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49:
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642:
However, it suffers from the nonlinearity problem. While the position estimate is approximately linear with respect to the real position when the spot is in the center area of the PSD, the relationship becomes nonlinear when the light spot is away from the center. This seriously limits its applications and there are urgent demands for linearity improvement in many applications.
1275:
For faster applications, matrix sensors with parallel processing were developed. Both line by line and in columns, the density of light of each pixel is compared with a global threshold value. The results of comparison become lines and columns with logical OR links. From all columns and all lines the
427:
An advantage of this process is the continuous measurement of the light spot position with measuring rates up to over 100 kHz. The dependence of local measurement on form and size of the light spot as well as the nonlinear connection are a disadvantage that can be partly compensated by special
1296:
structures have been utilized in position-sensitive detectors. More recent hybrid structures based on PEDOT:PSS/n-Si heterojunction exhibit ultrahigh sensitivity and excellent linearity. These hybrid configurations also benefit from a straightforward low-temperature fabrication process eliminating
1229:
The position estimation results obtained by this set of formulae are simulated below. We assume the light spot is moving in steps in both directions and we plot position estimates on a 2-D plane. Thus a regular grid pattern should be obtained if the estimated position is perfectly linear with the
641:
The 2-D tetra-lateral PSD has the advantages of fast response, much lower dark current, easy bias application and lower fabrication cost. Its measurement accuracy and resolution is independent of the spot shape and size unlike the quadrant detector which could be easily changed by air turbulence.
448:
with a resistive layer. When there is an incident light on the active area of the sensor, photocurrents are generated and collected from four electrodes placed along each side of the square near the boundary. The incident light position can be estimated based on currents collected from the
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866:
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655:
636:
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365:
269:
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40:
sensor surface that supplies continuous position data. The second class has discrete sensors in an raster-like structure on the sensor surface that supply local discrete data.
1216:
422:
395:
176:
149:
122:
95:
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true position. The performance is much better than the previous formulae. Detailed simulations and experiment results can be found in S. Cui's paper.
70:
is exposed to a tiny spot of light. This exposure causes a change in local resistance and thus electron flow in four electrodes. From the currents
444:
A 2-D tetra-lateral PSD is capable of providing continuous position measurement of the incident light spot in 2-D. It consists of a single square
645:
To reduce the nonlinearity of 2-D PSD, a new set of formulae have been proposed to estimate the incident light position (Song Cui, Yeng Chai Soh：
1420:
1083:{\displaystyle y=k_{y1}\cdot {\frac {I_{2}-I_{1}}{I_{0}-1.02(I_{4}-I_{3})}}\cdot {\frac {0.7(I_{4}+I_{3})+I_{0}}{I_{0}+1.02(I_{4}-I_{3})}}}
861:{\displaystyle x=k_{x1}\cdot {\frac {I_{4}-I_{3}}{I_{0}-1.02(I_{2}-I_{1})}}\cdot {\frac {0.7(I_{2}+I_{1})+I_{0}}{I_{0}+1.02(I_{2}-I_{1})}}}
551:
455:
280:
184:
1402:
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one element that is brighter than a given threshold value is the average value of the coordinates computed of the light spot.
1452:
1430:
36:
PSDs can be divided into two classes which work according to different principles: In the first class, the sensors have an
1255:
whose exposure value can be read out sequentially. The position of the light spot can be computed with the methods of
1096:
1462:
1293:
1457:
1411:
Dissertation, Department of
Information Technology and Media, Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden, 2008,
1467:
1289:
1271:
Design of a discrete PSD from
Massari with parallel processing. The yellow circle is the illuminated spot.
1391:
Position-Sensitive
Devices and Sensor Systems for optical Tracking and Displacement Sensing Application.
1244:
1267:
1351:
1316:
62:
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28:(OPS) that can measure a position of a light spot in one or two-dimensions on a sensor surface.
436:
48:
1416:
1398:
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The position response of 2-D tetra-lateral PSD obtained by formulae proposed in S. Cui's paper
1384:
Linearity indices and linearity improvement of 2-D tetra-lateral position sensitive detector.
1285:
647:
Linearity indices and linearity improvement of 2-D tetra-lateral position sensitive detector.
178:
in the electrodes, the location of the light spot is computed using the following equations.
1359:
400:
373:
154:
127:
100:
73:
1412:
1355:
1409:
Position
Sensitive Detectors : Device Technology and Applications in Spectroscopy.
1339:
1256:
1243:
The most common sensor applications with a sampling rate of less than 1000 Hz are
1446:
1297:
the high-temperature and costly process of manufacturing conventional p-n sensors.
1338:
Javadi, Mohammad; Gholami, Mahdiyeh; Torbatiyan, Hadis; Abdi, Yaser (2018-03-12).
59:
The technical term PSD was first used in a 1957 publication by J.T. Wallmark for
1340:"Hybrid organic/inorganic position-sensitive detectors based on PEDOT:PSS/n-Si"
1306:
1371:
649:
IEEE Transactions on
Electron Devices， Vol. 57, No. 9, pp. 2310-2316, 2010):
1311:
445:
67:
53:
37:
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IEEE Transactions on
Electron Devices， Vol. 57, No. 9, pp. 2310-2316, 2010.
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424:
are simple scaling factors, which permit transformation into coordinates.
1363:
1252:
66:
used for local measurements. On a laminar semiconductor, a so-called
1425:
Nicola
Massari, Lorenzo Gonzo, Massimo Gottardi and Andrea Simoni:
1266:
1220:
435:
47:
1248:
1427:
High Speed
Digital CMOS 2D Optical Position Sensitive Detector.
1393:
Dissertation, Faculty of
Technology, University of Oulu, 2000,
631:{\displaystyle y=k_{y}\cdot {\frac {I_{2}-I_{1}}{I_{2}+I_{1}}}}
535:{\displaystyle x=k_{x}\cdot {\frac {I_{4}-I_{3}}{I_{4}+I_{3}}}}
360:{\displaystyle y=k_{y}\cdot {\frac {I_{a}-I_{c}}{I_{a}+I_{c}}}}
264:{\displaystyle x=k_{x}\cdot {\frac {I_{b}-I_{d}}{I_{b}+I_{d}}}}
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A new semiconductor photocell using lateral photoeffect.
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1099:
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1251:cameras. The sensor is partitioned into individual
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1439:Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 45, S. 474-483, 1957
440:2-D tetra-lateral position sensitive device (PSD)
432:2-D tetra-lateral Position Sensitive Device (PSD)
1165:{\displaystyle I_{0}=I_{1}+I_{2}+I_{3}+I_{4}}
8:
1284:Various semiconductor structures, including
1259:directly from the brightness distribution.
1429:ESSCIRC, Firenze, Italy, September 2002,
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1211:{\displaystyle k_{x1},k_{y1}}
22:position sensitive detector
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1294:metal-oxide-semiconductor
18:position sensitive device
1382:Song Cui, Yeng Chai Soh：
52:Design of a PSD using a
1344:Applied Physics Letters
1218:are new scale factors.
26:optical position sensor
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1453:Semiconductor devices
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417:{\displaystyle k_{y}}
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390:{\displaystyle k_{x}}
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171:{\displaystyle I_{d}}
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117:{\displaystyle I_{b}}
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1317:Photoelectric effect
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63:photoelectric effect
1356:2018ApPhL.112k3302J
1263:Parallel Processing
428:electrode shapes.
1407:Henrik Andersson,
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1364:10.1063/1.5022758
1290:Schottky barriers
1239:Serial Processing
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44:Isotropic Sensors
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1463:Position sensors
1435:J. T. Wallmark:
1395:Abstract and PDF
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1234:Discrete Sensors
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1286:p-n junctions
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1093:where :
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60:
58:
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24:(PSD) is an
21:
17:
15:
1447:Categories
1323:References
1307:Photodiode
32:Principles
1372:0003-6951
1312:PIN diode
1062:−
980:⋅
961:−
942:−
917:−
901:⋅
840:−
758:⋅
739:−
720:−
695:−
679:⋅
588:−
572:⋅
492:−
476:⋅
446:PIN diode
317:−
301:⋅
221:−
205:⋅
68:PIN diode
54:PIN diode
38:isotropic
1301:See also
61:lateral
1352:Bibcode
20:and/or
1419:
1401:
1370:
1292:, and
1253:pixels
1417:ISBN
1399:ISBN
1368:ISSN
1249:CMOS
1046:1.02
945:1.02
871:and
824:1.02
723:1.02
545:and
397:and
370:The
274:and
151:and
1431:PDF
1413:PDF
1360:doi
1348:112
1247:or
1245:CCD
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592:I
583:2
579:I
567:y
563:k
559:=
556:y
525:3
521:I
517:+
512:4
508:I
500:3
496:I
487:4
483:I
471:x
467:k
463:=
460:x
410:y
406:k
383:x
379:k
350:c
346:I
342:+
337:a
333:I
325:c
321:I
312:a
308:I
296:y
292:k
288:=
285:y
254:d
250:I
246:+
241:b
237:I
229:d
225:I
216:b
212:I
200:x
196:k
192:=
189:x
164:d
160:I
137:c
133:I
110:b
106:I
83:a
79:I
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