308:(1968) proposed a project cost model based on cost, time and resources (CTR) in his PhD thesis and in 1969, he designed a course entitled "Time and Cost in Contract Control" in which he drew a triangle with each apex representing cost, time and quality (CTQ). Later, he expanded quality with performance, becoming CTP. It is understood that the area of the triangle represents the scope of a project which is fixed and known for a fixed cost and time. In fact the scope can be a function of cost, time and performance, requiring a trade off among the factors.
799:"Quality" can be adjusted resulting in an overall manipulation of the Goal/Product. This interpretation includes the four key factors in the original triangle inputs/outputs form. This can even be incorporated into the PMBOK Star illustrating that "Quality" in particular may be monitored separately in terms of project outputs and process. Further to this suggestion, the use of term "Goal" may best represent change initiative outputs, while Product may best represent more tangible outputs.
358:'s "Basic Project Management" course, used a pair of triangles called triangle outer and triangle inner to represent the concept that the intent of a project is to complete on or before the allowed time, on or under budget, and to meet or exceed the required scope. The distance between the inner and outer triangles illustrated the hedge or contingency for each of the three elements. Bias could be shown by the distance. His example of a project with a strong time bias was the
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635:, and indirect costs. But beyond this basic accounting approach to fixed and variable costs, the economic cost that must be considered includes worker skill and productivity which is calculated using various project cost estimate tools. This is important when companies hire temporary or contract employees or outsource work.
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The
Project Management Triangle is used to analyze projects. It is often misused to define success as delivering the required scope, at a reasonable quality, within the established budget and schedule. The Project Management Triangle is considered insufficient as a model of project success because it
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The triple constraints represent a minimum number of project success criteria which are not adequate by themselves. Thus, a number of studies have been carried out to define and expand the various criteria of project success based on the theory of change which is the basic input-process-output chain.
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PMBOK 4.0 offered an evolved model based on the triple constraint with 6 factors to be monitored and managed. This is illustrated as a 6 pointed Star that maintains the strength of the triangle analogy (two overlaid triangles), while at the same time represents the separation and relationship between
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This widespread use of variations implies a level of ambiguity carried by the nuance of the third constraint term and of course a level of value in the flexibility of the
Triangle Model. This ambiguity allows blurred focus between a project's output and project's process, with the example terms above
434:
between tasks are identified, and this information is documented in a project schedule. The dependencies between the tasks can affect the length of the overall project (dependency constrained), as can the availability of resources (resource constrained). Time is different from all other resources and
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The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project. The cost constraint refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. The scope constraint refers to what must be done to produce the project's end result. These three constraints are often competing constraints:
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The ‘Project
Diamond’ model engenders this blurred focus through the inclusion of "Scope" and "Quality" separately as the ‘third’ constraint. While there is merit in the addition of "Quality" as a key constraining factor, acknowledging the increasing maturity of project management, this model still
798:
When considering the ambiguity of the third constraint and the suggestions of the "Project
Diamond"; it is possible to consider instead the Goal or Product of the project as the third constraint, being made up of the sub factors "Scope" and "Quality". In terms of a project's output both "Scope" and
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Traditionally the
Project Constraint Model recognised three key constraints; "Cost", "Time" and "Scope". These constraints construct a triangle with geometric proportions illustrating the strong interdependent relationship between these factors. If there is a requirement to shift any one of these
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Scope refers to complexity (which can also mean quality or performance). Resources includes humans (workers), financial, and physical. Note that these values are not considered unbounded. For instance, if one baker can make a loaf of bread in an hour in an oven, that does not mean that ten bakers
752:
With mainstream acceptance of the
Triangle Model, "Cost" and "Time" appear to be represented consistently. "Scope" however is often used interchangeably given the context of the triangle's illustration or the perception of the respective project. Scope / Goal / Product / Deliverable / Quality /
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The real value of the project triangle is to show the complexity that is present in any project. The plane area of the triangle represents the near infinite variations of priorities that could exist between the three competing values. By acknowledging the limitless variety, possible within the
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of the final product. The amount of time put into individual tasks determines the overall quality of the project. Some tasks may require a given amount of time to complete adequately, but given more time could be completed exceptionally. Over the course of a large project, quality can have a
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In practice, however, trading between constraints is not always possible. For example, throwing money (and people) at a fully staffed project can slow it down. Moreover, in poorly run projects it is often impossible to improve budget, schedule or scope without adversely affecting quality.
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omits crucial dimensions of success including impact on stakeholders, learning and user satisfaction. Subsequently, several enhancements of the basic triple constraints have been proposed such as the diamond model, the pyramid model, six or multiple constraints and
366:. In this illustration, the time side of triangle inner was effectively on top of the triangle outer line. This was true of the technical objective line also. The cost line of triangle inner, however, was outside since the project ran significantly over budget.
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For example, a project can be completed faster by increasing budget or cutting scope. Similarly, increasing scope may require equivalent increases in budget and schedule. Cutting budget without adjusting schedule or scope will lead to lower quality.
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Inputs: Organizational process assets, Project scope
Statement, Activity list, Activity attributes, project Schedule Network diagrams, Activity resource requirements, Resource calendars, Activity duration estimates, project management plan, risk
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Outputs: Schedule model data updates, schedule baseline. performance measurement, requested changes, recommended corrective actions, organizational process assets, activity list updates, activity attribute updates, project management plan
548:
Inputs: Enterprise environmental factors, organization process assets, Project scope statement, activity list, activity attributes, activity resource requirements, resource calendars, project management plan, risk register, activity cost
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To develop an approximation of a project cost depends on several variables including: resources, work packages such as labor rates and mitigating or controlling influencing factors that create cost variances. Tools used in cost are,
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Tools: Schedule
Network Analysis, Critical path method, schedule compression, what if scenario analysis, resources leveling, critical chain method, project management software, applying calendars, adjusting leads and lags, schedule
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Requirements specified to achieve the end result. The overall definition of what the project is supposed to accomplish, and a specific description of what the end result should be or accomplish. A major component of scope is the
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Zidane et al (2016) expanded the results framework into the PESTOL framework to plan and assess project success which can be used to evaluate "value for money" spent on each project in terms of efficiency and effectiveness.
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Outputs: Project schedule, Schedule model data, schedule baseline, resource requirements update, activity attributes, project calendar updates, request changes, project management plan updates, schedule management plan
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Bottom Up estimating: Using the lowest level of work package detail and summarizing the cost associated with it. Then rolling it up to a higher level aimed and calculating the entire cost of the project.
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increased scope typically means increased time and increased cost, a tight time constraint could mean increased costs and reduced scope, and a tight budget could mean increased time and reduced scope.
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Reserve
Analysis: Aggregate the cost of each activity on the network path then add a contingency or reserve to the end result of the analysis by a factor determined by the project manager.
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Bannerman (2008) proposed the multilevel project success framework which comprises five L Levels of project success i.e. team, project management, deliverable, business and strategic.
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Performance / Output are all relatively similar and generic variation examples of this, while the above suggestion of 'People
Resources' offers a more specialised interpretation.
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Tools: Progressive elaboration reporting, schedule change control system, performance measurement, project management software, variance, analysis, schedule comparison bar charts
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Together, these three constraints have given rise to the phrase "On Time, On Spec, On Budget." In this case, the term "scope" is substituted with "spec(ification)."
339:. If you need to finish a job in a shorter time, you can throw more people at the problem, which in turn will raise the cost of the project, unless by doing this
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lacks clarity between output and process. The Diamond Model does not capture the analogy of the strong interrelation between points of the triangles however.
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Inputs: Enterprise Environmental factoring, Organizational process assets, Activity list, Activity attributes, Resources Availability, Project Management Plan
872:
Atkinson, Roger (December 1999). "Project management: cost, time and quality, two best guesses and a phenomenon, its time to accept other success criteria".
145:
38:
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Tools: Expert Judgment Collections, Alternative Analysis, Publishing estimating data, Project management software implementation, Bottom up estimating
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triangle, using this graphic aid can facilitate better project decisions and planning and ensure alignment among team members and the project owners.
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which essentially had to be done on time no matter the cost. After years of development, oil flowed out the end of the pipe within four minutes of
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Hence, the triple constraints has been developed into various frameworks to plan and appraise project success as holistically as possible.
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308727415_PESTOL_-_Framework_for_Project_Evaluation_on_Strategic_Tactical_and_Operational_Levels
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The UNDP in 2012 proposed the results framework which has six stages of project success i.e. input, process, output, outcome and impact.
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Delone, William H.; McLean, Ephraim R. (1 April 2003). "The DeLone and McLean Model of Information Systems Success: A Ten-Year Update".
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having potentially different impetus in the two contexts. Both "Cost" and "Time" / "Delivery" represent the top level project's inputs.
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Outputs: Activity resource requirements, Activity attributes, Resource breakdown structure, resource calendars, request change updates.
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Cost Control – factors that create cost fluctuation and variance can be influenced and controlled using various cost management tools.
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represents the area of the triangle, and can be chosen as a variable to achieve project success. He calls this relationship
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or WBS. The work effort for each task is estimated and those estimates are rolled up into the final deliverable estimate.
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project inputs/outputs factors on one triangle and the project processes factors on the other. The star variables are:
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Cost budgeting aggregating the estimated costs of resources, work packages and activities to establish a cost baseline.
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but without any evidence and similar statements are often used to encapsulate the triangle's constraints concisely.
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Parametric Estimating: Measuring the statistical relationship between historical data and other variable or flow.
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Outputs: Project Schedule Network diagrams, Activity List Updates, Activity Attributes updates, Request Changes
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Determining Resource Cost rates: The cost of goods and labor by unit gathered through estimates or estimation.
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using several techniques. One method is to identify tasks needed to produce the deliverables documented in a
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834:. Accordingly, the project success criteria have been enhanced as well from three to multiple parameters.
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Using actual cost of previous, similar projects as the basis for estimating the cost of current project.
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Inputs: Management Plan, Scope Baseline, Enterprise environmental factors, Organizational process assets
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is a mathematical model which views the "triangle model" as a graphic abstraction of the relationship:
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958:
https://pmworldlibrary.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/pmwl-barnes-how-it-all-began-pmwt-july-2006.pdf
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Analogous Estimating: Using the cost of similar project to determine the cost of the current project
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Inputs: Schedule management plan, schedule baseline, performance reports, approved change requests
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1192:"Applying a project management approach to survey research projects that use qualitative methods"
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Another approach to project management is to consider the three constraints as finance, time and
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Cost Estimating is an approximation of the cost of all resources needed to complete activities.
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270:. While its origins are unclear, it has been used since at least the 1950s. It contends that:
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Changes in one constraint necessitate changes in others to compensate or quality will suffer.
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Due to the complex nature of the 'Time' process group the project management credential
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could make ten loaves in one hour in the same oven, due to the oven's limited capacity.
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https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/defining-project-success-multilevel-framework-7096
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2012 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management
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Cost of Quality Analysis: Estimating the cost at the highest quality for each activity.
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is about providing the tools and techniques that enable the project team (not just the
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977:(Anniversary ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc.
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519:(ADM), Schedule Network templates, dependency degeneration, applying leads and lags
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377:(Performance, Cost, Time, Scope), and suggests that a project can pick any three.
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508:, Activity List, Activity Attributes, Milestones List, Approved change requests
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of a triangle, instead of the corners. John Storck, a former instructor of the
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of work is constrained by the project's budget, deadlines and scope (features).
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Outputs: Activity duration estimates, activity attribute updates and estimates
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Shenhar, A.; Dvir, Dov (1997). "Mapping the dimensions of project success".
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Interpretation of Star Model, note that the "risk" and "quality" are swapped
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quicker we will reduce costs elsewhere in the project by an equal amount.
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factors then at least one of the other factors must also be manipulated.
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Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Software Engineering
300:(often expressed as "You get what you pay for.") which is attributed to
686:: taking the average of several bids given by vendors for the project.
94:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge: PMBOK Guide
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As a project management graphic aid, a triangle can show time,
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Michael Gentile, Ronald D. Collette, Thomas D. August (2005).
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901:"Theory of the triple constraint — A conceptual review"
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can be used to calculate the cost variances for a project.
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UNDP (2012) Overview of the development results framework
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Microsoft Office Project 2003 Step by Step: Step by Step
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For analytical purposes, the time required to produce a
445:(PMBOK) the Project Time Management processes include:
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significant impact on time and cost (or vice versa).
332:) to organize their work to meet these constraints.
152:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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296:"Good, fast, cheap. Choose two." as stated in the
1225:"The dimensions of software engineering success"
1152:The Project Management Question and Answer Book
1150:Michael W. Newell, Marina N. Grashina (2004).
1013:Project Planning, Scheduling & Control, 4E
997:Carl S. Chatfield, Timothy D. Johnson (2003).
560:, Bottom up Estimation, Two-Point estimation,
16:Model of the constraints of project management
490:Outputs: Activity list, Activity attributes,
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874:International Journal of Project Management
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1093:T214 Understanding Complex Systems – TMA02
1294:Journal of Management Information Systems
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720:Evolution of the Project Constraint Model
230:Learn how and when to remove this message
212:Learn how and when to remove this message
110:Learn how and when to remove this message
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655:Project Management Cost Estimating Tools
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1163:Pamela McGhee, Peter McAliney (2007).
1048:"A short course in project management"
803:Evolution of Project Success Criteria
728:The Project Management Star per PMBOK
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1078:Project Management Institute (2009)
443:Project Management Body of Knowledge
150:adding citations to reliable sources
552:Tools: Expert judgment collection,
266:) is a model of the constraints of
1236:. Icse 2014. ACM. pp. 24–35.
406:Project management triangle topics
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1223:Ralph, Paul; Kelly, Paul (2014).
1065:"It used to be the Iron Triangle"
350:, and technical objective as the
34:This article has multiple issues.
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736:Interpretation of Triangle Model
430:The tasks are also prioritized,
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1139:Game Development and Production
356:American Management Association
246:The project management triangle
137:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
1306:10.1080/07421222.2003.11045748
1035:PMBOK Third Edition 2004 p.165
899:Wyngaard, Charles Van (2012).
369:James P. Lewis suggests that
298:Common Law of Business Balance
285:can trade between constraints.
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1365:Project management techniques
886:10.1016/S0263-7863(98)00069-6
513:Precedence Diagramming Method
161:"Project management triangle"
543:Activity duration estimating
527:Activity resource estimating
1344:Project Management Triangle
1165:Painless Project Management
697:Project management software
612:PMI Scheduling Professional
458:Estimate Activity Resources
397:Scope = f(Time × Resources)
252:project management triangle
90:the claims made and adding
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1275:Project Management Journal
969:Brooks, Frederick (1995).
1190:Sha, Mandy (2014-08-01).
913:10.1109/IEEM.2012.6838095
1011:Lewis, James P. (2005).
517:Arrow Diagramming Method
449:Plan Schedule Management
425:work breakdown structure
1242:10.1145/2568225.2568261
844:Quality, cost, delivery
973:The mythical man-month
945:"The project triangle"
907:. pp. 1991–1997.
769:Input-Output Triangle
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614:(PMI-SP) was created.
562:Three-point estimation
483:Tools: Decomposition,
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1209:10.29115/SP-2014-0021
832:theory of constraints
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558:parametric estimating
485:Rolling Wave Planning
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1346:at Wikimedia Commons
1137:Erik Bethke (2003).
575:Schedule development
554:analogous estimating
146:improve this article
684:Vendor bid analysis
499:Activity sequencing
455:Sequence Activities
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639:Cost Process Areas
461:Estimate Activity
326:project management
324:The discipline of
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1251:978-1-4503-2756-5
1178:The CISO Handbook
1104:Bannerman (2008)
1067:. Better Project.
1046:Chatfield, Carl.
1022:978-0-07-146037-8
922:978-1-4673-2945-3
783:Process Triangle
487:, Expert Judgment
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144:Please help
139:verification
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100:October 2008
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1300:(4): 9–30.
1082:. Chapter 1
825:Limitations
417:deliverable
302:John Ruskin
1354:Categories
1281:(2): 5–13.
1202:(4): 1–8.
860:References
172:newspapers
84:improve it
39:improve it
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792:Resources
549:estimates
492:Milestone
463:Durations
421:estimated
391:STR model
385:STR Model
348:resources
88:verifying
45:talk page
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1001:. P. 476
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849:Trilemma
838:See also
581:register
364:schedule
316:Overview
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1180:. p.172
1167:. p.74.
1141:. p.65.
789:Quality
710:quality
606:updates
589:updates
515:(PDM),
511:Tools:
276:quality
186:scholar
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1154:. p.8
927:S2CID
772:Scope
703:Scope
585:model
352:sides
193:JSTOR
179:books
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1095:. Q4
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786:Risk
778:Time
775:Cost
661:edit
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494:list
411:Time
389:The
375:PCTS
341:task
281:The
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