1190:. A descriptively adequate grammar for a particular language defines the (infinite) set of grammatical sentences in that language; that is, it describes the language in its entirety. A grammar that achieves explanatory adequacy has the additional property that it gives insight into the mind's underlying linguistic structures. In other words, it does not merely describe the grammar of a language, but makes predictions about how linguistic knowledge is mentally represented. For Chomsky, such mental representations are largely innate and so if a grammatical theory has explanatory adequacy, it must be able to explain different languages' grammatical nuances as relatively minor variations in the universal pattern of human language.
376:, sentences are automatically transformed by the move operation from the underlying SVO order on which the matrix of all sentences in all languages is reconstructed. Therefore, there is no longer a need for a separate surface and deep matrix and additional rules of conversion between the two levels. According to Chomsky, this solution allows sufficient descriptive and explanatory adequacy—descriptive because all languages are analyzed on the same matrix, and explanatory because the analysis shows in which particular way the sentence is derived from the (hypothesized) initial cognitive state.
1249:
and thus a mental object. From that perspective, most of theoretical linguistics is a branch of psychology. E-language encompasses all other notions of what a language is, such as a body of knowledge or behavioural habits shared by a community. Thus E-language is not a coherent concept by itself, and
Chomsky argues that such notions of language are not useful in the study of innate linguistic knowledge or competence even though they may seem sensible and intuitive and useful in other areas of study. Competence, he argues, can be studied only if languages are treated as mental objects.
2438:, Zwart 1998 observed, "D-Structure is eliminated in the sense that there is no base component applying rewrite rules to generate an empty structure which is to be fleshed out later by 'all at once' lexical insertion. Instead, structures are created by combining elements drawn from the lexicon, and there is no stage in the process at which we can stop and say: this is D-Structure." Similarly, "there is no need for language particular S-Structure conditions in order to describe word order variation" and can be handled by LF.
818:
1025:, took transformations to be relations between sentences such as "I finally met this talkshow host you always detested" and simpler (kernel) sentences "I finally met this talkshow host" and "You always detested this talkshow host." A transformational-generative (or simply transformational) grammar thus involved two types of productive rules:
982:
either atomic or generated by other rules, and combine them. For example, the generalized transformation of embedding would take the kernel "Dave said X" and the kernel "Dan likes smoking" and combine them into "Dave said Dan likes smoking." GTs are thus structure-building rather than structure-changing. In the
Extended Standard Theory and
938:(SAI). That rule takes as its input a declarative sentence with an auxiliary, such as "John has eaten all the heirloom tomatoes", and transforms it into "Has John eaten all the heirloom tomatoes?" In the original formulation (Chomsky 1957), those rules were stated as rules that held over strings of terminals, constituent symbols or both.
974:
to have gone", and a third reordered arguments in the dative alternation. With the shift from rules to principles and constraints in the 1970s, those construction-specific transformations morphed into general rules (all the examples just mentioned are instances of NP movement), which eventually changed into the single general rule
1073:. He argued that it is impossible to describe the structure of natural languages with context-free grammars. His general position on the non-context-freeness of natural language has held up since then, though his specific examples of the inadequacy of CFGs in terms of their weak generative capacity were disproved.
1248:
that is similar but not identical to the competence/performance distinction. "I-language" is internal language; "E-language" is external language. I-language is taken to be the object of study in linguistic theory; it is the mentally represented linguistic knowledge a native speaker of a language has
1193:
Chomsky argued that even though linguists were still a long way from constructing descriptively adequate grammars, progress in descriptive adequacy would come only if linguists held explanatory adequacy as their goal: real insight into individual languages' structure can be gained only by comparative
1109:
Chomsky argued that "grammatical" and "ungrammatical" can be meaningfully and usefully defined. In contrast, an extreme behaviorist linguist would argue that language can be studied only through recordings or transcriptions of actual speech and that the role of the linguist is to look for patterns in
1086:
Using a term such as "transformation" may give the impression that theories of transformational generative grammar are intended as a model of the processes by which the human mind constructs and understands sentences, but
Chomsky clearly stated that a generative grammar models only the knowledge that
973:
The earliest conceptions of transformations were that they were construction-specific devices. For example, there was a transformation that turned active sentences into passive ones. A different transformation raised embedded subjects into main clause subject position in sentences such as "John seems
969:
In the 1970s, by the time of the
Extended Standard Theory, following Joseph Emonds's work on structure preservation, transformations came to be viewed as holding over trees. By the end of government and binding theory, in the late 1980s, transformations were no longer structure-changing operations at
903:
But the fundamental reason for inadequacy of traditional grammars is a more technical one. Although it was well understood that linguistic processes are in some sense "creative," the technical devices for expressing a system of recursive processes were simply not available until much more recently.
1212:
To complicate the understanding of the development of
Chomsky's theories, the precise meanings of deep structure and surface structure have changed over time. By the 1970s, Chomskyan linguists normally called them D-Structure and S-Structure. In particular, Chomskyan linguists dropped for good the
1202:
Though transformations continue to be important in
Chomsky's theories, he has now abandoned the original notion of deep structure and surface structure. Initially, two additional levels of representation were introduced—logical form (LF) and phonetic form (PF), but in the 1990s, Chomsky sketched a
1040:
In this context, transformational rules are not strictly necessary to generate the set of grammatical sentences in a language, since that can be done using phrase structure rules alone, but the use of transformations provides economy in some cases (the number of rules can be reduced), and it also
981:
Transformations actually come in two types: the post-deep structure kind mentioned above, which are string- or structure-changing, and generalized transformations (GTs). GTs were originally proposed in the earliest forms of generative grammar (such as in
Chomsky 1957). They take small structures,
1094:
Chomsky is not the first person to suggest that all languages have certain fundamental things in common. He quoted philosophers who posited the same basic idea several centuries ago. But
Chomsky helped make the innateness theory respectable after a period dominated by more behaviorist attitudes
1351:
In 1983 Koerner retracted his earlier statement suggesting that transformational grammar was a 1960s fad that had spread across the U.S. at a time when the federal government had invested heavily in new linguistic departments. But he claims
Chomsky's work is unoriginal when compared to other
1118:
is enough to define the grammaticality of a sentence; that is, if a particular string of
English words elicits a double-take or a feeling of wrongness in a native English speaker, with various extraneous factors affecting intuitions controlled for, it can be said that the string of words is
1110:
such observed speech, not to hypothesize about why such patterns might occur or to label particular utterances grammatical or ungrammatical. Few linguists in the 1950s actually took such an extreme position, but Chomsky was on the opposite extreme, defining grammaticality in an unusually
1029:, such as "S → NP VP" (a sentence may consist of a noun phrase followed by a verb phrase) etc., which could be used to generate grammatical sentences with associated parse trees (phrase markers, or P markers); and transformational rules, such as rules for converting statements to
1328:. In 1998, Chomsky suggested that derivations proceed in phases. The distinction between deep structure and surface structure is absent in Minimalist theories of syntax, and the most recent phase-based theories also eliminate LF and PF as unitary levels of representation.
882:
developed the idea that each sentence in a language has two levels of representation: a deep structure and a surface structure. But these are not quite identical to Hjelmslev's content plane and expression plane. The deep structure represents the core
1267:. It aims to further develop ideas involving "economy of derivation" and "economy of representation", which had started to become significant in the early 1990s but were still rather peripheral aspects of transformational-generative grammar theory:
1119:
ungrammatical. That, according to Chomsky, is entirely distinct from the question of whether a sentence is meaningful or can be understood. It is possible for a sentence to be both grammatical and meaningless, as in Chomsky's famous example, "
1390:, in order to win popularity among the Europeans. The transformational agenda was subsequently forced through at American conferences where students, instructed by Chomsky, regularly verbally attacked and ridiculed his potential opponents.
1324:: rules should not be stipulated as applying at arbitrary points in a derivation but instead apply throughout derivations. Minimalist approaches to phrase structure have resulted in "Bare Phrase Structure", an attempt to eliminate
181:
It was generally agreed that a degree of simplicity improves the quality of speech and writing, but closer inspection of the deep structures of different types of sentences led to many further insights, such as the concept of
162:. It is more desirable, for example, to say "Maggie and Alex went to the market" than to express the full underlying idea "Maggie went to the market and Alex went to the market". Such phenomena were described in terms of
1123:". But such sentences manifest a linguistic problem that is distinct from that posed by meaningful but ungrammatical (non)-sentences such as "man the bit sandwich the", the meaning of which is fairly clear, but which no
1166:. Chomsky noted the obvious fact that when people speak in the real world, they often make linguistic errors, such as starting a sentence and then abandoning it midway through. He argued that such errors in linguistic
1315:
Economy of representation is the principle that grammatical structures must exist for a purpose: the structure of a sentence should be no larger or more complex than required to satisfy constraints on grammaticality.
1044:
This notion of transformation proved adequate for subsequent versions, including the "extended", "revised extended", and Government-Binding (GB) versions of generative grammar, but it may no longer be sufficient for
1319:
Both notions, as described here, are somewhat vague, and their precise formulation is controversial. An additional aspect of minimalist thought is the idea that the derivation of syntactic structures should be
925:
The usual usage of the term "transformation" in linguistics refers to a rule that takes an input, typically called the deep structure (in the Standard Theory) or D-structure (in the extended standard theory or
899:. Deep structure was developed largely for technical reasons related to early semantic theory. Chomsky emphasized the importance of modern formal mathematical devices in the development of grammatical theory:
1087:
underlies the human ability to speak and understand, arguing that because most of that knowledge is innate, a baby can have a large body of knowledge about the structure of language in general and so need to
1174:, the knowledge that allows people to construct and understand grammatical sentences. Consequently, the linguist can study an idealised version of language, which greatly simplifies linguistic analysis.
47:. It considers grammar to be a system of rules that generate exactly those combinations of words that form grammatical sentences in a given language and involves the use of defined operations (called
1095:
towards language. He made concrete and technically sophisticated proposals about the structure of language as well as important proposals about how grammatical theories' success should be evaluated.
321:
Transformational generative grammar included two kinds of rules: phrase-structure rules and transformational rules. But scholars abandoned the project in the 1970s. Based on Chomsky's concept of
1348:'s sociological approach to a Chomskyan conception of linguistics as analogous to chemistry and physics. Koerner also praised the philosophical and psychological value of Chomsky's theory.
1537:
1606:
960:
310:
in humans. In particular, generative linguists tried to reconstruct the underlying innate structure based on deep structure and unmarked forms. Thus, a modern notion of
1138:
of observed speech became downplayed since the grammatical properties of constructed sentences were considered appropriate data on which to build a grammatical model.
302:. While the humanistic grammarians considered language manmade, Chomsky and his colleagues exploited markedness and transformation theory in their attempt to uncover
190:
in active and passive sentences. Transformations were given an explanatory role. Sanctius, among others, argued that surface structures pertaining to the choice of
990:
as the Substitution and Adjunction operations, and have recently reemerged in mainstream generative grammar in Minimalism, as the operations Merge and Move.
1308:"), but in most sentences, that inflection just duplicates the information about number that the subject noun already has, and the inflection is therefore
80:. In such a context, the addition of the values of one and two, for example, transform into the value of three; many types of transformation are possible.
908:'s words) "make infinite use of finite means" has developed only within the last thirty years, in the course of studies in the foundations of mathematics.
2410:
1041:
provides a way of representing the grammatical relations between sentences, which would not be reflected in a system with phrase structure rules alone.
1037:, which acted on the phrase markers to produce other grammatically correct sentences. Hjelmslev had called word-order conversion rules "permutations".
895:. The concept of transformations had been proposed before the development of deep structure to increase the mathematical and descriptive power of
349:
2580:
194:
in certain Latin expressions could not be understood without the restoration of the deep structure. His full transformational system included
2816:
2747:
1945:
1892:
1754:
1520:
1120:
845:
1419:
1409:
859:
735:
167:
1978:
1793:
Percival, William Keith (1976). "Deep and surface structure concepts in renaissance and mediaeval syntactic theory". In Parret (ed.).
1587:
Percival, William Keith (1976). "Deep and surface structure concepts in renaissance and mediaeval syntactic theory". In Parret (ed.).
1572:
Percival, William Keith (1976). "Deep and surface structure concepts in renaissance and mediaeval syntactic theory". In Parret (ed.).
240:
151:
2850:
2728:
2710:
2562:
2516:
2486:
2461:
2065:
2037:
2005:
1619:
1550:
1495:
1378:, where an exceptional opportunity was arranged for Chomsky to give a keynote speech making questionable claims of belonging to the
1209:, in which deep structure and surface structure are no longer featured and PF and LF remain as the only levels of representation.
1625:
878:
695:
473:
2093:
755:
700:
333:. These findings could not be generalized cross-linguistically whereby they could not belong to an innate universal grammar.
1363:
1182:
The other idea related directly to evaluation of theories of grammar. Chomsky distinguished between grammars that achieve
983:
927:
730:
421:
1146:
In the 1960s, Chomsky introduced two central ideas relevant to the construction and evaluation of grammatical theories.
675:
541:
2157:
1294:
can be used to refer only to several dogs, not a single dog, and so the inflection contributes to meaning by making it
2840:
935:
795:
501:
348:. This more lenient approach offers more prospects of universalizability. It is, for example, argued that the English
1374:. Koerner suggests that great sums of money were spent to fly foreign students to the 1962 International Congress at
2835:
1434:
2053:
1002:
838:
785:
685:
511:
1961:
Benmamoun, labbas; Choueiri, Lina (2013). "The Syntax of Arabic From A Generative Perspective". In Owens (ed.).
1353:
1234:
690:
633:
448:
268:
2336:
1454:
790:
628:
605:
222:
1449:
1162:
1111:
987:
931:
740:
707:
660:
576:
556:
536:
438:
416:
411:
298:
The transformational grammar of the 1960s differs from the Renaissance linguistics in its relation to the
198:
159:
147:
107:
99:
84:
67:
170:
of the second, and the second expression is the deep structure of the first. The notions of ellipsis and
2845:
1602:
1473:{{cite book|author=Carnap, Rudolph |title=Philosophy and Logical Syntax |publisher=AMS Press |year=1935}
1345:
1156:
1026:
516:
244:
76:
2665:
Koerner, E. F. K. (1983). "The Chomskyan 'revolution' and its historiography: a few critical remarks".
2332:
1821:
1414:
1383:
1214:
1066:
905:
896:
831:
760:
670:
551:
496:
393:
218:
1263:
From the mid-1990s onward, much research in transformational grammar has been inspired by Chomsky's
2398:
2206:
1429:
1050:
930:), and changes it in some restricted way to result in a surface structure (or S-structure). In TG,
601:
531:
506:
478:
131:
1213:
idea that a sentence's deep structure determined its meaning (taken to its logical conclusions by
945:
817:
102:
separation of semantics from syntax. Hjelmslev's structuralist conception including semantics and
2798:
2774:
2632:
2597:
2536:
2376:
2264:
2229:
2180:
2021:
1857:
1713:
1673:
1439:
1387:
1375:
1358:
1299:
1264:
1258:
1205:
1194:
study of a wide range of languages, on the assumption that they are all cut from the same cloth.
1046:
986:, GTs were abandoned in favor of recursive phrase structure rules, but they are still present in
821:
800:
770:
725:
680:
648:
638:
526:
521:
345:
337:
299:
256:
252:
40:
2123:
118:
Transformational analysis is a part of the classical Western grammatical tradition based on the
2533:
the I-language is the actual function, whereas the E-language is the extension of this function
1352:
syntactic models of the time. According to Koerner, Chomsky's rise to fame was orchestrated by
1271:
Economy of derivation is the principle that movements, or transformations, occur only to match
2812:
2743:
2724:
2706:
2558:
2512:
2482:
2457:
2388:
2384:
2368:
2089:
2061:
2033:
2001:
1974:
1970:
1941:
1888:
1849:
1750:
1615:
1546:
1516:
1491:
1070:
998:
873:
665:
643:
586:
353:
326:
311:
272:
187:
44:
2766:
2674:
2624:
2615:
Lappin, Shalom; Levine, Robert; Johnson, David (2001). "The Revolution Maximally Confused".
2589:
2406:
2393:
2256:
2221:
2172:
2138:
1966:
1913:
1880:
1839:
1829:
1775:
1742:
1665:
1337:
765:
596:
591:
566:
561:
546:
369:
365:
361:
191:
91:
71:
2247:
Pullum, Geoffrey K.; Gerald Gazdar (1982). "Natural languages and context-free languages".
2081:
1371:
1065:
An important feature of all transformational grammars is that they are more powerful than
1010:
306:. It would be later clarified that such grammar arises from a brain structure caused by a
183:
87:
59:
1053:
may require a formal definition that goes beyond the tree manipulation characteristic of
1825:
2505:
2450:
1884:
1844:
1809:
1746:
1424:
1404:
1367:
1341:
1218:
1124:
1115:
1104:
610:
303:
264:
248:
143:
2493:(Supervised by Noam Chomsky, this dissertation introduced the idea of "logical form.")
970:
all; instead, they add information to already existing trees by copying constituents.
336:
The concept of transformation was nevertheless not fully rejected. In Chomsky's 1990s
158:, so learning to use a language correctly requires certain additional effects such as
2829:
2806:
2678:
2636:
2601:
2531:
Chomsky, Noam (2001). "Derivation by Phase." In other words, in algebraic terms, and
2380:
2268:
2233:
2142:
1995:
1677:
1539:
Structure and Function: A Guide to Three Major Structural-Functional Theories, part 1
1444:
1135:
1034:
1030:
1022:
330:
95:
63:
2184:
1861:
2778:
2696:
1875:
Battistella, Edwin (2015). "Markedness in Linguistics". In Wright, James D. (ed.).
1737:
Battistella, Edwin (2015). "Markedness in Linguistics". In Wright, James D. (ed.).
1399:
1325:
865:
653:
443:
373:
288:
284:
280:
55:
174:
are complementary: the deep structure is converted into the surface structure and
2700:
2283:
2027:
314:, in contrast to the humanistic classics, suggested that the basic word order of
2188:
1810:"Evolutionary Dynamics Do Not Motivate a Single-Mutant Theory of Human Language"
1698:
1379:
805:
780:
401:
292:
154:, 1587). The core observation is that grammatical rules alone do not constitute
135:
119:
20:
2795:- Chapter 1 of I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science.
2402:
1834:
295:, developed what they called transformational generative grammar in the 1960s.
247:
argued for limiting linguistic analysis to the surface structure. By contrast,
2792:
2770:
2628:
2593:
1669:
1280:
1230:
775:
458:
322:
276:
232:
228:
103:
2372:
2176:
1917:
1779:
1221:
had begun to argue that both deep and surface structure determined meaning).
1217:
during the same period) when LF took over this role (previously, Chomsky and
1134:
to base their research on a methodology in which studying language through a
2808:
I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science, 2nd edition
2578:
Lappin, Shalom; Levine, Robert; Johnson, David (2000). "Topic ... Comment".
1650:
994:
888:
884:
750:
745:
581:
571:
463:
453:
202:
127:
1908:
Partee, Barbara (2011). "Formal Semantics: Origins, Issues, Early Impact".
1853:
1770:
Partee, Barbara (2011). "Formal Semantics: Origins, Issues, Early Impact".
1091:
only the idiosyncratic features of the language(s) to which it is exposed.
1054:
975:
329:, Katz and Fodor had conducted their research on English grammar employing
1808:
de Boer, Bart; Thompson, Bill; Ravigniani, Andrea; Boeckx, Cedric (2020).
887:
of a sentence and is mapped onto the surface structure, which follows the
934:
generate deep structures. For example, a typical transformation in TG is
307:
212:
155:
139:
134:. These were joined to establish linguistics as a natural science in the
1717:
876:
practice of excluding semantics from structural analysis, his 1965 book
94:
in 1908. Chomsky adopted the concept of transformation from his teacher
2260:
2225:
2060:. Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics. Blackwell Publishers. p. 2.
1910:
The Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication
1772:
The Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication
1006:
341:
1699:"Jakobson und Husserl: Ein beitrag zur genealogie Des strukturalismus"
83:
Generative algebra was first introduced to general linguistics by the
2650:
Koerner, E. F. K. (1978). "Towards a historiography of linguistics".
2543:. MIT Press. Pages 1-52. (See p. 49 fn. 2 for comment on E-language.)
1131:
468:
206:
2757:
Zwart, Jan-Wouter (1998). "Review Article: The Minimalist Program".
1877:
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
1739:
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
123:
357:
1344:
in linguistics, arguing that it had brought about a shift from
239:
Transformational analysis fell out of favor with the rise of
54:
The method is commonly associated with the American linguist
178:
from it by what were later known as transformational rules.
2207:"Evidence against the context-freeness of natural language"
2056:(1995). "Phonological Theory". In John A. Goldsmith (ed.).
1651:"Husserl on Meaning, Grammar, and the Structure of Content"
66:
introduced the term "transformation" in his application of
1795:
History of Linguistic Thought and Contemporary Linguistics
1589:
History of Linguistic Thought and Contemporary Linguistics
1574:
History of Linguistic Thought and Contemporary Linguistics
2347:[Transformational-generative approach to language in
1130:
The use of such intuitive judgments permitted generative
904:
In fact, a real understanding of how a language can (in
2652:
Toward a Historiography of Linguistics: Selected Essays
1279:. An example of an interpretable feature is the plural
318:
is unmarked, and unmodified in transformational terms.
215:, the occurrence of syntactically superfluous elements;
2124:"On the generative power of transformational grammars"
1340:
hailed transformational grammar as the third and last
271:, which was likewise influenced by Saussure. Based on
1229:"E-language" redirects here. Not to be confused with
948:
166:. In modern terminology, the first expression is the
58:'s biologically oriented concept of language. But in
2112:, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Inc., 1966, pp. 59–69.
1114:
way for the time. He argued that the intuition of a
279:and, having moved to the United States, influenced
138:. Transformational analysis was later developed by
2504:
2449:
1009:) and the surface form that is articulated during
954:
90:, although the method was described before him by
2801:– an online textbook on transformational grammar.
243:in the 19th century, and the historical linguist
1938:The Minimalist Program. 20th Anniversary Edition
1240:In 1986, Chomsky proposed a distinction between
364:) represents the initial state of the cognitive
51:) to produce new sentences from existing ones.
2337:"Transformacijsko-generativni pristup jeziku u
1488:Western linguistics: An historical introduction
1298:. English verbs are inflected according to the
901:
2742:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 47–55.
2158:"Three models for the description of language"
1481:
1479:
251:, in his 1921 elaboration of the 17th-century
2452:Semantic Interpretation in Generative Grammar
1965:. Oxford Umiversity Press. pp. 115–164.
839:
8:
2110:An Introduction to Transformational Grammars
1879:(2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 533–537.
1741:(2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 533–537.
1302:of their subject ("Dogs bite" v. "A dog bite
1203:new program of research known at first as
1170:are irrelevant to the study of linguistic
846:
832:
388:
325:as the proper subject of linguistics as a
1963:The Oxford handbook of Arabic linguistics
1843:
1833:
947:
2617:Natural Language & Linguistic Theory
2581:Natural Language & Linguistic Theory
997:, another form of transformation is the
287:. Chomsky and his colleagues, including
16:Part of the theory of generative grammar
2765:. Cambridge University Press: 213–226.
2024:of 1660 identified similar principles;
1971:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199764136.013.0006
1513:Saussure and Sechehaye: Myth and Genius
1466:
1178:Descriptive versus explanatory adequacy
1001:, which describes a mapping between an
966:(NP = Noun Phrase and AUX = Auxiliary)
891:form of the sentence very closely, via
400:
2165:IRE Transactions on Information Theory
1912:. Vol. 6. BIYCLC. pp. 1–52.
1797:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 238–253.
1774:. Vol. 6. BIYCLC. pp. 1–52.
1591:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 238–253.
1576:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 238–253.
1186:and those that go further and achieve
1069:. Chomsky formalized this idea in the
2805:Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2013).
2416:from the original on January 16, 2013
1931:
1929:
1927:
1121:colorless green ideas sleep furiously
7:
2122:Peters, Stanley; R. Ritchie (1973).
1420:Head-driven phrase structure grammar
1410:Generalised phrase structure grammar
860:Deep structure and surface structure
736:Conservative and innovative language
385:Deep structure and surface structure
2086:Prolegomena to a Theory of Language
2058:The Handbook of Phonological Theory
275:, Jakobson developed his theory of
33:transformational-generative grammar
2740:The linguistics studentʻs handbook
2312:(Second ed.). Academic Press.
1885:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.52037-6
1747:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.52037-6
241:historical-comparative linguistics
14:
2654:. John Benjamins. pp. 21–54.
2088:. University of Wisconsin Press.
340:, transformations pertain to the
1614:. New York: Philosophy Library.
1336:In 1978, linguist and historian
1283:on regular English nouns, e.g.,
1154:One was the distinction between
816:
263:). Husserl's concept influenced
2353:Aspects of the theory of syntax
2308:Newmeyer, Frederick J. (1986).
1997:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
1536:Butler, Christopher S. (2003).
914:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
879:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
152:Francisco Sánchez de las Brozas
2799:The Syntax of Natural Language
949:
259:on classical transformations (
1:
2479:The Grammar of Quantification
2032:. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
1608:Course in general linguistics
1486:Seuren, Pieter A. M. (1998).
1364:Linguistic Society of America
1225:"I-language" and "E-language"
1150:Competence versus performance
1127:would accept as well-formed.
984:government and binding theory
928:government and binding theory
368:. However, in languages like
221:, the violation of a rule of
201:, the deletion of understood
2679:10.1016/0271-5309(83)90012-5
2667:Language & Communication
2541:Ken Hale: A Life in Language
2310:Linguistic Theory in America
2143:10.1016/0020-0255(73)90027-3
955:{\displaystyle \Rightarrow }
676:Functional discourse grammar
542:Ethnography of communication
2811:. Oxford University Press.
2705:, The Hague/Paris: Mouton,
1082:Innate linguistic knowledge
1061:Mathematical representation
936:subject-auxiliary inversion
796:Second-language acquisition
39:) is part of the theory of
2867:
2343:Aspektima teorije sintakse
2249:Linguistics and Philosophy
2214:Linguistics and Philosophy
1835:10.1038/s41598-019-57235-8
1706:Tijdschrift voor Filosofie
1697:Holenstein, Elmar (2018).
1435:Lexical functional grammar
1256:
1228:
1102:
857:
474:Syntax–semantics interface
267:, who advocated it in the
231:, the violation of normal
2771:10.1017/S0022226797006889
2361:SOL: LingvistiÄŤki ÄŤasopis
1670:10.1007/s10743-017-9223-2
1649:Bianchin, Matteo (2018).
1003:underlying representation
786:Philosophy of linguistics
686:Interactional linguistics
2851:Syntactic transformation
2481:. MIT Phd Dissertation.
2448:Jackendoff, Ray (1974).
2339:SintaktiÄŤkim strukturama
2205:Shieber, Stuart (1985).
2177:10.1109/TIT.1956.1056813
1918:10.4148/biyclc.v6i0.1580
1780:10.4148/biyclc.v6i0.1580
1277:uninterpretable features
1235:E (programming language)
269:Prague linguistic circle
25:transformational grammar
2629:10.1023/A:1013397516214
2594:10.1023/A:1006474128258
2477:May, Robert C. (1977).
1511:Seuren, Pieter (2018).
1455:Transformational syntax
1382:tradition of Saussure,
1370:, a personal friend of
1215:generative semanticists
1198:Development of concepts
255:, based his version of
2759:Journal of Linguistics
2738:Bauer, Laurie (2007).
2721:The Minimalist Program
2719:Chomsky, Noam (1995).
2555:The Minimalist Program
2553:Chomsky, Noam (1995).
2503:Chomsky, Noam (1986).
2436:The Minimalist Program
2284:"Language Acquisition"
2156:Chomsky, Noam (1956).
2026:Chomsky, Noam (1972).
1994:Chomsky, Noam (1965).
1936:Chomsky, Noam (2015).
1603:de Saussure, Ferdinand
1450:Structural linguistics
1273:interpretable features
1027:phrase structure rules
988:tree-adjoining grammar
956:
932:phrase structure rules
918:
623:Theoretical frameworks
577:Philosophy of language
557:History of linguistics
150:(1540), and Sanctius (
148:Julius Caesar Scaliger
130:and on the grammar of
100:American descriptivist
68:Alfred North Whitehead
2507:Knowledge of Language
2363:(in Serbo-Croatian).
2355:of Noam Chomsky]
1362:, the journal of the
1346:Ferdinand de Saussure
1257:Further information:
1103:Further information:
1067:context-free grammars
957:
897:context-free grammars
517:Conversation analysis
283:, especially through
245:Ferdinand de Saussure
106:is incorporated into
77:Principia Mathematica
2702:Syntactic Structures
2511:. New York:Praeger.
2349:Syntactic structures
2131:Information Sciences
1415:Generative semantics
1188:explanatory adequacy
1184:descriptive adequacy
946:
870:Syntactic Structures
761:Internet linguistics
671:Construction grammar
372:, which has a basic
142:grammarians such as
2793:What is I-language?
1826:2020NatSR..10..451D
1490:. Wiley-Blackwell.
1021:Chomsky's advisor,
874:distributionalistic
696:Systemic functional
491:Applied linguistics
433:General linguistics
164:understood elements
132:Apollonius Dyscolus
98:, who followed the
85:structural linguist
2841:Grammar frameworks
2537:Michael Kenstowicz
2261:10.1007/BF00360802
2226:10.1007/BF00630917
2022:Port-Royal Grammar
1814:Scientific Reports
1545:. John Benjamins.
1440:Minimalist program
1388:Port-Royal Grammar
1342:Kuhnian revolution
1332:Critical reception
1265:minimalist program
1259:Minimalist program
1253:Minimalist program
1047:minimalist grammar
952:
885:semantic relations
872:followed Harris's
801:Theory of language
771:Origin of language
726:Autonomy of syntax
681:Grammaticalization
527:Discourse analysis
522:Corpus linguistics
338:Minimalist Program
316:biological grammar
300:theory of language
257:generative grammar
253:Port-Royal Grammar
114:Historical context
108:functional grammar
41:generative grammar
2836:Generative syntax
2818:978-0-19-953420-3
2749:978-0-7486-2758-5
2288:Simply Psychology
2054:Goldsmith, John A
2029:Language and Mind
1947:978-0-262-52734-7
1894:978-0-08-097087-5
1756:978-0-08-097087-5
1522:978-90-04-37815-5
1142:Theory evaluation
1071:Chomsky hierarchy
1017:Formal definition
999:phonological rule
856:
855:
644:Distributionalism
587:Psycholinguistics
327:cognitive science
312:universal grammar
273:opposition theory
168:surface structure
45:natural languages
2858:
2822:
2782:
2753:
2734:
2715:
2683:
2682:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2550:
2544:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2510:
2500:
2494:
2492:
2474:
2468:
2467:
2455:
2445:
2439:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2421:
2415:
2396:
2358:
2333:Kordić, Snježana
2329:
2323:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2244:
2238:
2237:
2211:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2187:. Archived from
2162:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2128:
2119:
2113:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2082:Hjelmslev, Louis
2078:
2072:
2071:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2018:
2012:
2011:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1933:
1922:
1921:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1847:
1837:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1703:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1685:
1684:
1655:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1630:
1624:. Archived from
1613:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1559:
1544:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1483:
1474:
1471:
1430:Jerzy Kuryłowicz
1372:Chomsky's father
1338:E. F. K. Koerner
961:
959:
958:
953:
916:
848:
841:
834:
820:
766:LGBT linguistics
756:Internationalism
731:Compositionality
592:Sociolinguistics
567:Neurolinguistics
562:Interlinguistics
547:Ethnomethodology
389:
380:Basic mechanisms
370:Classical Arabic
366:language faculty
192:grammatical case
92:Albert Sechehaye
72:Bertrand Russell
43:, especially of
2866:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2826:
2825:
2819:
2804:
2789:
2756:
2750:
2737:
2731:
2718:
2713:
2695:
2692:
2687:
2686:
2664:
2663:
2659:
2649:
2648:
2644:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2577:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2552:
2551:
2547:
2530:
2526:
2519:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2489:
2476:
2475:
2471:
2464:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2434:In a review of
2433:
2429:
2419:
2417:
2413:
2392:
2356:
2345:Noama Chomskog"
2331:
2330:
2326:
2322:Chomsky 1957:15
2321:
2317:
2307:
2306:
2302:
2292:
2290:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2246:
2245:
2241:
2209:
2204:
2203:
2199:
2191:
2160:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2126:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2107:
2103:
2096:
2080:
2079:
2075:
2068:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2040:
2025:
2019:
2015:
2008:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1935:
1934:
1925:
1907:
1906:
1902:
1895:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1757:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1722:
1720:
1701:
1696:
1695:
1691:
1682:
1680:
1658:Husserl Studies
1653:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1611:
1601:
1600:
1596:
1586:
1585:
1581:
1571:
1570:
1566:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1542:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1523:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1498:
1485:
1484:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1396:
1334:
1310:uninterpretable
1261:
1255:
1238:
1227:
1200:
1180:
1152:
1144:
1107:
1101:
1084:
1079:
1063:
1019:
944:
943:
923:
921:Transformations
917:
912:
893:transformations
862:
852:
811:
810:
721:
713:
712:
624:
616:
615:
611:Writing systems
502:Anthropological
492:
484:
483:
434:
426:
387:
382:
116:
88:Louis Hjelmslev
49:transformations
17:
12:
11:
5:
2864:
2862:
2854:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2828:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2817:
2802:
2796:
2788:
2787:External links
2785:
2784:
2783:
2754:
2748:
2735:
2729:
2716:
2711:
2691:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2673:(2): 147–169.
2657:
2642:
2623:(4): 901–919.
2607:
2588:(3): 665–671.
2570:
2563:
2545:
2524:
2517:
2495:
2487:
2469:
2462:
2440:
2427:
2367:(12–13): 105.
2324:
2315:
2300:
2274:
2255:(4): 471–504.
2239:
2220:(3): 333–343.
2197:
2194:on 2010-09-19.
2171:(3): 113–124.
2148:
2114:
2101:
2094:
2073:
2066:
2045:
2038:
2013:
2006:
1986:
1980:978-0199764136
1979:
1953:
1946:
1923:
1900:
1893:
1867:
1800:
1785:
1762:
1755:
1729:
1712:(3): 560–607.
1689:
1664:(2): 101–121.
1641:
1620:
1594:
1579:
1564:
1551:
1528:
1521:
1503:
1496:
1475:
1465:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1425:Heavy NP shift
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1405:Biolinguistics
1402:
1395:
1392:
1368:Roman Jakobson
1333:
1330:
1317:
1316:
1313:
1254:
1251:
1226:
1223:
1219:Ray Jackendoff
1199:
1196:
1179:
1176:
1151:
1148:
1143:
1140:
1125:native speaker
1116:native speaker
1105:Grammaticality
1100:
1099:Grammaticality
1097:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1062:
1059:
1018:
1015:
1011:natural speech
993:In generative
964:
963:
951:
922:
919:
910:
858:Main article:
854:
853:
851:
850:
843:
836:
828:
825:
824:
813:
812:
809:
808:
803:
798:
793:
791:Prescriptivism
788:
783:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
728:
722:
719:
718:
715:
714:
711:
710:
705:
704:
703:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
658:
657:
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
625:
622:
621:
618:
617:
614:
613:
608:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
554:
549:
544:
539:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
509:
504:
499:
493:
490:
489:
486:
485:
482:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
435:
432:
431:
428:
427:
425:
424:
419:
414:
408:
405:
404:
398:
397:
386:
383:
381:
378:
346:move operation
304:innate grammar
265:Roman Jakobson
261:Modifikationen
249:Edmund Husserl
237:
236:
226:
216:
210:
144:Thomas Linacre
115:
112:
60:logical syntax
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2863:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2820:
2814:
2810:
2809:
2803:
2800:
2797:
2794:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2755:
2751:
2745:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2730:0-262-53128-3
2726:
2723:. MIT Press.
2722:
2717:
2714:
2712:9783110172799
2708:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2697:Chomsky, Noam
2694:
2693:
2689:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2661:
2658:
2653:
2646:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2582:
2574:
2571:
2566:
2564:0-262-53128-3
2560:
2557:. MIT Press.
2556:
2549:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2518:0-275-90025-8
2514:
2509:
2508:
2499:
2496:
2490:
2488:0-8240-1392-1
2484:
2480:
2473:
2470:
2465:
2463:0-262-10013-4
2459:
2456:. MIT Press.
2454:
2453:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2431:
2428:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2395:
2394:CROSBI 446914
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2325:
2319:
2316:
2311:
2304:
2301:
2289:
2285:
2278:
2275:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2243:
2240:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2208:
2201:
2198:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2159:
2152:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2118:
2115:
2111:
2105:
2102:
2097:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2074:
2069:
2067:1-4051-5768-2
2063:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2046:
2041:
2039:0-15-147810-4
2035:
2031:
2030:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2009:
2007:0-262-53007-4
2003:
2000:. MIT Press.
1999:
1998:
1990:
1987:
1982:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1943:
1940:. MIT Press.
1939:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1904:
1901:
1896:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1868:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1804:
1801:
1796:
1789:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1766:
1763:
1758:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1730:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1693:
1690:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1645:
1642:
1631:on 2020-04-14
1627:
1623:
1621:9780231157278
1617:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1598:
1595:
1590:
1583:
1580:
1575:
1568:
1565:
1554:
1552:9781588113580
1548:
1541:
1540:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1504:
1499:
1497:0-631-20891-7
1493:
1489:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1470:
1467:
1460:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1445:Parasitic gap
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1360:
1355:
1354:Bernard Bloch
1349:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1323:
1314:
1311:
1307:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1296:interpretable
1293:
1289:
1288:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1269:
1268:
1266:
1260:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1210:
1208:
1207:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1159:
1158:
1149:
1147:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1133:
1132:syntacticians
1128:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1106:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1090:
1081:
1077:Core concepts
1076:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1042:
1038:
1036:
1035:passive voice
1033:or active to
1032:
1028:
1024:
1023:Zellig Harris
1016:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
991:
989:
985:
979:
977:
971:
967:
942:X NP AUX Y
941:
940:
939:
937:
933:
929:
920:
915:
909:
907:
900:
898:
894:
890:
886:
881:
880:
875:
871:
868:'s 1957 book
867:
861:
849:
844:
842:
837:
835:
830:
829:
827:
826:
823:
819:
815:
814:
807:
804:
802:
799:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
782:
779:
777:
774:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
742:
741:Descriptivism
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
723:
717:
716:
709:
708:Structuralism
706:
702:
699:
697:
694:
692:
691:Prague circle
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
663:
662:
659:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
631:
630:
627:
626:
620:
619:
612:
609:
607:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
537:Documentation
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
512:Computational
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
494:
488:
487:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
436:
430:
429:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
409:
407:
406:
403:
399:
395:
391:
390:
384:
379:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
334:
332:
331:introspection
328:
324:
319:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
296:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
234:
230:
227:
224:
220:
217:
214:
211:
208:
204:
200:
197:
196:
195:
193:
189:
185:
179:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
113:
111:
109:
105:
101:
97:
96:Zellig Harris
93:
89:
86:
81:
79:
78:
73:
69:
65:
64:Rudolf Carnap
61:
57:
52:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2846:Noam Chomsky
2807:
2762:
2758:
2739:
2720:
2701:
2690:Bibliography
2670:
2666:
2660:
2651:
2645:
2620:
2616:
2610:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2554:
2548:
2540:
2532:
2527:
2506:
2498:
2478:
2472:
2451:
2443:
2435:
2430:
2418:. Retrieved
2364:
2360:
2352:
2348:
2342:
2338:
2327:
2318:
2309:
2303:
2291:. Retrieved
2287:
2277:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2217:
2213:
2200:
2189:the original
2168:
2164:
2151:
2134:
2130:
2117:
2109:
2108:Emmon Bach,
2104:
2085:
2076:
2057:
2048:
2028:
2016:
1996:
1989:
1962:
1956:
1937:
1909:
1903:
1876:
1870:
1820:(451): 451.
1817:
1813:
1803:
1794:
1788:
1771:
1765:
1738:
1732:
1721:. Retrieved
1709:
1705:
1692:
1681:. Retrieved
1661:
1657:
1644:
1633:. Retrieved
1626:the original
1607:
1597:
1588:
1582:
1573:
1567:
1556:. Retrieved
1538:
1531:
1512:
1506:
1487:
1469:
1400:Antisymmetry
1357:
1356:, editor of
1350:
1335:
1326:X-bar theory
1321:
1318:
1309:
1304:
1303:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1284:
1276:
1272:
1262:
1245:
1241:
1239:
1211:
1204:
1201:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1181:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1153:
1145:
1129:
1108:
1093:
1088:
1085:
1064:
1043:
1039:
1020:
992:
980:
972:
968:
965:
924:
913:
902:
892:
889:phonological
877:
869:
863:
654:Glossematics
634:Constituency
606:interpreting
444:Lexicography
352:word-order (
335:
320:
315:
297:
289:Jerrold Katz
285:Morris Halle
281:Noam Chomsky
260:
238:
180:
175:
171:
163:
117:
82:
75:
56:Noam Chomsky
53:
48:
36:
32:
28:
24:
18:
2420:7 September
2293:21 February
2282:McLeod, S.
1380:rationalist
1290:. The word
1168:performance
1163:performance
1112:mentalistic
806:Terminology
781:Orthography
701:Usage-based
602:Translating
497:Acquisition
402:Linguistics
293:Jerry Fodor
172:restoration
136:Middle Ages
120:metaphysics
21:linguistics
2830:Categories
2095:0299024709
1723:2022-08-08
1683:2022-08-08
1635:2022-08-08
1558:2020-01-19
1461:References
1281:inflection
1246:E-language
1242:I-language
1231:E language
1206:Minimalism
1172:competence
1157:competence
976:move alpha
962:X AUX NP Y
776:Orismology
661:Functional
649:Generative
639:Dependency
459:Pragmatics
449:Morphology
439:Diachronic
323:I-language
277:markedness
233:word order
229:hyperbaton
140:humanistic
104:pragmatics
2637:140876545
2602:189900915
2403:1080348-8
2381:186964128
2373:0352-8715
2269:189881482
2234:222277837
2137:: 49–83.
2084:(1969) .
1678:254553890
1605:(1959) .
1515:. Brill.
1031:questions
995:phonology
978:or Move.
950:⇒
751:Iconicity
746:Etymology
666:Cognitive
629:Formalist
582:Phonetics
572:Philology
464:Semantics
454:Phonology
374:VSO order
223:agreement
219:syllepsis
209:elements;
207:syntactic
128:Aristotle
2699:(1957),
2411:Archived
2407:(CROLIB)
2335:(1991).
2185:19519474
1862:92035839
1854:31949223
1718:40882437
1394:See also
1386:and the
1384:Humboldt
1359:Language
911:—
906:Humboldt
552:Forensic
532:Distance
479:Typology
394:a series
392:Part of
344:and the
308:mutation
213:pleonasm
203:semantic
199:ellipsis
176:restored
160:ellipsis
156:elegance
146:(1524),
2779:1647815
2389:3445224
1845:6965110
1822:Bibcode
1376:Harvard
1322:uniform
1007:phoneme
866:Chomsky
507:Applied
417:History
412:Outline
354:subject
342:lexicon
188:patient
70:'s and
2815:
2777:
2746:
2727:
2709:
2635:
2600:
2561:
2539:(ed.)
2515:
2485:
2460:
2401:
2399:ZDB-ID
2387:
2379:
2371:
2267:
2232:
2183:
2092:
2064:
2036:
2004:
1977:
1944:
1891:
1860:
1852:
1842:
1753:
1716:
1676:
1618:
1549:
1519:
1494:
1366:, and
1300:number
1136:corpus
1055:Move α
864:While
822:Portal
720:Topics
469:Syntax
362:object
2775:S2CID
2633:S2CID
2598:S2CID
2535:. In
2414:(PDF)
2377:S2CID
2357:(PDF)
2265:S2CID
2230:S2CID
2210:(PDF)
2192:(PDF)
2181:S2CID
2161:(PDF)
2127:(PDF)
1858:S2CID
1714:JSTOR
1702:(PDF)
1674:S2CID
1654:(PDF)
1629:(PDF)
1612:(PDF)
1543:(PDF)
1275:with
1089:learn
1051:merge
1049:, as
1005:(the
422:Index
184:agent
124:Plato
31:) or
2813:ISBN
2744:ISBN
2725:ISBN
2707:ISBN
2559:ISBN
2513:ISBN
2483:ISBN
2458:ISBN
2422:2020
2385:SSRN
2369:ISSN
2351:and
2295:2019
2090:ISBN
2062:ISBN
2034:ISBN
2020:The
2002:ISBN
1975:ISBN
1942:ISBN
1889:ISBN
1850:PMID
1751:ISBN
1616:ISBN
1547:ISBN
1517:ISBN
1492:ISBN
1292:dogs
1244:and
1160:and
604:and
597:Text
358:verb
291:and
186:and
126:and
2767:doi
2675:doi
2625:doi
2590:doi
2257:doi
2222:doi
2173:doi
2139:doi
1967:doi
1914:doi
1881:doi
1840:PMC
1830:doi
1776:doi
1743:doi
1666:doi
1285:dog
1233:or
350:SVO
205:or
122:of
74:'s
37:TGG
19:In
2832::
2773:.
2763:34
2761:.
2669:.
2631:.
2621:19
2619:.
2596:.
2586:18
2584:.
2409:.
2405:.
2397:.
2391:.
2383:.
2375:.
2359:.
2341:i
2286:.
2263:.
2251:.
2228:.
2216:.
2212:.
2179:.
2167:.
2163:.
2133:.
2129:.
1973:.
1926:^
1887:.
1856:.
1848:.
1838:.
1828:.
1818:10
1816:.
1812:.
1749:.
1710:35
1708:.
1704:.
1672:.
1662:34
1660:.
1656:.
1478:^
1057:.
1013:.
396:on
360:,
356:,
110:.
62:,
29:TG
23:,
2821:.
2781:.
2769::
2752:.
2733:.
2681:.
2677::
2671:3
2639:.
2627::
2604:.
2592::
2567:.
2521:.
2491:.
2466:.
2424:.
2365:6
2297:.
2271:.
2259::
2253:4
2236:.
2224::
2218:8
2175::
2169:2
2145:.
2141::
2135:6
2098:.
2070:.
2042:.
2010:.
1983:.
1969::
1950:.
1920:.
1916::
1897:.
1883::
1864:.
1832::
1824::
1782:.
1778::
1759:.
1745::
1726:.
1686:.
1668::
1638:.
1561:.
1525:.
1500:.
1312:.
1305:s
1287:s
1237:.
847:e
840:t
833:v
235:.
225:;
35:(
27:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.