Preimplantation genetic diagnosis

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pregnancies and have less of an effect on the embryo and/or blastomere. ZD uses a digestive enzyme like pronase which makes it a chemical drilling method. The chemicals used in ZD may have a damaging effect on the embryo. PZD uses a glass microneedle to cut the zona pellucida which makes it a mechanical dissection method that typically needs skilled hands to perform the procedure. In a study that included 71 couples, ZD was performed in 26 cycles from 19 couples and PZD was performed in 59 cycles from 52 couples. In the single-cell analysis, there was a success rate of 87.5% in the PZD group and 85.4% in the ZD group. The maternal age, number of oocytes retrieved, fertilization rate, and other variables did not differ between the ZD and PZD groups. It was found that PZD led to a significantly higher rate of pregnancy (40.7% vs 15.4%), ongoing pregnancy (35.6% vs 11.5%), and implantation (18.1% vs 5.7%) than ZD. This suggests that using the mechanical method of PZD in blastomere biopsies for preimplantation genetic diagnosis may be more proficient than using the chemical method of ZD. The success of PZD over ZD could be attributed to the chemical agent in ZD having a harmful effect on the embryo and/or blastomere. Currently, zona drilling using a laser is the predominant method of opening the zona pellucida. Using a laser is an easier technique than using mechanical or chemical means. However, laser drilling could be harmful to the embryo and it is very expensive for in vitro fertilization laboratories to use especially when PGD is not a prevalent process as of modern times. PZD could be a viable alternative to these issues.

573:(DMD), and hemophilia A and B, which are rarely seen in females because the offspring is unlikely to inherit two copies of the recessive allele. Since two copies of the mutant X allele are required for the disease to be passed on to the female offspring, females will at worst be carriers for the disease but may not necessarily have a dominant gene for the disease. Males on the other hand only require one copy of the mutant X allele for the disease to occur in one's phenotype and therefore, the male offspring of a carrier mother has a 50% chance of having the disease. Reasons may include the rarity of the condition or because affected males are reproductively disadvantaged. Therefore, medical uses of PGD for selection of a female offspring to prevent the transmission of X-linked Mendelian recessive disorders are often applied. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis applied for gender selection can be used for non-Mendelian disorders that are significantly more prevalent in one sex. Three assessments are made prior to the initiation of the PGD process for the prevention of these inherited disorders. In order to validate the use of PGD, gender selection is based on the seriousness of the inherited condition, the risk ratio in either sex, or the options for disease treatment. 1521:

ethnographic studies which confirmed that those with a previous history of negative experiences found PGD as a relief. Firstly, in the attitudinal survey, women with a history of infertility, pregnancy termination, and repeated miscarriages reported having a more positive attitude towards preimplantation genetic diagnosis. They were more accepting towards pursuing PGD. Secondly, likewise to the first attitudinal study, an ethnographic study conducted in 2004 found similar results. Couples with a history of multiple miscarriages, infertility, and an ill child, felt that preimplantation genetic diagnosis was a viable option. They also felt more relief; "those using the technology were actually motivated to not repeat pregnancy loss". In summary, although some of these studies are limited due to their retrospective nature and limited samples, the study's results indicate an overall satisfaction of participants for the use of PGD. However, the authors of the studies do indicate that these studies emphasize the need for future research such as creating a prospective design with a valid psychological scale necessary to assess the levels of stress and mood during embryonic transfer and implantation.

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based on a linked marker and disease genotypes from a single cell or on marker/disease genotypes of two cells. An interesting aspect explored in these papers is the detailed study of all possible combinations of alleles that may appear in the PCR results for a particular embryo. The authors indicate that some of the genotypes that can be obtained during diagnosis may not be concordant with the expected pattern of linked marker genotypes, but are still providing sufficient confidence about the unaffected genotype of the embryo. Although these models are reassuring, they are based on a theoretical model, and generally the diagnosis is established on a more conservative basis, aiming to avoid the possibility of misdiagnosis. When unexpected alleles appear during the analysis of a cell, depending on the genotype observed, it is considered that either an abnormal cell has been analysed or that contamination has occurred, and that no diagnosis can be established. A case in which the abnormality of the analysed cell can be clearly identified is when, using a

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reproductive age impacted by a disability and their spouses...have wanted to take advantage of the technology," but they have faced opposition from "groups campaigning for women's and disabled people's rights include individuals who see the genetic testing of embryos in one or all of the following ways: 1) it puts undue pressure on the women involved, conveying the message to them that they are only allowed to reproduce if they are bringing into the world a healthy offspring; 2) it reinforces existing discriminatory attitudes in society towards disabled people; and 3) the circumvention of disease through the reproductive process reduces the need in the scientific community to continue the pursuit of developing treatments/cures for people who currently live with disability." Ultimately, the use of PGT-M has remained restrictive in Japan and is informally regulated by the Japan Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology (JSOG).

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alternatives are the minimal amount of DNA there is to work with and whether or not this technology is accurate. Both of these concerns were recently addressed by Kuznyetsov, who decided to use both methods, combining the amount of DNA retrieved from both techniques. Once the DNA was isolated it was used for preimplantation genetic testing. The results showed that when both methods (blastocyst fluid and embryo spent media) were used in combination, they showed a cordance rate for the whole chromosome copy of 87.5% when compared to the trophectoderm, 96.4% when compared to the whole blastocyst (gold standard). Additionally after amplification using this new method they were able to produce 25.0–54.0 ng/ul of DNA per sample. With traditional methods such as trophectoderm they collected 10 to 44 ng/ul.

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diagnosis than PB biopsy and still leaves enough time to finish the diagnosis before the embryos must be replaced in the patient's uterus, unlike blastocyst biopsy. Of all cleavage-stages, it is generally agreed that the optimal moment for biopsy is at the eight-cell stage. It is diagnostically safer than the PB biopsy and, unlike blastocyst biopsy, it allows for the diagnosis of the embryos before day 5. In this stage, the cells are still totipotent and the embryos are not yet compacting. Although it has been shown that up to a quarter of a human embryo can be removed without disrupting its development, it still remains to be studied whether the biopsy of one or two cells correlates with the ability of the embryo to further develop, implant, and grow into a full-term pregnancy.

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showing two signals for the gonosomes and the analysed autosomes) after the analysis of one or two blastomeres, and when two blastomeres are analysed, the results should be concordant. Other centres argue that embryos diagnosed as monosomic could be transferred, because the false monosomy (i.e. loss of one FISH signal in a normal diploid cell) is the most frequently occurring misdiagnosis. In these cases, there is no risk for an aneuploid pregnancy, and normal diploid embryos are not lost for transfer because of a FISH error. Moreover, it has been shown that embryos diagnosed as monosomic on day 3 (except for chromosomes X and 21), never develop to blastocyst, which correlates with the fact that these monosomies are never observed in ongoing pregnancies.

715:(ICSI) is used instead of IVF. The main reasons are to prevent contamination with residual sperm adhered to the zona pellucida and to avoid unexpected fertilization failure. The ICSI procedure is carried out on mature metaphase-II oocytes and fertilization is assessed 16–18 hours after. The embryo development is further evaluated every day prior to biopsy and until transfer to the woman's uterus. During the cleavage stage, embryo evaluation is performed daily on the basis of the number, size, cell-shape and fragmentation rate of the blastomeres. On day 4, embryos were scored in function of their degree of compaction and blastocysts were evaluated according to the quality of the throphectoderm and inner cell mass, and their degree of expansion. 1262:

destroys the embryo as a whole), according to Serena H. Chen, M.D., a New Jersey reproductive endocrinologist with IRMS Reproductive Medicine at Saint Barnabas. Another risk is cryopreservation where the embryo is stored in a frozen state and thawed later for the procedure. About 20% of the thawed embryos do not survive. There has been a study indicating a biopsied embryo has a less rate of surviving cryopreservation. Another study suggests that PGS with cleavage-stage biopsy results in a significantly lower live birth rate for women of advanced maternal age. Also, another study recommends the caution and a long term follow-up as PGD/PGS increases the perinatal death rate in multiple pregnancies.

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a child free of the gene, despite the risk that the child may lose a parent prematurely. Some argue that this decision is ethical, asserting that the desire for reproduction is as legitimate for these individuals as for others seeking infertility services. Comparisons are drawn with other medical situations, such as assisted reproduction for individuals with HIV or other serious illnesses. Although the child may face risks of early bereavement, the argument put forth is that the psychological trauma does not render the child's life devoid of clear benefits. Therefore, assisting parents in reproducing in these circumstances is not considered to cause undue or unnecessary suffering to the child.

1282:". The use of PGD for gender variety has been reported in India, where an IVF programme in Bombay is now providing PGD to select male offspring as the second child of couples who have already had a daughter. Because of the importance of a male heir in India, those couples might have resorted to abortion if pregnant with a female fetus (even though illegal for that purpose). In that setting PGD for sex selection for gender variety appears to be justified. It may be possible to make other "social selection" choices in the future that introduce socio-economic concerns. Only unaffected embryos are implanted in a woman's uterus; those that are affected are either discarded or donated to science. 708:

analogues for pituitary desensitisation, combined with human menopausal gonadotrophins (hMG) or recombinant follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), or an antagonist protocol using recombinant FSH combined with a GnRH antagonist according to clinical assessment of the patient's profile (age, body mass index (BMI), endocrine parameters). hCG is administered when at least three follicles of more than 17 mm mean diameter are seen at transvaginal ultrasound scan. Transvaginal ultrasound-guided oocyte retrieval is scheduled 36 hours after hCG administration. Luteal phase supplementation consists of daily intravaginal administration of 600 μg of natural micronized progesterone.

556:. A 2006 survey found that 42 per cent of clinics that offer PGD have provided it for sex selection for non-medical reasons. Nearly half of these clinics perform it only for "family balancing", which is where a couple with two or more children of one sex desire a child of the other, but half do not restrict sex selection to family balancing. In India, this practice has been used to select only male embryos although this practice is illegal. Opinions on whether sex selection for non-medical reasons is ethically acceptable differ widely, as exemplified by the fact that the ESHRE Task Force could not formulate a uniform recommendation. 260:

and the absence of a band indicated that the embryo was female. However, amplification failure or an anucleate blastomere also resulted in absence of a band on the PCR gel. To reduce the risk of misdiagnosis, Kontogianni went on to co-amplify sequences on the X and Y (Kontogianni et al., 1991). At that time nothing was known about allele dropout, cumulus cell contamination, or amplification failure from single cells. During the 1980s, human IVF embryos were exclusively transferred on day two of development as the culture medium used was incapable of reliably growing embryos past this stage. Since the

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coworkers report that 21% of the started PGD cycles had no embryo suitable for TE biopsy. This figure is approximately four times higher than the average presented by the ESHRE PGD consortium data, where PB and cleavage-stage biopsy are the predominant reported methods. On the other hand, delaying the biopsy to this late stage of development limits the time to perform the genetic diagnosis, making it difficult to redo a second round of PCR or to rehybridize FISH probes before the embryos should be transferred back to the patient.

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Some ethicists argue that the "savior siblings" created from this procedure would be treated as commodities. Another argument against selecting for "savior siblings" is that it leads to genetically engineered "designer babies". This argument prompts a discussion between the moral distinction of enhancing traits and preventing disease. Finally, opponents of "savior siblings" are concerned with the welfare of the child, mainly that the procedure will cause emotional and psychological harm to the child.

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condition. Generally, PCR-based methods are used for monogenic disorders and FISH for chromosomal abnormalities and for sexing those cases in which no PCR protocol is available for an X-linked disease. These techniques need to be adapted to be performed on blastomeres and need to be thoroughly tested on single-cell models prior to clinical use. Finally, after embryo replacement, surplus good quality unaffected embryos can be cryopreserved, to be thawed and transferred back in a next cycle.

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shows that Ontario not only has indefinite regulations regarding assisted reproduction services like IVF and PGD, but also does not fund any of these services. The reproductive clinics that exist are all private and located only in Brampton, Markham, Mississauga, Scarborough, Toronto, London and Ottawa. In contrast, provinces such as Alberta and Quebec not only have more clinics, but have also detailed laws regarding assisted reproduction and government funding for these practices.

1057:, PCR allows for the enrichment of a DNA sample for a certain sequence. PCR provides the possibility to obtain a large quantity of copies of a particular stretch of the genome, making further analysis possible. It is a highly sensitive and specific technology, which makes it suitable for all kinds of genetic diagnosis, including PGD. Currently, many different variations exist on the PCR itself, as well as on the different methods for the posterior analysis of the PCR products. 1740:

for single-gene diseases, but only 35% mentioned risks of missing target diagnoses, and only 18% mentioned risks for loss of the embryo. 14% described PGD as new or controversial. Private clinics were more likely than other programs to list certain PGD risks like for example diagnostic error, or note that PGD was new or controversial, reference sources of PGD information, provide accuracy rates of genetic testing of embryos, and offer gender selection for social reasons.

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about the maternal contribution to the embryo, which is why cases of maternally inherited autosomal dominant and X-linked disorders that are exclusively maternally transmitted can be diagnosed, and autosomal recessive disorders can only partially be diagnosed. Another drawback is the increased risk of diagnostic error, for instance due to the degradation of the genetic material or events of recombination that lead to heterozygous first polar bodies.

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traits. Ethical concerns include potential harm to affected communities, such as the deaf. Similar questions would arise with a genetic test for sexual orientation, raising concerns about discrimination. Some insist on a complete ban on selecting such traits, fearing more serious implications like genetic engineering of offspring. However, definitive judgments on these issues cannot be made until such tests are closer to practical reality.

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strand. This implies a long process of fine-tuning of the PCR conditions and a susceptibility to all the problems of conventional PCR, but several degrees intensified. The high number of needed PCR cycles and the limited amount of template makes single-cell PCR very sensitive to contamination. Another problem specific to single-cell PCR is the allele drop out (ADO) phenomenon. It consists of the random non-amplification of one of the

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monitors clinics providing PGD. The HFEA only permits the use of PGD where the clinic concerned has a license from the HFEA and sets out the rules for this licensing in its Code of Practice. Each clinic, and each medical condition, requires a separate application where the HFEA check the suitability of the genetic test proposed and the staff skills and facilities of the clinic. Only then can PGD be used for a patient.

804:, putting into question whether the results obtained on one or two blastomeres will be representative for the rest of the embryo. It is for this reason that some programs utilize a combination of PB biopsy and blastomere biopsy. Furthermore, cleavage-stage biopsy, as in the case of PB biopsy, yields a very limited amount of tissue for diagnosis, necessitating the development of single-cell 1355:. It is applied when patients do not wish to know their carrier status but want to ensure that they have offspring free of the disease. This procedure can place practitioners in questionable ethical situations, e.g. when no healthy, unaffected embryos are available for transfer and a mock transfer has to be carried out so that such patients do not suspect that they are carriers. The 1542:

of IVF on the public healthcare bill. Dr. Santiago Munne, developer of the first PGD test for Down's syndrome and founder of Reprogenetics, saw these provincial decisions as an opportunity for his company to grow and open more Reprogenetics labs around Canada. He dismissed all controversies regarding catalogue babies and states that he had no problem with perfect babies.

440:. On the contrary, for women of advanced maternal age, PGP significantly lowers the live birth rate. Technical drawbacks, such as the invasiveness of the biopsy, and chromosomal mosaicism are the major underlying factors for inefficacy of PGP. Normal live births of healthy offspring after transfers of embryos deemed aneuploid by PGP have been reported worldwide. 1026:

cells studied from an embryo are actually representative of the complete embryo, and whether viable embryos are not being discarded due to the limitations of the technique. Nevertheless, mosaic embryos can be transferred but only if there are not euploids available, having previously informed patients about the risks and doing a prenatal diagnose preferably.

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transfers took place in the early hours of day four so that the embryos were removed from culture as soon as possible. There were many evenings at the Hammersmith when a transfer was performed at 1 a.m. on day four and researchers returned to the laboratory at 7 a.m. to start the next case. Winston helped deliver most of the first PGD babies.

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by NGS technologies. Background polymorphisms must be distinguished from potentially disease-causing mutations and copy number variations. By selective recovery and subsequent sequencing of genomic loci of interest, generated data and efforts for analysis can be reduced significantly compared with a whole-genome sequencing approach.

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considered sufficient to diagnose the embryo as affected, and embryos that have been diagnosed with a complete unaffected genotype are preferred for replacement. Although this policy may lead to a lower number of unaffected embryos suitable for transfer, it is considered preferable to the possibility of a misdiagnosis.

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to distinguish between embryos that carried normal, balanced, and unbalanced translocations. FISH also requires more cell fixation for analysis whereas PGH requires only transfer of cells into polymerase chain reaction tubes. The cell transfer is a simpler method and leaves less room for analysis failure.

1663:(ASRM) states that "PGD should be regarded as an established technique with specific and expanding applications for standard clinical practice." They also state, "While the use of PGD for the purpose of preventing sex-linked diseases is ethical, the use of PGD solely for sex selection is discouraged." 1739:

In a study of 135 IVF clinics, 88% had websites, 70% mentioned PGD and 27% of the latter were university- or hospital-based and 63% were private clinics. Sites mentioning PGD also mentioned uses and benefits of PGD far more than the associated risks. Of the sites mentioning PGD, 76% described testing

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The HFEA strictly prohibits sex selection for social or cultural reasons, but allows it to avoid sex-linked disorders. They state that PGD is not acceptable for, "social or psychological characteristics, normal physical variations, or any other conditions which are not associated with disability or a

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In Hungary, PGD is allowed in case of severe hereditary diseases (when genetic risk is above 10%). The preimplantation genetic diagnosis for aneuploidy (PGS/PGD-A) is an accepted method as well. It is currently recommended in case of multiple miscarriages, and/or several failed IVF treatments, and/or

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Currently in the United States, no formal regulation or guideline exists. The ethical decisions regarding this procedure is in the discretion of health care providers and their patients. In contrast, the UK's use of PGD is regulated by the Human Fertilization and Embryology Act (HFEA), which requires

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and those carrying the homologous normal chromosomes. This inability can be seriously harmful to the diagnosis made. PGH can make the distinction that FISH often cannot. PGH does this by using polymorphic markers that are better suited at recognizing translocations. These polymorphic markers are able

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The core philosophy of massive parallel sequencing used in NGS is adapted from shotgun sequencing developed to sequence longer sections of DNA. NGS technologies read the target DNA templates randomly. The target DNA or entire genome is broken into small pieces and then those DNA pieces are ligated to

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Another method for less invasive preimplantation genetic testing involves testing the culture media the embryo has developed in. It has been noted that the embryo releases DNA fragments from the cells that have died within the incubation period. With this knowledge, scientists have reasoned that they

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techniques. Although theoretically PB biopsy and blastocyst biopsy are less harmful than cleavage-stage biopsy, this is still the prevalent method. It is used in approximately 94% of the PGD cycles reported to the ESHRE PGD Consortium. The main reasons are that it allows for a safer and more complete

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A woman carrying the gene for early-onset Alzheimer's disease used preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) to ensure that her child would not inherit this condition. Ethical questions arise regarding the decision to allow an individual aware of their own susceptibility to a late-onset disease to have

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No uniform system for regulation of assisted reproductive technologies, including genetic testing, exists in the United States. The practice and regulation of PGD most often fall under state laws or professional guidelines as the federal government does not have direct jurisdiction over the practice

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In the UK, assisted reproductive technologies are regulated under the Human Fertilization and Embryology Act (HFE) of 2008. However, the HFE Act does not address issues surrounding PGD. Thus, the HFE Authority (HFEA) was created in 2003 to act as a national regulatory agency that issues licenses and

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Intersex people's right to life can be violated in discriminatory "sex selection" and "preimplantation genetic diagnosis, other forms of testing, and selection for particular characteristics". Such de-selection or selective abortions are incompatible with ethics and human rights standards due to the

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Along with the benefits offered by these technologies, there are a number of challenges, both technical and ethical that must be addressed and solved before NGS technologies enter the clinical arena of embryo diagnosis. One limitation will be the interpretation of the massive sequence data generated

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to oxyluciferin, producing visible light in amounts that are proportional to the amount of ATPs. During this synthesis process, the DNA strand is extended by complementary nucleotides, and the DNA sequence is demonstrated by the pyrogram on a screen. The overall reaction from polymerization to light

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Likewise, NGS is used to detect aneuploidies in the 24 chromosomes and single-gene defects when there is an indication from the carrier parents. The main advantage is that NGS can combine the detection of both aneuploidies and monogenic diseases with a single biopsy and has reduced affordable costs,

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When using PCR in PGD, one is faced with a problem that is nonexistent in routine genetic analysis: the minute amounts of available genomic DNA. As PGD is performed on single cells, PCR has to be adapted and pushed to its physical limits, and use the minimum amount of template possible: which is one

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During a normal IVF process, good practice to vitrify embryos increases the chance of a healthy pregnancy. During the process of vitrification a developed blast is dehydrated and it and its blastocoel cavity collapses for the freezing process. There are many methods that have been used to facilitate

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There are two drawbacks to this approach, due to the stage at which it is performed. First, only approximately half of the preimplantation embryos reach the blastocyst stage. This can restrict the number of blastocysts available for biopsy, limiting in some cases the success of the PGD. McArthur and

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in detecting abnormalities. The main advantage of the use of polar bodies in PGD is that they are not necessary for successful fertilisation or normal embryonic development, thus ensuring no deleterious effect for the embryo. One of the disadvantages of PB biopsy is that it only provides information

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Due to 2012's national budget cuts, the AHR was removed. The regulation of assisted reproduction was then delegated to each province. This delegation provides provinces with a lot of leeway to do as they please. As a result, provinces like Quebec, Alberta and Manitoba have put almost the full costs

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for linked markers, only the alleles of one of the parents are found in the sample. In this case, the cell can be considered as carrying a monosomy for the chromosome on which the markers are located, or, possibly, as haploid. The appearance of a single allele that indicates an affected genotype is

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The establishment of a diagnosis in PGD is not always straightforward. The criteria used for choosing the embryos to be replaced after FISH or PCR results are not equal in all centres. In the case of FISH, in some centres only embryos are replaced that are found to be chromosomally normal (that is,

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have the same success rate because the well-being of the embryo and blastomere may be impacted by the procedure used for the biopsy. Zona drilling with acid Tyrode's solution (ZD) was looked at in comparison to partial zona dissection (PZD) to determine which technique would lead to more successful

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Ontario, however, has no concrete regulations regarding PGD. Since 2011, the Ministry of Children and Youth Services in Ontario advocates for the development government-funded 'safe fertility' education, embryo monitoring and assisted reproduction services for all Ontarians. This government report

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A meta-analysis that was performed indicates research studies conducted in PGD underscore future research. This is due to positive attitudinal survey results, postpartum follow-up studies demonstrating no significant differences between those who had used PGD and those who conceived naturally, and

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PGD combined with HLA (human leukocyte antigen) matching allows couples to select for embryos that are unaffected with a genetic disease in hopes of saving an existing, affected child. The "savior sibling" would conceivably donate life-saving tissue that is compatible to his/her brother or sister.

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Those who are against the possibility of discarding an embryo to avoid the risk of disability (such as the possible adverse selection of embryos that might develop "disabilities" such as deafness) argue that if the only two possibilities are "existence and nonexistence" ("coming into the world" or

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Objections to PGD based on its effect on embryos replay debates over abortion and embryo status that have occurred in many other contexts, from abortion to embryonic stem cell research. People who think that the embryo or fetus is a person will object to creating and destroying embryos, and oppose

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In a mouse model study, PGD has been attributed to various long-term risks, including a weight gain and memory decline; a proteomic analysis of adult mouse brains showed significant differences between the biopsied and the control groups, of which many are closely associated with neurodegenerative

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Diagnosis and misdiagnosis in PGD using PCR have been mathematically modelled in the work of Navidi and Arnheim and of Lewis and collaborators. The most important conclusion of these publications is that for the efficient and accurate diagnosis of an embryo, two genotypes are required. This can be

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While there is conflicting evidence as to whether or not the more traditional methods of preimplantation genetic testing are harmful to the embryo, there are newer methods for less invasive and equally effective testing methods using blastocoel fluid and spent embryo media. Two problems with these

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Cleavage-stage biopsy is generally performed the morning of day three post-fertilization, when normally developing embryos reach the eight-cell stage. The biopsy is usually performed on embryos with less than 50% of anucleated fragments and at an eight-cell or later stage of development. A hole is

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which predispose the individual to breast cancer, the outcomes are unclear. Although PGD is often regarded as an early form of prenatal diagnosis, the nature of the requests for PGD often differs from those of prenatal diagnosis requests made when the mother is already pregnant. Some of the widely

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in five couples at risk of X-linked disease, resulting in two twins and one singleton pregnancy. Because the Y chromosome region Kontogianni was amplifying contained many repeats, it was more efficient than trying to amplify a unique region. A band on the PCR gel indicated that the embryo was male

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That the disease to be detected is not currently curable. If it were a serious but curable disease, it could not be prevented by this method. An example of a pathology with no current cure on which preimplantation diagnosis could be applied would be Retinoblastoma, which is an autosomal recessive

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inner cell mass at day 6. Staessen and collaborators found that 17.5% of the embryos diagnosed as abnormal during PGS, and subjected to post-PGD reanalysis, were found to also contain normal cells, and 8.4% were found grossly normal. As a consequence, it has been questioned whether the one or two

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In order to be able to analyse more chromosomes on the same sample, up to three consecutive rounds of FISH can be carried out. In the case of chromosome rearrangements, specific combinations of probes have to be chosen that flank the region of interest. The FISH technique is considered to have an

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screening or chromosomal translocations). Over the past few years, various advancements in PGD testing have allowed for an improvement in the comprehensiveness and accuracy of results available depending on the technology used. Recently a method was developed allowing to fix metaphase plates from

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was to be performed on day three, the first diagnoses were all performed in one day, with transfer of the embryos late on day three. A comparison of day two and day three transfers indicated that this would not adversely affect pregnancy rates. The worry of embryos arresting was so high that some

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A final category of argument is one that emphasizes the importance of bringing individuals with disabilities and disorders into the world with the consideration of how much they can contribute to the socioeconomic growth of society, suggesting these individuals would not be able to contribute to

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The literature highlights three most common types of arguments in favor of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. The first type of argument is mainly made by a part of academia that believes that a disability or disorder likely implies a reduced quality of life for the unborn child. The second most

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PGD/PGS is an invasive procedure that requires a serious consideration, according to Michael Tucker, Ph.D., Scientific Director and Chief Embryologist at Georgia Reproductive Specialists in Atlanta. One of the risks of PGD includes damage to the embryo during the biopsy procedure (which in turn

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In an attempt to overcome the difficulties related to single-cell techniques, it has been suggested to biopsy embryos at the blastocyst stage, providing a larger amount of starting material for diagnosis. It has been shown that if more than two cells are present in the same sample tube, the main

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As PGD can be performed on cells from different developmental stages, the biopsy procedures vary accordingly. Theoretically, the biopsy can be performed at all preimplantation stages, but only three have been suggested: on unfertilised and fertilised oocytes (for polar bodies, PBs), on day three

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The potential controversial use of PGD could arise with genetic tests targeting non-medical traits such as hearing, sexual orientation, height, beauty, or intelligence. Some tests, like those for GJB2 mutations linked to hereditary deafness, might lead to requests for PGD to avoid or favor these

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Some religious organizations disapprove of this procedure. The Roman Catholic Church, for example, takes the position that it involves the destruction of human life. and besides that, opposes the necessary in vitro fertilization of eggs as contrary to Aristotelian principles of nature. Orthodox

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In 2006, three percent of PGD clinics in the US reported having selected an embryo for the presence of a disability. Couples involved were accused of purposely harming a child. This practice is notable in dwarfism, where parents intentionally create a child who is a dwarf. In the selection of a

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With the introduction in Europe of the single-embryo transfer policy, which aims at the reduction of the incidence of multiple pregnancies after ART, usually one embryo or early blastocyst is replaced in the uterus. Serum hCG is determined at day 12. If a pregnancy is established, an ultrasound

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fertilization followed by uterine lavage was attempted in the past and is now largely abandoned. In order to obtain a large group of oocytes, the patients undergo controlled ovarian stimulation (COH). COH is carried out either in an agonist protocol, using gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

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The movie is set in a near-future world where PGD/IVF is the most common form of reproduction. In the movie parents routinely use PGD to select desirable traits for their children such as height, eye color, and freedom from even the smallest of genetic predispositions to disease. The ethical

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In Japan, preimplantation genetic testing-monogenic (PGT-M) has been the topic of fierce debate by individuals suffering from genetic diseases on the one hand, and feminist groups and disability activist groups on the other. As Croydon notes, "prospective PGT-M patients, such as individuals of

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Once a panel of associated genetic markers have been established for a particular disease it can be used for all carriers of that disease. In contrast, since even a monogenic disease can be caused by many different mutations within the affected gene, conventional PGD methods based on finding a

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and the embryos kept in culture until the diagnosis is established. It is also necessary to perform a biopsy on these embryos in order to obtain material on which to perform the diagnosis. The diagnosis itself can be carried out using several techniques, depending on the nature of the studied

1394:. Thus, the concepts of "normalcy" and "health" are relative and depend on time, place, and society. Opponents of PGD argue against avoiding the birth of people with disabilities through preimplantation genetic diagnosis, and that people must first determine how to define what disability is. 320:

PGD is frequently employed for the detection of autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked abnormalities. However, its utilization in screening for mitochondrial disorders is less common, primarily due to the unpredictable characteristics of mitochondrial heteroplasmy. In cases of

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for genetic diseases. It is useful when there are previous chromosomal or genetic disorders in the family and within the context of in vitro fertilization programs. These kinds of tests are needed because hereditary disorders are related with 20% of child deaths in developed countries. It is

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The main problem of the use of FISH to study the chromosomal constitution of embryos is the elevated mosaicism rate observed at the human preimplantation stage. A meta-analysis of more than 800 embryos came to the result that approximately 75% of preimplantation embryos are mosaic, of which

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culture. This allows the developing TE to protrude after blastulation, facilitating the biopsy. On day five post-fertilization, approximately five cells are excised from the TE using a glass needle or laser energy, leaving the embryo largely intact and without loss of inner cell mass. After

504:

A more recent application of PGD is to diagnose late-onset diseases and (cancer) predisposition syndromes. Since affected individuals remain healthy until the onset of the disease, frequently in the fourth decade of life, there is debate on whether or not PGD is appropriate in these cases.

1604:

In South Africa, where the right to reproductive freedom is a constitutionally protected right, it has been proposed that the state can only limit PGD to the degree that parental choice can harm the prospective child or to the degree that parental choice will reinforce societal prejudice.

238:(PCR) technology. Handyside, Kontogianni and Winston's first successful tests happened in October 1989, with the first births in 1990 though the preliminary experiments had been published some years earlier. In these first cases, PCR was used for sex determination of patients carrying 1140:

is released as a result of nucleotide incorporation by polymerase. Each nucleotide incorporation event is followed by release of inorganic pyrophosphate in a quantity equimolar to the amount of incorporated nucleotide. The released pyrophosphate is quantitatively converted to ATP by

986:, it can be used on interphase chromosomes, so that it can be used on PBs, blastomeres and TE samples. The cells are fixated on glass microscope slides and hybridised with DNA probes. Each of these probes are specific for part of a chromosome, and are labelled with a fluorochrome. 1000:

The type and number of probes that are used on a sample depends on the indication. For sex determination (used for instance when a PCR protocol for a given X-linked disorder is not available), probes for the X and Y chromosomes are applied along with probes for one or more of the

1339:

By relying on the result of one cell from the multi-cell embryo, PGD operates under the assumption that this cell is representative of the remainder of the embryo. This may not be the case as the incidence of mosaicism is often relatively high. On occasion, PGD may result in a

568:

offers a solution to individuals with X-linked diseases who are in the process of getting pregnant. The selection of a female embryo offspring is used in order to prevent the transmission of X-linked Mendelian recessive diseases. Such X-linked Mendelian diseases include

425:, in order to select an embryo that appears to have the greatest chances for successful pregnancy. However, as the results of PGP rely on the assessment of a single cell, PGP has inherent limitations as the tested cell may not be representative of the embryo because of 799:

containing a nucleus are gently aspirated or extruded through the opening. The main advantage of cleavage-stage biopsy over PB analysis is that the genetic input of both parents can be studied. On the other hand, cleavage-stage embryos are found to have a high rate of

1318:

in realizing whatever life plans the child may come to have. Walter Veit has argued that there is no intrinsic moral difference between 'creating' and 'choosing' a life, thus making eugenics a natural consequence of accepting the principle of procreative beneficence.

242:

diseases. A report in 2001 on worldwide use of PGD since 1990 reported that embryo or polar body biopsy had occurred in more than 3000 clinical cycles, with a 24% pregnancy rate, which was comparable with assisted reproductive practices which do not involve biopsy.

1403:

common type of argument focuses primarily on the duties of parents in relation to the human flourishing of the individual. This argument feeds on the idea that parents have an obligation and responsibility to ensure minimum living conditions for the unborn child.

321:

mitochondrial heteroplasmy, some mitochondria within a cell bear the mutation, while others do not. The ratio of mutant mitochondria plays a crucial role in determining both the expression of the disease (its impact on offspring) and the severity of the disease.

1248:

It is not unusual that after the PGD, there are more embryos suitable for transferring back to the woman than necessary. For the couples undergoing PGD, those embryos are very valuable, as the couple's current cycle may not lead to an ongoing pregnancy.

1562:

passed a law that allows PGD in certain cases. The procedure may only be used when there is a strong likelihood that parents will pass on a genetic disease, or when there is a high genetic chance of a stillbirth or miscarriage. On 1 February 2013, the

1588:. The Act was further been revised after 1994 and necessary amendment were made are updated timely on the official website of the Indian Government dedicated for the cause. The use of PGD for sex identification/selection of child is illegal in India. 989:

Dual FISH was considered to be an efficient technique for determination of the sex of human preimplantation embryos and the additional ability to detect abnormal chromosome copy numbers, which is not possible via the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

1371:, in which the parental and grandparental origin of the chromosomes can be established. This way, only embryos are replaced that do not contain the chromosome derived from the affected grandparent, avoiding the need to detect the mutation itself. 2227:

Kontogianni, E. H., Hardy, K. and Handyside, A. H. (1991). "Co-amplification of X- and Y-specific sequences for sexing human preimplantation embryos". In «Proceedings of the First Symposium on Preimplantation Genetics», pp 139–142. Plenum, New

1128:

Pyrosequencing technique is based on sequencing by-synthesis principle and on the detection of released pyrophosphate during DNA synthesis. It employs a series of four enzymes to accurately detect nucleic acid sequences during the synthesis.

914:, microneedle puncture or microsuction. Normally this fluid would then be discarded, however with preimplantation genetic testing of BL, this fluid is saved and then tested for DNA. This DNA is thought to be from cells that have gone through 251:

Elena Kontogianni was studying for her PhD at the Hammersmith Hospital, on single-cell PCR for sexing, which she did by amplifying a repeated region of the Y chromosome. It was this approach that she used for the world's first PGD cases.

1666:

In 2024, the Alabama Supreme Court ruled in an influential case that frozen embryos in test tubes should be considered children, thus raising complex legal questions with implications for reproductive care extending far beyond Alabama.

3691:

Griffin DK, Handyside AH, Harper JC, Wilton LJ, Atkinson G, Soussis I, Wells D, Kontogianni E, Tarin J, Geber S (March 1994). "Clinical experience with preimplantation diagnosis of sex by dual fluorescent in situ hybridization".

1101:(NGS) is being performed in the PGT. NGS is a group of techniques capable of sequencing great amounts of DNA at a reasonable cost and time. It can give us a general perspective of the complete embryo genome, including the 1313:

in a position to select their children to favor those expected to have the best life. An argument in favor of this principle is that traits (such as empathy, memory, etc.) are "all-purpose means" in the sense of being of

1466:

to prohibit such interventions, noting a "close entanglement of intersex status, gender identity and sexual orientation in social understandings of sex and gender norms, and in medical and medical sociology literature".

1069:

sample. ADO seriously compromises the reliability of PGD as a heterozygous embryo could be diagnosed as affected or unaffected depending on which allele would fail to amplify. This is particularly concerning in PGD for

1154:

detection takes place within 3–4 seconds at room temperature. ATP sulfurylase converts pyrophosphate to ATP in approximately 1.5 seconds and the generation of light by luciferase takes place in less than 0.2 seconds.

308:

PGD is used primarily for genetic disease prevention, by selecting only those embryos that do not have a known genetic disorder. PGD may also be used to increase chances of successful pregnancy, to match a sibling in

480:" for the recipient child. HLA typing has meanwhile become an important PGD indication in those countries where the law permits it. The HLA matching can be combined with the diagnosis for monogenic diseases such as 4033:

Lewis CM, Pinêl T, Whittaker JC, Handyside AH (January 2001). "Controlling misdiagnosis errors in preimplantation genetic diagnosis: a comprehensive model encompassing extrinsic and intrinsic sources of error".

198:

The procedures may also be called "preimplantation genetic profiling" to adapt to the fact that they are sometimes used on oocytes or embryos prior to implantation for other reasons than diagnosis or screening.

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most uses of PGD. Others believe that preimplantation embryos are too rudimentary in development to have interests or rights, but that they deserve special respect as the first stage toward a new person.

951:(PCR) are the two commonly used, first-generation technologies in PGD. PCR is generally used to diagnose monogenic disorders and FISH is used for the detection of chromosomal abnormalities (for instance, 4726:

Bickenbach, Jerome E; Chatterji, Somnath; Kostanjsek, Nenad; Üstün, T Bedirhan (April 2003). "Ageing, Disability and the WHO's International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF)".

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There are three essential requirements (except for the exceptions allowed by the Bioethics Committees) for a preimplantation genetic diagnosis to be carried out on the embryo. All three must be met:

581:

PGD has occasionally been used to select an embryo for the presence of a particular disease or disability, such as deafness, in order that the child would share that characteristic with the parents.

349:). PGD helps these couples identify embryos carrying a genetic disease or a chromosome abnormality, thus avoiding diseased offspring. The most frequently diagnosed autosomal recessive disorders are 1617:

and from November 1, 2013, is regulated by the order of the Ministry of health of Ukraine "On approval of the application of assisted reproductive technologies in Ukraine" from 09.09.2013 No. 787.

1077:

Several PCR-based assays have been developed for various diseases like the triplet repeat genes associated with myotonic dystrophy and fragile X in single human somatic cells, gametes and embryos.

830:

technical problems of single-cell PCR or FISH would virtually disappear. On the other hand, as in the case of cleavage-stage biopsy, the chromosomal differences between the inner cell mass and the

1293:, such as intelligence and beauty, and against negative traits such as disabilities. The medical community has regarded this as a counterintuitive and controversial suggestion. The prospect of a " 1585: 4619:

Liu, Crystal K. (2 April 2007). "'Saviour Siblings'? The Distinction between PGD with HLA Tissue Typing and Preimplantation HLA Tissue Typing: Winner of the Max Charlesworth Prize Essay 2006".

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In Spain, preimplantation genetic diagnosis is not allowed to be carried out in an open and accessible way for everyone to avoid eugenics. That is why it is only legalized in high-risk cases.

711:

Oocytes are carefully denudated from the cumulus cells, as these cells can be a source of contamination during the PGD if PCR-based technology is used. In the majority of the reported cycles,

3819:"Comparison of blastocyst transfer with or without preimplantation genetic diagnosis for aneuploidy screening in couples with advanced maternal age: a prospective randomized controlled trial" 1390:

describes disability as something whose functionalities deviate from a normal functioning. However, much of the disability community emphasizes that disability is often determined by the way

5841: 3599: 1647:

of medicine. To date, no state has implemented laws directly pertaining to PGD, therefore leaving researchers and clinicians to abide by guidelines set by the professional associations. The

1021:

approximately 60% are diploid–aneuploid mosaic and approximately 15% aneuploid mosaic. Li and co-workers found that 40% of the embryos diagnosed as aneuploid on day 3 turned out to have a

1788: 841:

TE biopsy has been shown to be successful in animal models such as rabbits, mice and primates. These studies show that the removal of some TE cells is not detrimental to the further

6196: 4115:"Preimplantation genetic haplotyping a new application for diagnosis of translocation carrier's embryos- preliminary observations of two robertsonian translocation carrier families" 1730:

positive sister Kate so that she could donate bone marrow at her birth to help Kate fight the APL. It is also mentioned in the book that her parents received criticism for the act.

1356: 2388:"Does preimplantation genetic diagnosis improve reproductive outcome in couples with recurrent pregnancy loss owing to structural chromosomal rearrangement? A systematic review" 5779:

Embryo Selection For Intelligence: A cost-benefit analysis of the marginal cost of IVF-based embryo selection for intelligence and other traits with 2016-2017 state-of-the-art

735:) and laser technology for the breaching of the zona pellucida, extrusion or aspiration for the removal of PBs and blastomeres, and herniation of the trophectoderm cells. 6222: 2274: 1655:

must report pregnancy success rates annually to the federal government, but reporting of PGD use and outcomes is not required. Professional organizations, such as the

1630:

serious medical condition." It is however accessible to couples or individuals with a known family history of serious genetic diseases. Nevertheless, the HFEA regards

292:

As with all medical interventions associated with human reproduction, PGD raises strong, often conflicting opinions of social acceptability, particularly due to its

2193:

Robertson, J. A. (March 2003). "Extending preimplantation genetic diagnosis: the ethical debate: Ethical issues in new uses of preimplantation genetic diagnosis".

1386:

Another widely used argument for rejecting preimplantation genetic diagnosis involves the meaning of the term "disability" (Bickenach & Chatterji, 2003). The

1090:

corresponds to the actual number of continuous sequenced bases. The read lengths are much shorter than with Sanger sequencing, which is why NGS results are called

5834: 5437: 2302:

Natsuaki MN, Dimler LM (July 2018). "Pregnancy and child developmental outcomes after preimplantation genetic screening: a meta-analytic and systematic review".

1892:

Handyside AH, Kontogianni EH, Hardy K, Winston RM (April 1990). "Pregnancies from biopsied human preimplantation embryos sexed by Y-specific DNA amplification".

1682:

That the embryo may contain an early-onset disease. If it were a late-onset disease, such as Alzheimer's, it could not be prevented by preimplantation diagnosis.

1638:, a trait associated with some elite women athletes. Intersex advocates argue that such decisions are based on social norms of sex gender, and cultural reasons. 873:

can be performed in addition to a sampling of polar bodies or cells from the embryo. Because of the molecular interactions between cumulus cells and the oocyte,

5307: 4325:

Yu Y, Wu J, Fan Y, Lv Z, Guo X, Zhao C, Zhou R, Zhang Z, Wang F, Xiao M, Chen L, Zhu H, Chen W, Lin M, Liu J, Zhou Z, Wang L, Huo R, Zhou Q, Sha J (July 2009).

1459: 1013:). The use of probes for chromosomes X, Y, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 21 and 22 has the potential of detecting 70% of the aneuploidies found in spontaneous abortions. 187:

screening. PGS was renamed preimplantation genetic diagnosis for aneuploidy (PGD-A) by Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis International Society (PGDIS) in 2016.

1463: 1443: 4113:

Shamash J, Rienstein S, Wolf-Reznik H, Pras E, Dekel M, Litmanovitch T, Brengauz M, Goldman B, Yonath H, Dor J, Levron J, Aviram-Goldring A (January 2011).

1351:

Another problematic case is the cases of desired non-disclosure of PGD results for some genetic disorders that may not yet be apparent in a parent, such as

4868:"Politics of inclusive consultation?: How the voices of disabled people's rights and feminist campaigners prevailed in the debate on new eugenics in Japan" 617:

are the most frequently techniques used for the diagnosis of monosomies, trisomies and poliploidies.Primary candidates for PGT-A can include the following:

161:. The latter technique has proved to be less deleterious for the embryo, therefore it is advisable to perform the biopsy around day 5 or 6 of development. 5253: 1214:

specific mutation would require mutation-specific tests. Thus, PGH widens the availability of PGD to cases where mutation-specific tests are unavailable.

1693:

Any type of disease that does not meet these three requirements must go through a Bioethics Committee and be approved by it before PGD can be performed.

1660: 1656: 1648: 1253:

and later thawing and replacement can give them a second chance to pregnancy without having to redo the cumbersome and expensive ART and PGD procedures.

1233:

is usually performed on day three or day five post-fertilization, the timing depending on the techniques used for PGD and the standard procedures of the

874: 5418: 4191: 956:

single blastomeres. This technique in conjunction with FISH, m-FISH can produce more reliable results, since analysis is done on whole metaphase plates

893:

Traditional embryo biopsy can be invasive and costly. Therefore, researchers have an ongoing quest to find a less invasive methods for preimplantation

505:

Considerations include the high probability of developing the disorders and the potential for cures. For example, in predisposition syndromes, such as

488:

in those cases where the ailing sibling is affected with this disease, or it may be exceptionally performed on its own for cases such as children with

179:

The term preimplantation genetic screening (PGS) refers to the set of techniques for testing whether embryos (obtained through IVF/ICSI) have abnormal

5827: 1217:

PGH also has an advantage over FISH in that FISH is not usually able to make the differentiation between embryos that possess the balanced form of a

403:

In addition, there are infertile couples who carry an inherited condition and who opt for PGD as it can be easily combined with their IVF treatment.

3678: 2143:

Holding C, Monk M (September 1989). "Diagnosis of beta-thalassaemia by DNA amplification in single blastomeres from mouse preimplantation embryos".

1136:(dNTPs) are separately added to the reaction mixture iteratively. The cascade starts with a nucleic acid polymerization reaction in which inorganic 3614: 2812: 1274:

PGD has raised ethical issues, although this approach could reduce reliance on fetal deselection during pregnancy. The technique can be used for

164:

The world's first PGD was performed by Handyside, Kontogianni and Winston at the Hammersmith Hospital in London. "Female embryos were selectively

4697: 1717:

consequences of PGD are explored through the story of the main character who faces discrimination because he was conceived without such methods.

429:. Furthermore, a study found that diagnoses of the biopsies from the same embryos at two separate laboratories matched up only 50% of the time. 5936: 4165: 5806: 3470:

Kuznyetsov, Valeriy; Madjunkova, Svetlana; Antes, Ran; Abramov, Rina; Motamedi, Gelareh; Ibarrientos, Zenon; Librach, Clifford (10 May 2018).

5124: 4710: 3054: 3021: 2988: 2928: 2895: 2444: 1986: 1873: 5798: 1105:. Those techniques are based on sequencing short reads around 400 bases each and overlapping these reads with powerful alignment software. 374: 5457:"Cross-border fertility care—International Committee Monitoring Assisted Reproductive Technologies global survey: 2006 data and estimates" 5339: 6014: 4989: 3295:

Carson SA, Gentry WL, Smith AL, Buster JE (August 1993). "Trophectoderm microbiopsy in murine blastocysts: comparison of four methods".

1555: 1195: 1190: 878: 4327:"Evaluation of blastomere biopsy using a mouse model indicates the potential high risk of neurodegenerative disorders in the offspring" 3197:"Outcomes of preimplantation genetic diagnosis using either zona drilling with acidified Tyrode's solution or partial zona dissection" 3195:

Kim, Hyun Jung; Kim, Chung Hyon; Lee, Soo Min; Choe, Seung Ah; Lee, Joong Yeup; Jee, Byung Chul; Hwang, Doyeong; Kim, Ki Chul (2012).

2733:

Towner, Dena (27 February 2002). "Ethics of Preimplantation Diagnosis for a Woman Destined to Develop Early-Onset Alzheimer Disease".

1576:

when the mother is older than 35 years. Despite being an approved method, PGD-A is available at only one Fertility Clinic in Hungary.

979: 809: 614: 5773: 5703:"Preimplantation genetic diagnosis on in vitro fertilization clinic websites: presentations of risks, benefits and other information" 3338:

Summers PM, Campbell JM, Miller MW (April 1988). "Normal in-vivo development of marmoset monkey embryos after trophectoderm biopsy".

643:

are being evaluated in the embryo. Monogenic disorders are caused by single-gene mutations (autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant,

6263: 2239: 1297:" is closely related to the PGD technique, creating a fear that increasing frequency of genetic screening will move toward a modern 944: 609:

and the selection of euploid embryos for transfer. Euploid embryos are more likely to implant and develop into a healthy pregnancy.

539:

A complement to specific gene testing for monogenic disorders, which can be very useful for genetic diseases whose presentation is

3963:

Harrington, Colleen T.; Lin, Elaine I.; Olson, Matthew T.; Eshleman, James R. (September 2013). "Fundamentals of Pyrosequencing".

6004: 5979: 5850: 3817:

Staessen C, Platteau P, Van Assche E, Michiels A, Tournaye H, Camus M, Devroey P, Liebaers I, Van Steirteghem A (December 2004).

712: 700: 686:

PGD is a form of genetic diagnosis performed prior to implantation. This implies that the patient's oocytes should be fertilized

277: 139: 3414:

Fauser BC, Diedrich K, Bouchard P, Domínguez F, Matzuk M, Franks S, Hamamah S, Simón C, Devroey P, Ezcurra D, Howles CM (2011).

993:

Currently, a large panel of probes are available for different segments of all chromosomes, but the limited number of different

138:, as the method makes it highly likely that the baby will be free of the disease under consideration. PGD thus is an adjunct to 6253: 6075: 1535: 1451: 234:. It was not until the 1980s that human IVF was fully developed, which coincided with the breakthrough of the highly sensitive 3244:

Gardner RL, Edwards RG (April 1968). "Control of the sex ratio at full term in the rabbit by transferring sexed blastocysts".

268:

PGD became increasingly popular during the 1990s when it was used to determine a handful of severe genetic disorders, such as

42:—Eggs are collected from a female by a thin needle passed either through vagina or through abdomen under ultrasound guidance . 6248: 6087: 6034: 1383:"not coming into the world"), granting them the right to come into the world is better than the alternative of not existing. 1379:

Because of the sensitivity of the issue, preimplantation genetic diagnosis has sparked a rich debate in academia and beyond.

227: 4284:

Liebaers I, Desmyttere S, Verpoest W, De Rycke M, Staessen C, Sermon K, Devroey P, Haentjens P, Bonduelle M (January 2010).

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Verlinsky, Yury (27 February 2002). "Preimplantation Diagnosis for Early-Onset Alzheimer Disease Caused by V717L Mutation".

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of the embryo, and thus potentially can be used to select embryos of one sex in preference of the other in the context of "

1241:

examination at 7 weeks is performed to confirm the presence of a fetal heartbeat. Couples are generally advised to undergo

6191: 6029: 6019: 4217: 1722: 1425: 960: 731:

and the removal of the cells. There are different approaches to both steps, including mechanical, chemical, and physical (

473: 397: 5953: 5931: 3904:

Martín, Julio; Cervero, Ana; Mir, Pere; Conejero Martinez, Jose Antonio; Pellicer, Antonio; Simón, Carlos (March 2013).

1727: 1635: 1447: 1133: 5788: 2878:

Adami, Hervé; André, Virginie, eds. (2015). "Qui sommes-nous ? Pourquoi devrions-nous nous en préoccuper ?".

492:. The main ethical argument against is the possible exploitation of the child, although some authors maintain that the 6268: 5168: 2944:

Matelly, Sylvie (19 November 2020). "Entre la Chine et les États-Unis, une compétition économique inévitable ?".

1387: 782: 570: 433: 386: 111: 5311: 496:

is not breached since the future donor child will not only be a donor but also a loved individual within the family.

4074:"Proof of principle and first cases using preimplantation genetic haplotyping—a paradigm shift for embryo diagnosis" 2427:

Harper, Joyce, ed. (2009). "Preimplantation genetic diagnosis for infertility (Preimplantation genetic screening)".

1332:

to provide a matching bone marrow transplant for an already existing affected child, there are issues including the

4286:"Report on a consecutive series of 581 children born after blastomere biopsy for preimplantation genetic diagnosis" 3735:

van Echten-Arends J, Mastenbroek S, Sikkema-Raddatz B, Korevaar JC, Heineman MJ, van der Veen F, Repping S (2011).

1809:

Sullivan-Pyke C, Dokras A (March 2018). "Preimplantation Genetic Screening and Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis".

1438:

argues that such discrimination fails to recognize that many people with intersex traits led full and happy lives.

1391: 1098: 610: 6258: 5654: 5555: 5230: 4785:

Karpin, Isabel (August 2007). "Choosing disability: preimplantation genetic diagnosis and negative enhancement".

3375:"Pregnancies and live births after trophectoderm biopsy and preimplantation genetic testing of human blastocysts" 1944:"PGDIS Position Statement on Chromosome Mosaicism and Preimplantation Aneuploidy Testing at the Blastocyst Stage" 1218: 1038: 948: 805: 648: 346: 235: 5595: 4967: 2513:, Vidali A, Braverman J, Kushnir VA, Barad DH, Hudson C, Wu YG, Wang Q, Zhang L, Albertini DF (September 2016). 2055:"Birth of a normal girl after in vitro fertilization and preimplantation diagnostic testing for cystic fibrosis" 1850: 1726:

by the characters as the main character, Anna Fitzgerald, was created through PGD to be a genetic match for her

1759: 1455: 1275: 658: 528: 300:

and genetic diseases, in other countries PGD is permitted in law but its operation is controlled by the state.

5752:

Laurent Christian; Asker Melchior Tellier; Nathan Robert Treff; Stephen Hsu; Louis Lello; Erik Widen (2023). "

5783: 4195: 3778:"Fluorescence in situ hybridization reanalysis of day-6 human blastocysts diagnosed with aneuploidy on day 3" 2096:"Genetic analysis of DNA from single human oocytes: a model for preimplantation diagnosis of cystic fibrosis" 1689:

That the disease is life-threatening or seriously affects the mental or psychomotor development of the child.

605:: also called preimplantational genetic screening (PGS). Improves pregnancy rates by allowing the discard of 6070: 6065: 6050: 5896: 5496:

Jordaan, Donrich W (December 2003). "Preimplantation Genetic Screening and Selection: An Ethical Analysis".

2515:"Accuracy of preimplantation genetic screening (PGS) is compromised by degree of mosaicism of human embryos" 1302: 1250: 1117: 666: 469: 370: 362: 223: 982:

is the most commonly applied method to determine the chromosomal constitution of an embryo. In contrast to

6201: 6135: 6080: 5974: 5963: 1506: 1234: 422: 143: 5537: 3531:"Artificial shrinkage of blastocoel using a laser pulse prior to vitrification improves clinical outcome" 273: 3906:"The impact of next-generation sequencing technology on preimplantation genetic diagnosis and screening" 801: 662: 598:

We distinguish three types of Preimplantation Genetic Testing (PGT) depending on the defects evaluated:

5793: 5753: 4072:

Renwick PJ, Trussler J, Ostad-Saffari E, Fassihi H, Black C, Braude P, Ogilvie CM, Abbs S (July 2006).

3858:

Daniels R, Holding C, Kontogianni E, Monk M (February 1996). "Single-cell analysis of unstable genes".

2971:

Morgenthaler, Stephan (2008). "Création et destruction de la diversité génétique dans une population".

2809: 5677: 4527:

Hens K, Dondorp W, Handyside AH, Harper J, Newson AJ, Pennings G, Rehmann-Sutter C, de Wert G (2013).

30: 6092: 5984: 5906: 3483: 3253: 2011: 1901: 1564: 1538:(AHR) in 2004, PGD was unregulated in Canada. The Act banned sex selection for non-medical purposes. 732: 670: 62:—A genetic test is run on each embryo for a given trait and the results are matched with the embryos. 4169: 901:

fluid and spent embryo media have recently been published as an alternative to traditional methods.

6104: 6055: 5999: 5994: 5919: 5914: 5577: 5438:"Is a fertility treatment test being misused to select male embryos? Yes, alleges one Mumbai woman" 4949: 4446:

Braude P, Pickering S, Flinter F, Ogilvie CM (December 2002). "Preimplantation genetic diagnosis".

754: 674: 358: 334: 5615:"Use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis for serious adult onset conditions: a committee opinion" 4529:"Dynamics and ethics of comprehensive preimplantation genetic testing: a review of the challenges" 963:

is being tested as a method of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. This characterizes the complete

195:

estimated that, as a whole, they are responsible for around 18% of pediatric hospital admissions.

6130: 6097: 5866: 5392: 4931: 4885: 4840: 4671: 4636: 4471: 4376: 3883: 3717: 3320: 3277: 3111: 2595: 2327: 2168: 2035: 1925: 1368: 1352: 1315: 1242: 1071: 493: 378: 366: 338: 330: 269: 127: 17: 3148:"Delivery of a chromosomally normal child from an oocyte with reciprocal aneuploid polar bodies" 1844: 1842: 1840: 6243: 6181: 5891: 5886: 5876: 5811: 5732: 5636: 5478: 5212: 5120: 5089: 5040: 4985: 4923: 4848: 4806: 4802: 4794: 4767: 4706: 4560: 4509: 4463: 4428: 4358: 4307: 4266: 4144: 4095: 4051: 4015: 3980: 3927: 3875: 3840: 3799: 3758: 3709: 3661: 3560: 3511: 3445: 3396: 3355: 3312: 3269: 3226: 3177: 3146:

Scott RT, Treff NR, Stevens J, Forman EJ, Hong KH, Katz-Jaffe MG, Schoolcraft WB (June 2012).

3103: 3050: 3017: 2984: 2924: 2891: 2860: 2791: 2750: 2715: 2680: 2630: 2587: 2546: 2492: 2440: 2409: 2368: 2319: 2210: 2160: 2125: 2076: 2027: 1982: 1972: 1917: 1869: 1826: 1471: 1360: 1290: 1102: 1074:

disorders, where ADO of the affected allele could lead to the transfer of an affected embryo.

848:

Human blastocyst-stage biopsy for PGD is performed by making a hole in the ZP on day three of

835: 778: 744: 640: 544: 426: 4755: 2770:"Genetic testing of embryos: practices and perspectives of US in vitro fertilization clinics" 1483:

discrimination perpetrated against intersex people on the basis of their sex characteristics.

781:, a polar body biopsy can potentially be of lower costs, less harmful side-effects, and more 6155: 6060: 6009: 5881: 5871: 5722: 5714: 5626: 5505: 5468: 5202: 5112: 5079: 5071: 5030: 5022: 4915: 4875: 4832: 4736: 4663: 4628: 4579: 4550: 4540: 4501: 4489: 4455: 4418: 4410: 4348: 4338: 4297: 4256: 4134: 4126: 4085: 4043: 4007: 3972: 3917: 3867: 3830: 3789: 3748: 3701: 3651: 3550: 3542: 3501: 3491: 3435: 3427: 3386: 3347: 3304: 3261: 3216: 3208: 3167: 3159: 3093: 3083: 3042: 3009: 2976: 2953: 2916: 2883: 2850: 2842: 2781: 2742: 2707: 2670: 2622: 2577: 2536: 2526: 2510: 2482: 2432: 2399: 2358: 2311: 2202: 2152: 2115: 2107: 2066: 2019: 1909: 1861: 1818: 1439: 1364: 1306: 485: 281: 207: 169: 115: 5455:

Nygren, Karl; Adamson, David; Zegers-Hochschild, Fernando; de Mouzon, Jacques (June 2010).

3998:

Navidi W, Arnheim N (July 1991). "Using PCR in preimplantation genetic disease diagnosis".

3640:"Obtaining metaphase spreads from single blastomeres for PGD of chromosomal rearrangements" 6186: 6145: 5989: 5146: 4903: 4011: 3351: 2816: 1764: 1435: 1333: 1329: 1230: 1142: 1053:. Taking advantage of the chemical properties of DNA and the availability of thermostable 1050: 894: 481: 437: 436:

came to the result that there is no evidence of a beneficial effect of PGP as measured by

350: 256: 211: 165: 131: 3679:

Single-cell Sequencing Makes Strides in the Clinic with Cancer and PGD First Applications

3129: 2246: 5189:

Karatas JC, Strong KA, Barlow-Stewart K, McMahon C, Meiser B, Roberts C (January 2010).

4601: 3487: 3257: 2386:

Iews M, Tan J, Taskin O, Alfaraj S, AbdelHafez FF, Abdellah AH, Bedaiwy MA (June 2018).

2015: 1960: 1905: 183:' number. In other words, it tests if an embryo is aneuploid or not. PGS is also called 6150: 5727: 5702: 5191:"Psychological impact of preimplantation genetic diagnosis: a review of the literature" 5084: 5059: 5035: 5010: 4423: 4398: 4383:(Press release). American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 22 July 2009. 4353: 4326: 4139: 4114: 3578: 3555: 3530: 3506: 3471: 3440: 3415: 3221: 3196: 3172: 3147: 3098: 3071: 2855: 2830: 2541: 2514: 2120: 2095: 1345: 1341: 1203: 1113: 1054: 817: 728: 724:

cleavage-stage embryos (for blastomeres) and on blastocysts (for trophectoderm cells).

477: 464: 444: 418: 412: 296:

implications. In some countries, such as Germany, PGD is permitted for only preventing

103: 5718: 5524:"Про затвердження Порядку застосування допоміжних репродуктивних технологій в Україні" 4090: 4073: 3656: 3639: 2156: 1206:

that have statistical associations to a target disease are identified rather than the

472:(HLA) typing of embryos, so that the child's HLA matches a sick sibling, availing for 190:

The PGD allows studying the DNA of eggs or embryos to select those that carry certain

6237: 6206: 6109: 5631: 5614: 5473: 5456: 5380: 5147:"Savior Siblings in the United States: Ethical Conundrums, Legal and Regulatory Void" 4889: 4654:

Sivitz, Laura B. (28 October 2000). "It's a boy! it's a girl! it's a mosaic embryo".

4221: 3922: 3905: 3794: 3777: 3583: 3391: 3374: 2786: 2769: 1769: 1754: 1294: 1279: 1177: 1137: 994: 854: 831: 774: 565: 553: 506: 382: 314: 123: 4640: 3887: 3115: 2599: 2331: 2172: 2039: 417:

Preimplantation genetic profiling (PGP) has been suggested as a method to determine

6140: 5941: 5819: 5701:

Klitzman R, Zolovska B, Folberth W, Sauer MV, Chung W, Appelbaum P (October 2009).

5678:"Alabama Rules Frozen Embryos Are Children, Raising Questions About Fertility Care" 5116: 4935: 4492:(October 2001). "Procreative beneficence: why we should select the best children". 4475: 3721: 3281: 3046: 3013: 2887: 2094:

Coutelle C, Williams C, Handyside A, Hardy K, Winston R, Williamson R (July 1989).

1929: 1697: 1066: 1006: 911: 870: 390: 72:—The remaining embryos are allowed to grow to the point that they can be implanted. 4880: 4867: 3324: 2880:

De l'idéologie monolingue à la doxa plurilingue : Regards pluridisciplinaires

2626: 2471:"Preimplantation genetic screening: a systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs" 1497:

clinics performing this technique to attain a license and follow strict criteria.

4919: 4823:

Steinbock, Bonnie; McClamrock, Ron (1994). "When Is Birth Unfair to the Child?".

4578:

Veit, Walter (2018). Procreative Beneficence and Genetic Enhancement (Preprint).

3496: 3004:

Bijon, Béatrice; Delahaye, Claire, eds. (2017). "Le poids et le choix des mots".

2613:

Traeger-Synodinos, Joanne (February 2017). "Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis".

2436: 2240:

Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis: Ethical Guidelines for Responsible Regulation

1584:

In India, Ministry of Family Health and Welfare, regulates the concept under the

897:. Studies on new non-invasive preimplantation genetics screening methods such as 651:, was used for PGT-M. However, more recently PGT-M uses array and NGS technology. 377:; and in the case of the X-linked diseases, most of the cycles are performed for 87:—Fraternal twins with the desired trait, not expressed in their mother, are born. 5858: 5784:

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis and sex selection- How does it work in the UK?

5344: 4583: 4261: 4244: 2980: 2920: 2279: 2071: 2054: 1034: 983: 644: 561: 540: 354: 5807:"Scientists say they can read nearly the whole genome of an IVF-created embryo" 5523: 5509: 5207: 5190: 5172: 4343: 4243:

Joris, H.; Van den Abbeel, E.; Vos, A.De; Van Steirteghem, A. (November 1999).

3472:"Evaluation of a novel non-invasive preimplantation genetic screening approach" 3212: 2404: 2387: 1943: 1446:

of "serious" "genetic conditions" that may be de-selected in the UK, including

6160: 5946: 4632: 4130: 3976: 3899: 3897: 3546: 3163: 2531: 2315: 1822: 1146: 1010: 952: 898: 882: 796: 758: 606: 297: 231: 184: 180: 155: 151: 5761: 4047: 3945: 3776:

Li M, DeUgarte CM, Surrey M, Danzer H, DeCherney A, Hill DL (November 2005).

3737:"Chromosomal mosaicism in human preimplantation embryos: a systematic review" 3638:

Shkumatov A, Kuznyetsov V, Cieslak J, Ilkevitch Y, Verlinsky Y (April 2007).

2846: 2675: 2658: 2275:"Controversial Genetic Tests: German Parliament Allows Some Embryo Screening" 1865: 1086:

designated adapters for random reading during in-parallel DNA synthesis. The

510:

accepted indications for PGD would not be acceptable for prenatal diagnosis.

447:

for prediction of pregnancy rates include microscopy as well as profiling of

57:—The embryos are allowed to develop; those that thrive are given identifiers. 6114: 5924: 5613:

Ethics Committee of American Society for Reproductive Medicine (July 2013).

5026: 4740: 4545: 4528: 4505: 4302: 4285: 4245:"Reduced survival after human embryo biopsy and subsequent cryopreservation" 3835: 3818: 3753: 3736: 3431: 3134: 2746: 2711: 2566:"Healthy Babies after Intrauterine Transfer of Mosaic Aneuploid Blastocysts" 2487: 2470: 2245:(Report). CTA International Center for Technology Assessment. Archived from 2206: 2111: 1749: 1559: 1199: 1150: 915: 770: 489: 203: 173: 5736: 5640: 5482: 5216: 5093: 5044: 4927: 4798: 4771: 4564: 4513: 4467: 4362: 4311: 4270: 4148: 4099: 4055: 3984: 3931: 3844: 3803: 3762: 3665: 3564: 3515: 3449: 3400: 3230: 3181: 3107: 2864: 2795: 2754: 2719: 2684: 2634: 2591: 2550: 2496: 2413: 2372: 2323: 2214: 1830: 1696:

Legislation began late, ten years after the birth in the United Kingdom of

1009:, particularly those that could give rise to a viable pregnancy (such as a 5310:. Ministry of Children and Youth Services in Ontario, 2010. Archived from 4852: 4432: 4019: 3879: 3713: 3373:

McArthur SJ, Leigh D, Marshall JT, de Boer KA, Jansen RP (December 2005).

3359: 3316: 3273: 2164: 2129: 2080: 2053:

Handyside AH, Lesko JG, Tarín JJ, Winston RM, Hughes MR (September 1992).

2031: 1921: 1442:

highlights the appearance of several intersex variations in a list by the

564:, patients are provided with a single PGD assay of gender identification. 52:—The resulting embryos are kept safe and watched to see which will thrive. 6165: 5801:

Polar body and blastomere biopsy images. Normal and abnormal FISH images.

5075: 4414: 3088: 3037:

Delaporte, Yves (2002). "Conclusion. Ce que nous apprennent les sourds".

2957: 2659:"Preimplantation diagnosis for Fanconi anemia combined with HLA matching" 2582: 2565: 1631: 1431: 1298: 1207: 1002: 766: 342: 310: 293: 239: 191: 135: 4399:"Screening for fetal and genetic abnormality: social and ethical issues" 2657:

Verlinsky Y, Rechitsky S, Schoolcraft W, Strom C, Kuliev A (June 2001).

2363: 2346: 2002:

Edwards RG, Gardner RL (May 1967). "Sexing of live rabbit blastocysts".

1979:

The human embryonic stem cell debate: science, ethics, and public policy

657:: every structural abnormality in the chromosome is taken into account ( 5596:"Submission on the ethics of genetic selection against intersex traits" 5578:"Morgan Carpenter at LGBTI Human Rights in the Commonwealth conference" 4968:"Submission on the ethics of genetic selection against intersex traits" 4950:"Morgan Carpenter at LGBTI Human Rights in the Commonwealth conference" 4844: 4756:"The Definition of Disability: Perspective of the Disability Community" 4675: 3871: 3705: 3308: 1711: 1659:(ASRM), have provided limited guidance on the ethical uses of PGD. The 1614: 1454:, traits evident in elite women athletes and "the world's first openly 1022: 927:

could isolate this DNA and use it for preimplantation genetic testing.

762: 452: 147: 5366: 4555: 2911:"The rise of advanced manufacturing institutes in the United States". 5778: 4602:"Wanting Babies Like Themselves, Some Parents Choose Genetic Defects" 3265: 2023: 1913: 1789:"PGD / PGS – A boon for couples with genetic issues – Times of India" 1558:

ruled that PGD can be used in exceptional cases. On 7 July 2011, the

1554:

Before 2010, the usage of PGD was in a legal grey area. In 2010, the

1310: 1062: 968: 877:

can be performed to estimate oocyte quality and the efficiency of an

535:. Potential applications of preimplantation sex discernment include: 261: 158: 119: 107: 4836: 4667: 997:

confines the number of signals that can be analysed simultaneously.

313:

in order to be a donor, to have less cancer predisposition, and for

67:—The embryos without the desired trait are identified and discarded. 5774:

An Interview with Dr. Mark Hughes, a pioneer in PGD, discussing PGD

5308:"Care to Proceed: Infertility and Assisted Reproduction in Ontario" 4459: 1005:

as an internal FISH control. More probes can be added to check for

727:

The biopsy procedure always involves two steps: the opening of the

4906:(October 2013). "The social costs of preempting intersex traits". 2831:"Deaf lesbians, 'designer disability,' and the future of medicine" 2615:

Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology

150:

or embryos for evaluation. Embryos are generally obtained through

853:

diagnosis, the embryos can be replaced during the same cycle, or

3681:

from Clinical Sequencing News. By Monica Heger. October 02, 2013

1344:

result leading to the acceptance of an abnormal embryo, or in a

1289:

PGD has the potential to screen for genetic issues unrelated to

5823: 4377:"Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis May Pose Neurological Risks" 2768:

Baruch, Susannah; Kaufman, David; Hudson, Kathy L. (May 2008).

1407:

improving the status quo and well-being of society as a whole.

345:)—or of chromosomal structural aberrations (such as a balanced 5541: 1652: 964: 838:

has been reported to be lower than in cleavage-stage embryos.

550:

Ability to prepare for any sex-dependent aspects of parenting.

448: 206:

before fertilization may instead be referred to as methods of

5151:

Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice

4729:

The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance - Issues and Practice

1596:

As of 2006, clinics in Mexico legally provided PGD services.

389:. Though it is quite infrequent, some centers report PGD for 5283:"Embryo screening sparks controversy over 'designer babies'" 4818: 4816: 1586:

Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994

1567:

approved a rule regulating how PGD can be used in practice.

230:

reported the successful identification of the sex of rabbit

5754:

Scientific refutation of ESHG statement on embryo selection

3416:"Contemporary genetic technologies and female reproduction" 5396: 2469:

Mastenbroek S, Twisk M, van der Veen F, Repping S (2011).

4691: 4689: 4687: 4685: 1977:

Zoloth, Laurie; Holland, Suzanne; Lebacqz, Karen (2001).

834:(TE) can reduce the accuracy of diagnosis, although this 214:, although the methods and aims partly overlap with PGD. 5789:

List of diseases screened in the UK licensed by the HFEA

3600:"Current Methods for Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis" 1948:

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis International Society

1226:

Embryo transfer and cryopreservation of surplus embryos

527:

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis provides a method of

5184: 5182: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3459: 1348:

result leading to the deselection of a normal embryo.

773:, but which generally does not have the ability to be 531:

even before implantation, and may therefore be termed

5367:"Medical Research Council – Medical Research Council" 5340:"Genetic Risks: The Implications of Embryo Screening" 1359:(ESHRE) ethics task force currently recommends using 1357:

European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology

1145:

in the presence of APS. The generated ATP drives the

5794:

Screening Embryos for Disease by Joe Palca @ NPR.org

1613:

The preimplantation genetic diagnosis is allowed in

396:

PGD is also now being performed in a disease called

6215: 6174: 6123: 6043: 5962: 5905: 5857: 1851:"Introduction to preimplantation genetic diagnosis" 1804: 1802: 1634:variations as a "serious genetic disease", such as 2564:Greco E, Minasi MG, Fiorentino F (November 2015). 2464: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2456: 1811:Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America 1245:because of the, albeit low, risk of misdiagnosis. 625:Couples with a history of recurrent pregnancy loss 432:A systematic review and meta-analysis of existing 77:—The embryos with the desired trait are implanted. 27:Genetic profiling of embryos prior to implantation 6223:Reproduction and pregnancy in speculative fiction 4699:Eugenics and the Ethics of Selective Reproduction 631:Male partner with severe male factor infertility. 134:, its main advantage is that it avoids selective 2188: 2186: 2184: 2182: 4595: 4593: 3965:Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine 3201:Clinical and Experimental Reproductive Medicine 1887: 1885: 1480: 333:—that is, disorders due to a single gene only ( 5169:"Synthesis of Instruction 'Dignitas Personae'" 5011:"Should selecting saviour siblings be banned?" 4988:; Commissioner for Human Rights (April 2015), 4392: 4390: 1266:disorders like Alzheimer's and Down syndrome. 677:). Various techniques used: PCR, FISH and NGS. 365:type 1. The most common dominant diseases are 5835: 4991:Human rights and intersex people, Issue Paper 4119:Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics 3860:Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics 3694:Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics 3535:Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics 3297:Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics 3152:Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics 1460:Organisation Intersex International Australia 1430:PGD allows discrimination against those with 910:the collapse including laser-pulse, repeated 885:, embryo development and pregnancy outcomes. 393:disorders or two indications simultaneously. 8: 5276: 5274: 1464:National Health and Medical Research Council 1444:Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority 1301:movement. On the other hand, a principle of 126:. PGD is considered in a similar fashion to 4192:"Embryo or Egg Freezing (Cryopreservation)" 4160: 4158: 3529:Darwish, Ehab; Magdi, Yasmin (April 2016). 922:Using blastocyst culture conditioned medium 699:Currently, all PGD embryos are obtained by 82:—The embryos result in a healthy pregnancy. 5842: 5828: 5820: 5805:Couzin-Frankel, Jennifer (22 March 2022). 5762:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-022-01237-0 4067: 4065: 2347:"'Designer babies' almost thirty years on" 1709:PGD features prominently in the 1997 film 1661:American Society for Reproductive Medicine 1657:American Society for Reproductive Medicine 1649:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 875:gene expression profiling of cumulus cells 795:made in the zona pellucida and one or two 172:, resulting in two twin and one singleton 5799:Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis images. 5726: 5630: 5472: 5206: 5083: 5034: 4879: 4696:Wilkinson, Stephen; Garrard, Eve (2013). 4554: 4544: 4422: 4352: 4342: 4301: 4260: 4138: 4089: 3921: 3834: 3793: 3752: 3655: 3598:Demko Z, Rabinowitz M, Johnson D (2010). 3554: 3505: 3495: 3439: 3390: 3220: 3171: 3097: 3087: 2854: 2785: 2674: 2581: 2540: 2530: 2486: 2403: 2362: 2119: 2070: 1363:instead. Exclusion testing is based on a 790:Cleavage-stage biopsy (blastomere biopsy) 703:, although the use of natural cycles and 5556:"Human fertilization and embryology act" 5333: 5331: 5329: 5109:The International Encyclopedia of Ethics 4600:Sanghavi, Darshak M. (5 December 2006). 2269: 2267: 1651:(CDC) states that all clinics providing 765:cell that is formed concomitantly as an 29: 1780: 857:and transferred in a subsequent cycle. 329:PGD is available for a large number of 5538:"HFEA Code of Practice - Introduction" 5254:"Canada's fertility law needs a reset" 2519:Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 5657:. Genetics & Public Policy Center 5558:. Genetics & Public Policy Center 5233:. Genetics & Public Policy Center 5140: 5138: 5136: 5004: 5002: 5000: 4760:Journal of Health Care Law and Policy 4012:10.1093/oxfordjournals.humrep.a137438 3352:10.1093/oxfordjournals.humrep.a136713 1700:, the first person conceived by IVF. 881:protocol, and may indirectly predict 130:. When used to screen for a specific 7: 5338:Kerstin Kullmann (8 February 2013). 5281:Campbell, Jordan (October 1, 2011). 4218:"Embryo Freezing (Cryopreservation)" 2829:Savulescu, Julian (5 October 2002). 1512:Judaism, by contrast, supports PGD. 1507:In vitro fertilisation § Ethics 560:In the case of families at risk for 5417:Mittra, Anwesha (22 October 2011). 5107:Agar, Nicholas (2013). "Eugenics". 4866:Croydon, Silvia (9 February 2023). 4331:Molecular & Cellular Proteomics 2946:Revue internationale et stratégique 2570:The New England Journal of Medicine 2059:The New England Journal of Medicine 1720:PGD is mentioned in the 2004 novel 1556:Federal Court of Justice of Germany 1198:(PGH) is a PGD technique wherein a 1196:Preimplantation genetic haplotyping 1191:Preimplantation genetic haplotyping 1185:Preimplantation genetic haplotyping 47:—The sperm and eggs are fertilized. 5758:European Journal of Human Genetics 5171:. 12 December 2008. Archived from 1081:Next-generation sequencing concept 25: 6025:Preimplantation genetic diagnosis 5719:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.07.1772 5393:"Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques" 5231:"Assisted Human Reproduction Act" 4908:The American Journal of Bioethics 3130:Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis 2429:Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis 1858:Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis 1305:is proposed, which is a putative 945:Fluorescent in situ hybridization 628:Couples with repeated IVF failure 443:Alternative methods to determine 92:Preimplantation genetic diagnosis 18:Preimplantation genetic screening 6005:Intracytoplasmic sperm injection 5980:Autologous endometrial coculture 5851:Assisted reproductive technology 5676:Caryn Rabin, Roni (2024-02-20). 5632:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.02.043 5474:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.12.049 5436:Vora, Priyanka (30 April 2018). 5252:Picard, Andre (April 16, 2012). 3923:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.02.001 3795:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2005.04.068 3392:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2005.05.063 2787:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.05.048 1476:Human rights and intersex people 1336:and welfare of the donor child. 918:found in the developing embryo. 713:intracytoplasmic sperm injection 701:assisted reproductive technology 476:. The child is in this sense a " 255:Female embryos were selectively 140:assisted reproductive technology 37:—Sperm is collected from a male. 5600:Intersex Human Rights Australia 5582:Intersex Human Rights Australia 5195:Reproductive Biomedicine Online 5145:Shapiro, Zachary (April 2018). 4972:Intersex Human Rights Australia 4954:Intersex Human Rights Australia 4078:Reproductive Biomedicine Online 3644:Reproductive Biomedicine Online 3072:"Deafness, culture, and choice" 2392:Reproductive Biomedicine Online 1536:Assisted Human Reproduction Act 1452:androgen insensitivity syndrome 1045:simplified reproduction of the 816:Not all methods of opening the 533:preimplantation sex discernment 6088:Gamete intrafallopian transfer 6035:Zygote intrafallopian transfer 5117:10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee100 3607:Journal of Clinical Embryology 3047:10.4000/books.editionsmsh.4152 3014:10.4000/books.enseditions.8033 2913:The Next Production Revolution 1981:. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. 1961:How does DGP work? Infographic 1735:Information on clinic websites 1462:has called for the Australian 1237:centre where it is performed. 622:Women of advanced maternal age 1: 6192:Genetic diagnosis of intersex 6020:Partner-assisted reproduction 4881:10.1080/18692729.2023.2168841 4621:Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 4091:10.1016/S1472-6483(10)62024-X 3657:10.1016/S1472-6483(10)60899-1 2627:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2016.10.010 2157:10.1016/S0140-6736(89)90655-7 1704:References in popular culture 1426:Genetic diagnosis of intersex 1134:deoxynucleotide triphosphates 961:single cell genome sequencing 959:In addition to FISH and PCR, 474:cord-blood stem cell donation 398:hereditary multiple exostoses 278:Duchenne's muscular dystrophy 5009:Sheldon, S (December 2004). 4920:10.1080/15265161.2013.828119 3497:10.1371/journal.pone.0197262 3006:Suffragistes et suffragettes 2888:10.3726/978-3-0352-0324-0/14 2437:10.1017/cbo9780511581571.014 1636:5-alpha-reductase deficiency 1474:published an Issue Paper on 1448:5-alpha reductase deficiency 1392:society structures the world 1112:Two examples of NGS are the 434:randomized controlled trials 304:Indications and applications 6030:Transvaginal ovum retrieval 5058:Spriggs, M (October 2002). 4787:Journal of Law and Medicine 4584:10.13140/RG.2.2.11026.89289 4403:Journal of Medical Genetics 4166:"Bust a Myth about PGD/PGS" 2981:10.1007/978-2-287-33911-0_4 2921:10.1787/9789264271036-15-en 2304:World Journal of Pediatrics 2072:10.1056/NEJM199209243271301 1109:making it more accessible. 940:Genetic analysis techniques 845:development of the embryo. 571:Duchenne muscular dystrophy 387:Duchenne muscular dystrophy 375:Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease 168:in five couples at risk of 6285: 5510:10.1089/073003103322616742 5419:"Anything for a baby boy!" 5208:10.1016/J.RBMO.2009.10.005 4825:The Hastings Center Report 4344:10.1074/mcp.M800273-MCP200 3213:10.5653/cerm.2012.39.3.118 2915:. 2017. pp. 361–395. 2405:10.1016/j.rbmo.2018.03.005 2345:Handyside AH (July 2018). 2238:Simoncelli, Tania (2003). 1856:. In Harper, Joyce (ed.). 1534:Prior to implementing the 1504: 1423: 1188: 1099:next-generation sequencing 742: 462: 410: 6197:Religious response to ART 5064:Journal of Medical Ethics 5015:Journal of Medical Ethics 4633:10.1007/s11673-007-9034-9 4533:Human Reproduction Update 4397:Dunstan, G R (May 1988). 4262:10.1093/humrep/14.11.2833 4131:10.1007/s10815-010-9483-7 3977:10.5858/arpa.2012-0463-RA 3741:Human Reproduction Update 3613:(1): 6–12. Archived from 3579:"PGD/PGS – IVF-Worldwide" 3547:10.1007/s10815-016-0662-z 3420:Human Reproduction Update 3164:10.1007/s10815-012-9746-6 3076:Journal of Medical Ethics 3039:Les sourds c'est comme ça 2532:10.1186/s12958-016-0193-6 2475:Human Reproduction Update 2316:10.1007/s12519-018-0172-4 1849:Harper, Joyce C. (2009). 1823:10.1016/j.ogc.2017.10.009 1219:chromosomal translocation 1118:reversible dye terminator 949:polymerase chain reaction 931:Benefits and consequences 514:For late-onset conditions 236:polymerase chain reaction 118:), and sometimes even of 6264:Prenatal sex discernment 6015:Ovarian hyperstimulation 5655:"A regulatory patchwork" 5498:Biotechnology Law Report 4754:Kaplan, Deborah (2000). 4448:Nature Reviews. Genetics 3070:Levy, N (October 2002). 2847:10.1136/bmj.325.7367.771 2676:10.1001/jama.285.24.3130 1866:10.1017/CBO9780511581571 1760:Family-based QTL mapping 1276:prenatal sex discernment 1167:Establishing a diagnosis 1149:-mediated conversion of 879:ovarian hyperstimulation 733:Tyrode's acidic solution 543:, such as, for example, 529:prenatal sex discernment 202:Procedures performed on 6051:Artificial insemination 5897:Male infertility crisis 5707:Fertility and Sterility 5619:Fertility and Sterility 5461:Fertility and Sterility 5027:10.1136/jme.2003.004150 4741:10.1111/1468-0440.00224 4506:10.1111/1467-8519.00251 3910:Fertility and Sterility 3782:Fertility and Sterility 3379:Fertility and Sterility 2810:PNDT ACT NO. 57 OF 1994 2774:Fertility and Sterility 2747:10.1001/jama.287.8.1038 2712:10.1001/jama.287.8.1018 2112:10.1136/bmj.299.6690.22 1963:Retrieved 28. June 2015 1303:procreative beneficence 1251:Embryo cryopreservation 470:Human leukocyte antigen 363:spinal muscular atrophy 6254:In vitro fertilisation 6202:Mitochondrial donation 6136:Donor Sibling Registry 5975:Assisted zona hatching 5964:In vitro fertilisation 5379:Knowledge (XXG) page: 4048:10.1093/humrep/16.1.43 1485: 1257:Side effects to embryo 905:Using blastocoel fluid 423:in vitro fertilization 144:in vitro fertilization 88: 6249:Intersex and medicine 5175:on February 15, 2009. 4546:10.1093/humupd/dmt009 4303:10.1093/humrep/dep298 3836:10.1093/humrep/deh536 3754:10.1093/humupd/dmr014 3432:10.1093/humupd/dmr033 2973:Génétique statistique 2488:10.1093/humupd/dmr003 2207:10.1093/humrep/deg100 1210:causing the disease. 1017:error rate of 5–10%. 865:Cumulus cell sampling 802:chromosomal mosaicism 500:Cancer predisposition 33: 6093:Reproductive surgery 5985:Cytoplasmic transfer 5915:Estrogen antagonists 5907:Fertility medication 5076:10.1136/jme.28.5.289 4415:10.1136/jmg.25.5.290 3089:10.1136/jme.28.5.284 3041:. pp. 359–363. 2958:10.3917/ris.120.0027 2583:10.1056/nejmc1500421 2431:. pp. 203–229. 2252:on December 13, 2013 1776:Notes and references 1516:Psychological factor 1501:Religious objections 1388:language of medicine 889:Non-invasive methods 371:Huntington's disease 247:First clinical cases 6105:Selective reduction 6056:Ovulation induction 6000:In vitro maturation 5995:Gestational carrier 5920:aromatase inhibitor 5314:on October 25, 2013 4705:. Keel University. 3916:(4): 1054–1061.e3. 3488:2018PLoSO..1397262K 3258:1968Natur.218..346G 2975:. pp. 77–106. 2364:10.1530/REP-18-0157 2016:1967Natur.214..576E 1906:1990Natur.344..768H 1525:Policy and legality 1369:polymorphic markers 761:, which is a small 359:sickle cell disease 335:autosomal recessive 331:monogenic disorders 325:Monogenic disorders 6269:1989 introductions 6131:Donor registration 6098:Vasectomy reversal 5423:The Times of India 5258:The Globe and Mail 5060:"Saviour siblings" 4872:Contemporary Japan 4606:The New York Times 4290:Human Reproduction 4249:Human Reproduction 4224:on 6 December 2012 4036:Human Reproduction 4000:Human Reproduction 3946:"Genetic Research" 3872:10.1007/bf02072539 3823:Human Reproduction 3706:10.1007/bf02332090 3340:Human Reproduction 3309:10.1007/BF01228093 2815:2011-04-17 at the 2195:Human Reproduction 1793:The Times of India 1723:My Sister's Keeper 1686:monogenic disease. 1353:Huntington disease 1316:instrumental value 1072:autosomal dominant 641:monogenic diseases 585:Non-medical traits 577:Minor disabilities 494:Kantian imperative 379:fragile X syndrome 367:myotonic dystrophy 339:autosomal dominant 270:sickle-cell anemia 128:prenatal diagnosis 89: 6231: 6230: 6182:Accidental incest 5892:Fertility tourism 5887:Fertility testing 5381:hu:Versys Clinics 5126:978-1-4051-8641-4 4986:Council of Europe 4712:978-0-9576160-0-4 4255:(11): 2833–2837. 3584:ivf-worldwide.com 3056:978-2-7351-0935-7 3023:978-2-84788-927-7 2990:978-2-287-33910-3 2930:978-92-64-27099-2 2897:978-3-0343-1384-1 2841:(7367): 771–773. 2446:978-0-511-58157-1 1988:978-0-262-58208-7 1875:978-0-511-58157-1 1860:. pp. 1–10. 1472:Council of Europe 1375:Criticisms of PGD 1361:exclusion testing 1291:medical necessity 1103:mitochondrial one 825:Blastocyst biopsy 779:blastocyst biopsy 751:polar body biopsy 745:Polar body biopsy 739:Polar body biopsy 719:Biopsy procedures 695:Obtaining embryos 682:Technical aspects 562:X-linked diseases 545:X-linked diseases 541:linked to the sex 407:Pregnancy chances 274:Tay–Sachs disease 16:(Redirected from 6276: 6259:Medical genetics 6156:Semen collection 6061:Cryopreservation 6010:Oocyte selection 5882:Fertility clinic 5844: 5837: 5830: 5821: 5816: 5741: 5740: 5730: 5698: 5692: 5691: 5689: 5688: 5673: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5651: 5645: 5644: 5634: 5610: 5604: 5603: 5592: 5586: 5585: 5574: 5568: 5567: 5565: 5563: 5552: 5546: 5545: 5540:. Archived from 5534: 5528: 5527: 5520: 5514: 5513: 5493: 5487: 5486: 5476: 5452: 5446: 5445: 5433: 5427: 5426: 5414: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5404: 5395:. Archived from 5389: 5383: 5377: 5371: 5370: 5363: 5357: 5356: 5354: 5352: 5335: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5319: 5304: 5298: 5297: 5295: 5293: 5278: 5269: 5268: 5266: 5264: 5249: 5243: 5242: 5240: 5238: 5227: 5221: 5220: 5210: 5186: 5177: 5176: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5142: 5131: 5130: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5087: 5055: 5049: 5048: 5038: 5006: 4995: 4994: 4982: 4976: 4975: 4964: 4958: 4957: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4883: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4820: 4811: 4810: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4704: 4693: 4680: 4679: 4651: 4645: 4644: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4597: 4588: 4587: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4558: 4548: 4524: 4518: 4517: 4486: 4480: 4479: 4443: 4437: 4436: 4426: 4394: 4385: 4384: 4373: 4367: 4366: 4356: 4346: 4322: 4316: 4315: 4305: 4281: 4275: 4274: 4264: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4220:. Archived from 4214: 4208: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4194:. Archived from 4188: 4182: 4181: 4179: 4177: 4168:. Archived from 4162: 4153: 4152: 4142: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4093: 4069: 4060: 4059: 4030: 4024: 4023: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3971:(9): 1296–1303. 3960: 3954: 3953: 3942: 3936: 3935: 3925: 3901: 3892: 3891: 3855: 3849: 3848: 3838: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3797: 3773: 3767: 3766: 3756: 3732: 3726: 3725: 3688: 3682: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3659: 3635: 3629: 3628: 3626: 3625: 3619: 3604: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3575: 3569: 3568: 3558: 3526: 3520: 3519: 3509: 3499: 3467: 3454: 3453: 3443: 3411: 3405: 3404: 3394: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3266:10.1038/218346a0 3241: 3235: 3234: 3224: 3192: 3186: 3185: 3175: 3143: 3137: 3126: 3120: 3119: 3101: 3091: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3034: 3028: 3027: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2968: 2962: 2961: 2941: 2935: 2934: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2875: 2869: 2868: 2858: 2826: 2820: 2806: 2800: 2799: 2789: 2780:(5): 1053–1058. 2765: 2759: 2758: 2741:(8): 1038–1040. 2730: 2724: 2723: 2706:(8): 1018–1021. 2695: 2689: 2688: 2678: 2654: 2648: 2645: 2639: 2638: 2610: 2604: 2603: 2585: 2561: 2555: 2554: 2544: 2534: 2507: 2501: 2500: 2490: 2466: 2451: 2450: 2424: 2418: 2417: 2407: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2366: 2342: 2336: 2335: 2299: 2293: 2292: 2290: 2288: 2271: 2262: 2261: 2259: 2257: 2251: 2244: 2235: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2218: 2190: 2177: 2176: 2140: 2134: 2133: 2123: 2091: 2085: 2084: 2074: 2050: 2044: 2043: 2024:10.1038/214576a0 1999: 1993: 1992: 1970: 1964: 1958: 1952: 1951: 1950:. July 19, 2016. 1940: 1934: 1933: 1914:10.1038/344768a0 1900:(6268): 768–70. 1889: 1880: 1879: 1855: 1846: 1835: 1834: 1806: 1797: 1796: 1785: 1440:Morgan Carpenter 1365:linkage analysis 1307:moral obligation 1280:family balancing 967:sequence of the 777:. Compared to a 639:: in this case, 566:Gender selection 486:beta thalassemia 282:beta-thalassemia 208:oocyte selection 170:X-linked disease 146:(IVF) to obtain 116:embryo profiling 21: 6284: 6283: 6279: 6278: 6277: 6275: 6274: 6273: 6234: 6233: 6232: 6227: 6211: 6187:Fertility fraud 6170: 6119: 6039: 5990:Embryo transfer 5967: 5958: 5901: 5853: 5848: 5804: 5770: 5749: 5747:Further reading 5744: 5700: 5699: 5695: 5686: 5684: 5675: 5674: 5670: 5660: 5658: 5653: 5652: 5648: 5612: 5611: 5607: 5594: 5593: 5589: 5576: 5575: 5571: 5561: 5559: 5554: 5553: 5549: 5536: 5535: 5531: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5495: 5494: 5490: 5454: 5453: 5449: 5435: 5434: 5430: 5416: 5415: 5411: 5402: 5400: 5391: 5390: 5386: 5378: 5374: 5365: 5364: 5360: 5350: 5348: 5337: 5336: 5327: 5317: 5315: 5306: 5305: 5301: 5291: 5289: 5280: 5279: 5272: 5262: 5260: 5251: 5250: 5246: 5236: 5234: 5229: 5228: 5224: 5188: 5187: 5180: 5167: 5166: 5162: 5144: 5143: 5134: 5127: 5106: 5105: 5101: 5057: 5056: 5052: 5008: 5007: 4998: 4984: 4983: 4979: 4966: 4965: 4961: 4948: 4947: 4943: 4902: 4901: 4897: 4865: 4864: 4860: 4837:10.2307/3563460 4822: 4821: 4814: 4784: 4783: 4779: 4753: 4752: 4748: 4725: 4724: 4720: 4713: 4702: 4695: 4694: 4683: 4668:10.2307/4018680 4653: 4652: 4648: 4618: 4617: 4613: 4599: 4598: 4591: 4577: 4576: 4572: 4526: 4525: 4521: 4500:(5–6): 413–26. 4488: 4487: 4483: 4445: 4444: 4440: 4396: 4395: 4388: 4375: 4374: 4370: 4337:(7): 1490–500. 4324: 4323: 4319: 4283: 4282: 4278: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4227: 4225: 4216: 4215: 4211: 4201: 4199: 4198:on 10 July 2009 4190: 4189: 4185: 4175: 4173: 4164: 4163: 4156: 4112: 4111: 4107: 4071: 4070: 4063: 4032: 4031: 4027: 3997: 3996: 3992: 3962: 3961: 3957: 3944: 3943: 3939: 3903: 3902: 3895: 3857: 3856: 3852: 3829:(12): 2849–58. 3816: 3815: 3811: 3788:(5): 1395–400. 3775: 3774: 3770: 3734: 3733: 3729: 3690: 3689: 3685: 3677: 3673: 3637: 3636: 3632: 3623: 3621: 3617: 3602: 3597: 3596: 3592: 3577: 3576: 3572: 3528: 3527: 3523: 3482:(5): e0197262. 3469: 3468: 3457: 3413: 3412: 3408: 3372: 3371: 3367: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3252:(5139): 346–9. 3243: 3242: 3238: 3194: 3193: 3189: 3145: 3144: 3140: 3127: 3123: 3069: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3036: 3035: 3031: 3024: 3003: 3002: 2998: 2991: 2970: 2969: 2965: 2943: 2942: 2938: 2931: 2910: 2909: 2905: 2898: 2877: 2876: 2872: 2828: 2827: 2823: 2817:Wayback Machine 2807: 2803: 2767: 2766: 2762: 2732: 2731: 2727: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2656: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2642: 2612: 2611: 2607: 2576:(21): 2089–90. 2563: 2562: 2558: 2509: 2508: 2504: 2468: 2467: 2454: 2447: 2426: 2425: 2421: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2344: 2343: 2339: 2301: 2300: 2296: 2286: 2284: 2273: 2272: 2265: 2255: 2253: 2249: 2242: 2237: 2236: 2232: 2226: 2222: 2192: 2191: 2180: 2151:(8662): 532–5. 2142: 2141: 2137: 2093: 2092: 2088: 2052: 2051: 2047: 2010:(5088): 576–7. 2001: 2000: 1996: 1989: 1976: 1971: 1967: 1959: 1955: 1942: 1941: 1937: 1891: 1890: 1883: 1876: 1853: 1848: 1847: 1838: 1808: 1807: 1800: 1787: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1765:Polygenic score 1746: 1737: 1706: 1673: 1644: 1623: 1611: 1602: 1594: 1582: 1573: 1552: 1532: 1527: 1518: 1509: 1503: 1490: 1488:Savior siblings 1436:Georgiann Davis 1428: 1422: 1420:Intersex traits 1413: 1400: 1398:Support for PGD 1377: 1334:commodification 1330:saviour sibling 1325: 1272: 1259: 1231:Embryo transfer 1228: 1204:genetic markers 1193: 1187: 1169: 1160: 1143:ATP sulfurylase 1132:Cycles of four 1126: 1083: 1055:DNA polymerases 1051:DNA replication 1032: 977: 971:of the embryo. 942: 933: 924: 907: 895:genetic testing 891: 867: 827: 792: 747: 741: 721: 697: 684: 647:). Previously, 596: 587: 579: 525: 523:Sex discernment 516: 502: 482:Fanconi anaemia 467: 461: 438:live birth rate 415: 409: 351:cystic fibrosis 327: 306: 290: 249: 228:Richard Gardner 220: 212:sperm selection 142:, and requires 132:genetic disease 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 48: 43: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6282: 6280: 6272: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6236: 6235: 6229: 6228: 6226: 6225: 6219: 6217: 6213: 6212: 6210: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6178: 6176: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6127: 6125: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6101: 6100: 6090: 6085: 6084: 6083: 6078: 6076:ovarian tissue 6073: 6068: 6058: 6053: 6047: 6045: 6041: 6040: 6038: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5971: 5969: 5968:and expansions 5960: 5959: 5957: 5956: 5951: 5950: 5949: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5928: 5927: 5922: 5911: 5909: 5903: 5902: 5900: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5863: 5861: 5855: 5854: 5849: 5847: 5846: 5839: 5832: 5824: 5818: 5817: 5802: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5769: 5768:External links 5766: 5765: 5764: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5742: 5713:(4): 1276–83. 5693: 5682:New York Times 5668: 5646: 5605: 5587: 5569: 5547: 5544:on 2007-06-02. 5529: 5515: 5504:(6): 586–601. 5488: 5447: 5428: 5409: 5384: 5372: 5358: 5325: 5299: 5270: 5244: 5222: 5178: 5160: 5132: 5125: 5099: 5050: 5021:(6): 533–537. 4996: 4977: 4959: 4941: 4895: 4858: 4812: 4777: 4766:(2): 352–364. 4746: 4735:(2): 294–303. 4718: 4711: 4681: 4646: 4611: 4589: 4570: 4519: 4481: 4460:10.1038/nrg953 4454:(12): 941–53. 4438: 4409:(5): 290–293. 4386: 4368: 4317: 4276: 4235: 4209: 4183: 4172:on 4 June 2013 4154: 4105: 4061: 4025: 3990: 3955: 3937: 3893: 3850: 3809: 3768: 3727: 3683: 3671: 3650:(4): 498–503. 3630: 3590: 3570: 3541:(4): 467–471. 3521: 3455: 3406: 3385:(6): 1628–36. 3365: 3330: 3287: 3236: 3207:(3): 118–124. 3187: 3138: 3121: 3082:(5): 284–285. 3062: 3055: 3029: 3022: 2996: 2989: 2963: 2936: 2929: 2903: 2896: 2870: 2821: 2801: 2760: 2725: 2690: 2669:(24): 3130–3. 2649: 2647:Pattinson 2003 2640: 2605: 2556: 2502: 2452: 2445: 2419: 2398:(6): 677–685. 2378: 2357:(1): F75–F79. 2337: 2310:(6): 555–569. 2294: 2263: 2230: 2220: 2201:(3): 465–471. 2178: 2135: 2106:(6690): 22–4. 2086: 2045: 1994: 1987: 1965: 1953: 1935: 1881: 1874: 1836: 1817:(1): 113–125. 1798: 1795:. 31 May 2019. 1779: 1777: 1774: 1773: 1772: 1767: 1762: 1757: 1752: 1745: 1742: 1736: 1733: 1732: 1731: 1718: 1705: 1702: 1691: 1690: 1687: 1683: 1672: 1669: 1643: 1640: 1622: 1621:United Kingdom 1619: 1610: 1607: 1601: 1598: 1593: 1590: 1581: 1578: 1572: 1569: 1551: 1548: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1517: 1514: 1502: 1499: 1489: 1486: 1456:intersex mayor 1424:Main article: 1421: 1418: 1412: 1409: 1399: 1396: 1376: 1373: 1346:false positive 1342:false negative 1324: 1321: 1271: 1270:Ethical issues 1268: 1258: 1255: 1227: 1224: 1189:Main article: 1186: 1183: 1168: 1165: 1159: 1156: 1125: 1124:Pyrosequencing 1122: 1114:pyrosequencing 1082: 1079: 1041:in 1985 as an 1031: 1028: 976: 973: 941: 938: 932: 929: 923: 920: 912:micropipetting 906: 903: 890: 887: 866: 863: 826: 823: 818:zona pellucida 791: 788: 743:Main article: 740: 737: 729:zona pellucida 720: 717: 696: 693: 683: 680: 679: 678: 659:translocations 652: 633: 632: 629: 626: 623: 619: 618: 595: 594:Classification 592: 586: 583: 578: 575: 558: 557: 551: 548: 524: 521: 515: 512: 507:BRCA mutations 501: 498: 478:savior sibling 465:Savior sibling 463:Main article: 460: 457: 445:embryo quality 419:embryo quality 413:Embryo quality 411:Main article: 408: 405: 400:(MHE/MO/HME). 326: 323: 305: 302: 289: 286: 248: 245: 224:Robert Edwards 219: 216: 114:(as a form of 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6281: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6241: 6239: 6224: 6221: 6220: 6218: 6214: 6208: 6207:Sex selection 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6179: 6177: 6173: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6128: 6126: 6122: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6110:Sex selection 6108: 6106: 6103: 6099: 6096: 6095: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6063: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6048: 6046: 6044:Other methods 6042: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5972: 5970: 5965: 5961: 5955: 5952: 5948: 5945: 5944: 5943: 5942:Gonadotropins 5940: 5938: 5937:GnRH agonists 5935: 5933: 5930: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5917: 5916: 5913: 5912: 5910: 5908: 5904: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5864: 5862: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5845: 5840: 5838: 5833: 5831: 5826: 5825: 5822: 5814: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5750: 5746: 5738: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5697: 5694: 5683: 5679: 5672: 5669: 5656: 5650: 5647: 5642: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5609: 5606: 5601: 5597: 5591: 5588: 5583: 5579: 5573: 5570: 5557: 5551: 5548: 5543: 5539: 5533: 5530: 5525: 5519: 5516: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5492: 5489: 5484: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5467:(1): e4–e10. 5466: 5462: 5458: 5451: 5448: 5443: 5439: 5432: 5429: 5424: 5420: 5413: 5410: 5399:on 2018-04-15 5398: 5394: 5388: 5385: 5382: 5376: 5373: 5368: 5362: 5359: 5347: 5346: 5341: 5334: 5332: 5330: 5326: 5313: 5309: 5303: 5300: 5292:September 23, 5288: 5284: 5277: 5275: 5271: 5259: 5255: 5248: 5245: 5232: 5226: 5223: 5218: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5185: 5183: 5179: 5174: 5170: 5164: 5161: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5141: 5139: 5137: 5133: 5128: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5103: 5100: 5095: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5054: 5051: 5046: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5005: 5003: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4992: 4987: 4981: 4978: 4973: 4969: 4963: 4960: 4955: 4951: 4945: 4942: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4899: 4896: 4891: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4862: 4859: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4819: 4817: 4813: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4793:(1): 89–102. 4792: 4788: 4781: 4778: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4750: 4747: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4722: 4719: 4714: 4708: 4701: 4700: 4692: 4690: 4688: 4686: 4682: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4650: 4647: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4615: 4612: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4594: 4590: 4585: 4581: 4574: 4571: 4566: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4539:(4): 366–75. 4538: 4534: 4530: 4523: 4520: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4485: 4482: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4442: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4393: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4378: 4372: 4369: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4321: 4318: 4313: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4296:(1): 275–82. 4295: 4291: 4287: 4280: 4277: 4272: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4239: 4236: 4223: 4219: 4213: 4210: 4197: 4193: 4187: 4184: 4171: 4167: 4161: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4109: 4106: 4101: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4066: 4062: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4029: 4026: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4006:(6): 836–49. 4005: 4001: 3994: 3991: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3959: 3956: 3951: 3947: 3941: 3938: 3933: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3900: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3854: 3851: 3846: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3813: 3810: 3805: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3772: 3769: 3764: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3731: 3728: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3700:(3): 132–43. 3699: 3695: 3687: 3684: 3680: 3675: 3672: 3667: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3631: 3620:on 2019-01-18 3616: 3612: 3608: 3601: 3594: 3591: 3586: 3585: 3580: 3574: 3571: 3566: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3525: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3466: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3426:(6): 829–47. 3425: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3407: 3402: 3398: 3393: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3366: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3346:(3): 389–93. 3345: 3341: 3334: 3331: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3303:(6): 427–33. 3302: 3298: 3291: 3288: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3240: 3237: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3142: 3139: 3136: 3132: 3131: 3125: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3100: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3066: 3063: 3058: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3033: 3030: 3025: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3000: 2997: 2992: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2967: 2964: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2940: 2937: 2932: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2907: 2904: 2899: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2874: 2871: 2866: 2862: 2857: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2825: 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2105: 2101: 2097: 2090: 2087: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2068: 2065:(13): 905–9. 2064: 2060: 2056: 2049: 2046: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 1998: 1995: 1990: 1984: 1980: 1974: 1969: 1966: 1962: 1957: 1954: 1949: 1945: 1939: 1936: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1888: 1886: 1882: 1877: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1852: 1845: 1843: 1841: 1837: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1805: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1784: 1781: 1775: 1771: 1770:Sperm sorting 1768: 1766: 1763: 1761: 1758: 1756: 1755:Designer baby 1753: 1751: 1748: 1747: 1743: 1741: 1734: 1729: 1725: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1713: 1708: 1707: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1694: 1688: 1684: 1681: 1680: 1679: 1676: 1670: 1668: 1664: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1642:United States 1641: 1639: 1637: 1633: 1627: 1620: 1618: 1616: 1608: 1606: 1599: 1597: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1579: 1577: 1570: 1568: 1566: 1561: 1557: 1549: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1537: 1529: 1524: 1522: 1515: 1513: 1508: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1487: 1484: 1479: 1478:, remarking: 1477: 1473: 1470:In 2015, the 1468: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1427: 1419: 1417: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1397: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1384: 1380: 1374: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1349: 1347: 1343: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1295:designer baby 1292: 1287: 1283: 1281: 1277: 1269: 1267: 1263: 1256: 1254: 1252: 1246: 1244: 1238: 1236: 1232: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1215: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1178:multiplex PCR 1173: 1166: 1164: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1139: 1138:pyrophosphate 1135: 1130: 1123: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1110: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1093: 1089: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1068: 1065:present in a 1064: 1058: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1018: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1004: 998: 996: 995:fluorochromes 991: 987: 985: 981: 974: 972: 970: 966: 962: 957: 954: 950: 946: 939: 937: 930: 928: 921: 919: 917: 913: 904: 902: 900: 896: 888: 886: 884: 880: 876: 872: 871:cumulus cells 864: 862: 858: 856: 855:cryopreserved 851: 846: 844: 839: 837: 833: 832:trophectoderm 824: 822: 819: 814: 811: 807: 803: 798: 789: 787: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 746: 738: 736: 734: 730: 725: 718: 716: 714: 709: 706: 702: 694: 692: 689: 681: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 653: 650: 646: 642: 638: 635: 634: 630: 627: 624: 621: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 601: 600: 599: 593: 591: 584: 582: 576: 574: 572: 567: 563: 555: 554:Sex selection 552: 549: 546: 542: 538: 537: 536: 534: 530: 522: 520: 513: 511: 508: 499: 497: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 466: 458: 456: 454: 450: 446: 441: 439: 435: 430: 428: 424: 420: 414: 406: 404: 401: 399: 394: 392: 391:mitochondrial 388: 384: 383:haemophilia A 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 347:translocation 344: 340: 336: 332: 324: 322: 318: 316: 315:sex selection 312: 303: 301: 299: 295: 287: 285: 283: 279: 275: 271: 266: 263: 258: 253: 246: 244: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 217: 215: 213: 209: 205: 200: 196: 193: 188: 186: 182: 177: 175: 171: 167: 162: 160: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 124:fertilization 121: 117: 113: 109: 106:profiling of 105: 101: 97: 93: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 41: 36: 32: 19: 6141:Egg donation 6024: 5810: 5757: 5710: 5706: 5696: 5685:. Retrieved 5681: 5671: 5659:. Retrieved 5649: 5625:(1): 54–57. 5622: 5618: 5608: 5599: 5590: 5581: 5572: 5560:. Retrieved 5550: 5542:the original 5532: 5518: 5501: 5497: 5491: 5464: 5460: 5450: 5441: 5431: 5422: 5412: 5401:. Retrieved 5397:the original 5387: 5375: 5361: 5349:. Retrieved 5343: 5316:. Retrieved 5312:the original 5302: 5290:. Retrieved 5286: 5263:November 19, 5261:. Retrieved 5257: 5247: 5235:. Retrieved 5225: 5201:(1): 83–91. 5198: 5194: 5173:the original 5163: 5154: 5150: 5108: 5102: 5067: 5063: 5053: 5018: 5014: 4990: 4980: 4971: 4962: 4953: 4944: 4914:(10): 51–3. 4911: 4907: 4898: 4871: 4861: 4831:(6): 15–21. 4828: 4824: 4790: 4786: 4780: 4763: 4759: 4749: 4732: 4728: 4721: 4698: 4659: 4656:Science News 4655: 4649: 4627:(1): 65–70. 4624: 4620: 4614: 4605: 4573: 4536: 4532: 4522: 4497: 4493: 4484: 4451: 4447: 4441: 4406: 4402: 4381:ScienceDaily 4380: 4371: 4334: 4330: 4320: 4293: 4289: 4279: 4252: 4248: 4238: 4226:. Retrieved 4222:the original 4212: 4200:. 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Retrieved 2247:the original 2233: 2223: 2198: 2194: 2148: 2144: 2138: 2103: 2099: 2089: 2062: 2058: 2048: 2007: 2003: 1997: 1978: 1968: 1956: 1947: 1938: 1897: 1893: 1857: 1814: 1810: 1792: 1783: 1738: 1721: 1710: 1698:Louise Brown 1695: 1692: 1677: 1674: 1665: 1645: 1628: 1624: 1612: 1603: 1600:South Africa 1595: 1583: 1574: 1553: 1544: 1540: 1533: 1519: 1510: 1495: 1491: 1481: 1475: 1469: 1429: 1414: 1411:Legal status 1405: 1401: 1385: 1381: 1378: 1350: 1338: 1326: 1323:Disabilities 1288: 1284: 1273: 1264: 1260: 1247: 1239: 1229: 1216: 1212: 1194: 1174: 1170: 1161: 1131: 1127: 1111: 1107: 1096: 1091: 1087: 1084: 1076: 1067:heterozygous 1059: 1046: 1042: 1033: 1019: 1015: 1007:aneuploidies 999: 992: 988: 978: 958: 943: 934: 925: 908: 892: 869:Sampling of 868: 859: 849: 847: 842: 840: 828: 815: 793: 750: 748: 726: 722: 710: 704: 698: 687: 685: 667:duplications 654: 636: 602: 597: 588: 580: 559: 532: 526: 517: 503: 468: 459:HLA matching 455:expression. 442: 431: 416: 402: 395: 328: 319: 307: 291: 267: 254: 250: 221: 201: 197: 189: 178: 163: 112:implantation 99: 95: 91: 90: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 44: 39: 34: 5947:menotropins 5859:Infertility 5345:Der Spiegel 5318:November 8, 4662:(18): 276. 4490:Savulescu J 2280:Der Spiegel 1097:From 2014, 1092:short reads 1088:read length 1049:process of 1035:Kary Mullis 984:karyotyping 947:(FISH) and 797:blastomeres 355:thalassemia 298:stillbirths 257:transferred 232:blastocysts 181:chromosomes 166:transferred 6238:Categories 6161:Sperm bank 5687:2024-08-17 5403:2012-09-17 5351:8 February 5070:(5): 289. 4556:2123/12262 3624:2010-06-15 2511:Gleicher N 2287:8 February 1505:See also: 1147:luciferase 1037:conceived 1011:trisomy 21 953:aneuploidy 899:blastocoel 883:aneuploidy 775:fertilized 759:polar body 671:insertions 663:inversions 607:aneuploids 185:aneuploidy 156:blastocyst 152:blastomere 6115:Surrogacy 5925:clomifene 5760:31, 278 5442:Scroll.in 5287:The Sheaf 5157:(2): 419. 4890:256754220 4494:Bioethics 3135:eMedicine 2621:: 74–88. 2525:(1): 54. 1750:Bioethics 1565:Bundesrat 1560:Bundestag 1200:haplotype 1151:luciferin 1003:autosomes 916:apoptosis 836:mosaicism 783:sensitive 771:oogenesis 675:deletions 490:leukaemia 427:mosaicism 222:In 1968, 204:sex cells 192:mutations 174:pregnancy 122:prior to 110:prior to 102:) is the 6244:Eugenics 6166:Ova bank 6124:Donation 5737:18829009 5641:23477677 5483:20153467 5217:20158992 5094:12356953 5045:15574438 4928:24024811 4874:: 1–21. 4799:17902492 4772:15015484 4641:54515037 4565:23466750 4514:12058767 4468:12459724 4363:19279043 4312:19713301 4271:10548632 4149:20872064 4100:16820122 4056:11139534 3985:23991743 3950:Bioarray 3932:23499002 3888:23571234 3845:15471934 3804:16275234 3763:21531753 3666:17425834 3565:26843389 3516:29746572 3476:PLOS ONE 3450:21896560 3401:16359956 3231:23106043 3182:22460080 3116:21765466 3108:12356951 2865:12364309 2813:Archived 2796:17628552 2755:11866654 2720:11866650 2685:11427142 2635:27856159 2600:33772087 2592:26581010 2551:27595768 2497:21531751 2414:29627226 2373:29898906 2332:51888028 2324:30066049 2215:12615807 2173:37825239 2040:29174104 1973:Page 205 1831:29428279 1744:See also 1632:intersex 1434:traits. 1432:intersex 1299:eugenics 1208:mutation 1116:and the 1043:in vitro 850:in vitro 767:egg cell 755:sampling 688:in vitro 645:X-linked 343:X-linked 311:HLA type 240:X-linked 136:abortion 6216:Related 6066:embryos 5812:Science 5728:2950118 5661:14 July 5562:14 July 5237:14 July 5085:1733641 5036:1733988 4936:7331095 4904:Davis G 4853:7860282 4845:3563460 4807:1120142 4676:4018680 4476:5639570 4433:3385738 4424:1050453 4354:2709181 4140:3045482 4020:1757524 3880:8688590 3722:1320743 3714:7827442 3556:4818639 3507:5944986 3484:Bibcode 3441:3191938 3360:3372701 3317:8019091 3282:4174324 3274:5649672 3254:Bibcode 3222:3479235 3173:3370038 3099:1733648 2856:1124279 2542:5011996 2165:2570237 2130:2503195 2121:1837017 2081:1381054 2032:6036172 2012:Bibcode 1930:4326607 1922:2330030 1902:Bibcode 1712:Gattaca 1615:Ukraine 1609:Ukraine 1571:Hungary 1550:Germany 1311:parents 1063:alleles 1047:in vivo 1023:euploid 843:in vivo 769:during 763:haploid 753:is the 705:in vivo 453:protein 353:, Beta- 294:eugenic 288:Society 218:History 148:oocytes 120:oocytes 108:embryos 104:genetic 6175:Ethics 6146:Embryo 6071:oocyte 5867:Female 5735: 5725: 5639: 5481: 5215: 5123: 5092: 5082: 5043: 5033: 4934: 4926: 4888: 4851: 4843: 4805: 4797: 4770: 4709: 4674: 4639: 4563: 4512: 4474: 4466: 4431: 4421: 4361: 4351: 4310: 4269: 4228:2 July 4202:2 July 4176:2 July 4147: 4137: 4098: 4054: 4018: 3983: 3930: 3886: 3878: 3843: 3802: 3761: 3720: 3712: 3664: 3563: 3553: 3514: 3504: 3448: 3438: 3399: 3358: 3325:795305 3323: 3315: 3280: 3272: 3246:Nature 3229: 3219: 3180: 3170: 3114: 3106: 3096: 3053: 3020: 2987: 2927: 2894: 2863: 2853: 2794: 2753: 2718: 2683: 2633: 2598: 2590: 2549: 2539: 2495: 2443: 2412: 2371: 2330: 2322: 2213: 2171: 2163: 2145:Lancet 2128: 2118: 2079: 2038: 2030: 2004:Nature 1985: 1928: 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