proper sentences of
English (or whichever language the rules are specified for). If the
522:
The constituency tree on the left could be generated by phrase structure rules. The sentence S is broken down into smaller and smaller constituent parts. The dependency tree on the right could not, in contrast, be generated by phrase structure rules (at least not as they are commonly interpreted).
401:
as an illustration that phrase structure rules are capable of generating syntactically correct but semantically incorrect sentences. Phrase structure rules break sentences down into their constituent parts. These constituents are often represented as
470:
merges smaller constituents to create greater constituents until the greatest constituent (i.e. the sentence) is reached. In this regard, theoretical syntax abandoned phrase structure rules long ago, although their importance for
516:
531:
A number of representational phrase structure theories of grammar never acknowledged phrase structure rules, but have pursued instead an understanding of sentence structure in terms the notion of
342:
462:
parts as one moves down a list of phrase structure rules for a given sentence. This top-down view of sentence structure stands in contrast to much work done in modern theoretical syntax. In
269:
218:
445:, systems of phrase structure rules are supplemented by transformation rules, which act on an existing syntactic structure to produce a new one (performing such operations as
117:
605:
183:
163:
143:
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A constituent is any word or combination of words that is dominated by a single node. Thus each individual word is a constituent. Further, the subject NP
515:
542:
theory, since grammatical formalisms based on rewriting rules are generally equivalent in power to those based on substitution into schemata.
389:
578:
812:
751:
Falk, Y. 2001. Lexical-Functional
Grammar: An introduction to parallel constraint-based syntax. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.
650:
For general discussions of phrase structure rules, see for instance
Borsley (1991:34ff.), Brinton (2000:165), Falk (2001:46ff.).
545:
So in this type of approach, instead of being derived from the application of a number of phrase structure rules, the sentence
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718:Ágel, V., Ludwig Eichinger, Hans-Werner Eroms, Peter Hellwig, Hans Heringer, and Hennig Lobin (eds.) 2003/6.
434:
are constituents. Phrase structure rules and the tree structures that are associated with them are a form of
191:
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348:
573:
Though they are non-compositional, such models are monotonic. This approach is highly developed within
574:
368:
488:
Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed result in a view of sentence structure that is
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rules are correct, then any sentence produced in this way ought to be grammatically (syntactically)
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would be generated by filling the words into the slots of a schema having the following structure:
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467:
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363:) followed by a N (noun). The third rule means that a N (noun) can be preceded by an optional AP (
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Dependency grammars are associated above all with the work of Lucien Tesnière (1959).
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379:. It is also to be expected that the rules will generate syntactically correct but
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for instance, sentence structure is generated from the bottom up. The operation
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58:. Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed operate according to the
725:
Borsley, R. 1991. Syntactic theory: A unified approach. London: Edward Arnold.
407:
403:
360:
695:
Concerning Head-Driven Phrase
Structure Grammar, see Pollard and Sag (1994).
677:
The most comprehensive source on dependency grammar is Ágel et al. (2003/6).
539:
380:
62:
relation, and a grammar that employs phrase structure rules is therefore a
748:
Chomsky, N. 1995. The
Minimalist Program. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press.
720:
Dependency and
Valency: An International Handbook of Contemporary Research
39:
768:
Tesnière, L. 1959. Éleménts de syntaxe structurale. Paris: Klincksieck.
620:
359:). The second rule reads: A noun phrase consists of an optional Det (
51:
27:
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categories. A grammar that uses phrase structure rules is a type of
585:, the latter two clearly qualifying as phrase structure grammars.
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nonsensical sentences, such as the following well-known example:
745:
Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic
Structures. The Hague/Paris: Mouton.
756:
410:). The tree for Chomsky's sentence can be rendered as follows:
704:
Concerning
Lexical Functional Grammar, see Bresnan (2001).
561:
And which would express the following conceptual content:
86:
Phrase structure rules are usually of the following form:
318:
290:
257:
492:. Thus, grammars that employ phrase structure rules are
16:
Rewrite rule used to describe a given language's syntax
371:). The round brackets indicate optional constituents.
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337:{\displaystyle {\ce {N1->(AP)\quad N1\quad (PP)}}}
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227:
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and are closely associated with the early stages of
42:sentence into its constituent parts, also known as
606:Discontinuous-constituent phrase structure grammar
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735:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
38:in 1957. They are used to break down a natural
728:Bresnan, Joan 2001. Lexical Functional Syntax.
8:
742:, 3rd edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
264:{\displaystyle {\ce {NP->(Det)\quad N1}}}
185:. Some examples for English are as follows:
145:is separated into the two subconstituents
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213:{\displaystyle {\ce {S->NP\quad VP}}}
765:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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547:Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
390:Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
46:, including both lexical categories (
7:
763:Head-driven phrase structure grammar
579:Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar
68:; as such, it stands in contrast to
26:used to describe a given language's
506:, which view sentence structure as
367:) and followed by an optional PP (
14:
740:Syntax: A Generative Introduction
397:This sentence was constructed by
668:See for instance Chomsky (1995).
514:
414:
733:The structure of modern English
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611:Immediate constituent analysis
577:and has had some influence in
436:immediate constituent analysis
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99:
1:
761:Pollard, C. and I. Sag 1994.
112:{\displaystyle A\to B\quad C}
722:. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
616:Non-configurational language
567:X DOES Y IN THE MANNER OF Z
484:Constituency vs. dependency
347:The first rule reads: A S (
829:
758:. Oxford University Press.
583:lexical functional grammar
527:Representational grammars
498:phrase structure grammars
473:computational linguistics
74:, which are based on the
626:Phrase structure grammar
475:seems to remain intact.
443:transformational grammar
56:phrase structure grammar
32:transformational grammar
813:Syntactic relationships
82:Definition and examples
479:Alternative approaches
338:
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214:
179:
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20:Phrase structure rules
494:constituency grammars
424:Colorless green ideas
339:
266:
215:
180:
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140:
114:
808:Syntactic categories
575:Construction grammar
369:prepositional phrase
355:) followed by a VP (
351:) consists of a NP (
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225:
192:
169:
149:
129:
93:
65:constituency grammar
44:syntactic categories
754:Goldberg, A. 2006.
503:dependency grammars
320:
292:
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71:dependency grammars
793:Syntactic theories
783:Grammar frameworks
731:Brinton, L. 2000.
631:Syntactic category
601:Dependency grammar
490:constituency-based
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308:
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788:Generative syntax
738:Carnie, A. 2013.
500:), as opposed to
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178:{\displaystyle C}
158:{\displaystyle B}
138:{\displaystyle A}
122:meaning that the
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432:sleep furiously
426:, the minor NP
404:tree structures
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34:, proposed by
22:are a type of
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537:compositional
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451:passivization
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430:, and the VP
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399:Noam Chomsky
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381:semantically
373:
346:
121:
85:
70:
64:
60:constituency
36:Noam Chomsky
24:rewrite rule
19:
18:
596:Constituent
428:green ideas
408:dendrograms
357:verb phrase
353:noun phrase
124:constituent
777:Categories
712:References
464:Minimalism
361:determiner
78:relation.
76:dependency
294:⟶
233:⟶
200:⟶
100:→
589:See also
540:semantic
457:Top down
447:negation
349:sentence
40:language
798:Phrases
377:correct
52:phrasal
803:Syntax
621:Phrase
555:VP AP]
533:schema
50:) and
28:syntax
638:Notes
468:Merge
581:and
165:and
496:(=
441:In
240:Det
779::
449:,
438:.
327:PP
301:AP
230:NP
207:VP
203:NP
406:(
330:)
324:(
314:1
310:N
304:)
298:(
286:1
282:N
253:1
249:N
243:)
237:(
197:S
173:C
153:B
133:A
107:C
103:B
97:A
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