Laurasia - Knowledge (XXG)

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Qaidam, Alex, and Tarim – along the Central China orogen to form a combined East Asian continent. The northern margins of the northern continent collided with Baltica and Siberia 310–250 Ma, and thus the formation of the East Asian continent marked Pangaea at its greatest extent. By this time, the rifting of western Pangaea had already begun.

647:, Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey – were still attached to the Indian–Australian margin of Gondwana. Other blocks that now form part of southwestern Europe and North America from New England to Florida were still attached to the African-South American margin of Gondwana. This northward drift of terranes across the Tethys also included the 1154:

diversity reach a maximum in the Late Jurassic—Early Cretaceous and plate tectonic didn't affect the distribution of these flying reptiles. Crocodilian ancestors also diversified during the Early Cretaceous but were divided into Laurasian and Gondwanan populations; true crocodilians evolved from the

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split the Asian blocks – Tarim, Qaidam, Alex, North China, and South China – from the northern shores of Gondwana (north of Australia in modern coordinates) and the closure of the same ocean reassembled them along the same shores 500–460 Mya resulting in Gondwana at its largest extent.

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Laurasia and Gondwana were equal in size but had distinct geological histories. Gondwana was assembled before the formation of Pangaea, but the assembly of Laurasia occurred during and after the formation of the supercontinent. These differences resulted in different patterns of basin formation and

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During the Cambrian and Early Ordovician, when wide oceans separated all major continents, only pelagic marine organisms, such as plankton, could move freely across the open ocean and therefore the oceanic gaps between continents are easily detected in the fossil records of marine bottom dwellers and

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Continent stretched across northern Laurentia and into Avalonia and Baltica but for most of the Devonian a narrow seaway formed a barrier where the North Atlantic would later open. Tetrapods evolved from fish in the Late Devonian, with the oldest known fossils from Greenland. Low sea-levels during

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Siberia was located near but at some distance from Laurentia's northern margin in most reconstructions. In the reconstruction of some Russian geologists, however, the southern margin (modern coordinates) of Siberia merged with the northern margin of Laurentia, and these two continents broke up along

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In the early Eocene a peak in global warming led to a pan-Arctic fauna with alligators and amphibians present north of the Arctic Circle. In the early Palaeogene, landbridges still connected continents, allowing land animals to migrate between them. On the other hand, submerged areas occasionally

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During the Carboniferous and Permian, Baltica first collided with Kazakhstania and Siberia, then North China with Mongolia and Siberia. By the middle Carboniferous, however, South China had already been in contact with North China long enough to allow floral exchange between the two continents. The

2013:

Eckelmann, K.; Nesbor, H. D.; Königshof, P.; Linnemann, U.; Hofmann, M.; Lange, J. M.; Sagawe, A. (2014). "Plate interactions of Laurussia and Gondwana during the formation of Pangaea—Constraints from U–Pb LA–SF–ICP–MS detrital zircon ages of Devonian and Early Carboniferous siliciclastics of the

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When the eastern Palaeo-Tethys closed 250–230 Mya, a series of Asian blocks – Sibumasu, Indochina, South China, Qiantang, and Lhasa – formed a separate southern Asian continent. This continent collided 240–220 Mya with a northern continent – North China, Qinling, Qilian,

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into two provinces, with one of them confined to a large embayment west of the Appalachians. By the Middle Devonian, these two provinces had been united into one and the closure of the Rheic Ocean finally united faunas across Laurussia. High plankton productivity from the Devonian-Carboniferous

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During the assembly of Pangaea Laurasia grew as continental blocks broke off Gondwana's northern margin; pulled by old closing oceans in front of them and pushed by new opening oceans behind them. During the Neoproterozoic-Early Paleozoic break-up of Rodinia the opening of the Proto-Tethys Ocean

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In the early Permian, the Neo-Tethys Ocean opened behind the Cimmerian terranes (Sibumasu, Qiantang, Lhasa) and, in the late Carboniferous, the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean closed in front. The eastern branch of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean, however, remained opened while Siberia was added to Laurussia and

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1,800—1,300 Mya, especially along the Laurentia—Greenland—Baltica margin. Laurentia and Baltica formed a coherent continental mass with southern Greenland and Labrador adjacent to the Arctic margin of Baltica. A magmatic arc extended from Laurentia through southern Greenland to northern

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and fishes remained isolated. As Laurussia formed during the Devonian and Pangaea formed, fish species in both Laurussia and Gondwana began to migrate between continents and before the end of the Devonian similar species were found on both sides of what remained of the Variscan barrier.

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transport of sediments. East Antarctica was the highest ground within Pangaea and produced sediments that were transported across eastern Gondwana but never reached Laurasia. During the Palaeozoic, c. 30–40% of Laurasia but only 10–20% of Gondwana was covered by shallow marine water.

532:(c. 750–600 Mya) as Australia-Antarctica (East Gondwana) rifted from the western margin of Laurentia, while the rest of Rodinia (West Gondwana and Laurasia) rotated clockwise and drifted south. Earth subsequently underwent a series of glaciations – the 1224:(an order of birds including kingfishers) evolved in Laurasia. While this group now has a mostly tropical distribution, they originated in the Arctic in the late Eocene c. 35 Mya from where they diversified across Laurasia and farther south across the Equator. 2157:

Li, Z. X.; Bogdanova, S. V.; Collins, A. S.; Davidson, A.; De Waele, B.; Ernst, R. E.; Fitzsimons, I. C. W.; Fuck, R. A.; Gladkochub, D. P.; Jacobs, J.; Karlstrom, K. E.; Lul, S.; Natapov, L. M.; Pease, V.; Pisarevsky, S. A.; Thrane, K.; Vernikovsky, V. (2008).

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The Palaezoic-Mesozoic transition was marked by the reorganisation of Earth's tectonic plates which resulted in the assembly of Pangaea, and eventually its break-up. Caused by the detachment of subducted mantle slabs, this reorganisation resulted in rising

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Several earlier supercontinents proposed and debated in the 1990s and later (e.g. Rodinia, Nuna, Nena) included earlier connections between Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia. These original connections apparently survived through one and possibly even two

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Pannotia broke apart in the late Precambrian into Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia, and Gondwana. A series of continental blocks – the Cadomian–Avalonian, Cathaysian, and Cimmerian terranes – broke away from Gondwana and began to drift north.

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glaciations (c. 610-590 Mya) – both Laurentia and Baltica were located south of 30°S, with the South Pole located in eastern Baltica, and glacial deposits from this period have been found in Laurentia and Baltica but not in Siberia.

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opened between Gondwana and Laurasia in the Late Jurassic. The fossil record, however, suggests the intermittent presence of a Trans-Tethys land bridge, though the location and duration of such a land bridge remains enigmatic.

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Baltica. The breakup of Columbia began 1,600 Mya, including along the western margin of Laurentia and northern margin of Baltica (modern coordinates), and was completed c. 1,300—1,200 Mya, a period during which mafic

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North China, South China, Indochina, and Tarim broke off Gondwana during the Silurian-Devonian; Palaeo-Tethys opened behind them. Sibumasu and Qiantang and other Cimmerian continental fragments broke off in the Early Permian.

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in 1988 as the merger between Laurentia and Baltica along the northern Caledonian suture. The "Old Red Continent" is an informal name often used for the Silurian-Carboniferous deposits in the central landmass of Laurussia.

1127:. Pines adapted to cold and arid climates in environments where the growing season was shorter or wildfire common; this evolution limited pine range to between 31° and 50° north and resulted in a split into two subgenera: 2944:

Torsvik, T. H.; Van der Voo, R.; Preeden, U.; Mac Niocaill, C.; Steinberger, B.; Doubrovine, P. V.; van Hinsbergen, D. J. J.; Domeier, M.; Gaina, C.; Tohver, E.; Meert, J. G.; McCausland, P. J. A.; Cocks, R. M. (2012).

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The break-up of Rodinia also resulted in the opening of the long-lived Paleo-Asian Ocean between Baltica and Siberia in the north and Tarim and North China in the south. The closure of this ocean is preserved in the

850:(between Armorica and Gondwana) to form the supercontinent Pangaea. The Variscan orogeny is complex and the exact timing and the order of the collisions between involved microcontinents has been debated for decades. 1210:

separated Europe and Asia from the Middle Jurassic to the Oligocene and as this sea or strait dried out, a massive faunal interchange took place and the resulting extinction event in Europe is known as the

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Pangaea was completely assembled by the Permian except for the Asian blocks. The supercontinent was centred on the Equator during the Triassic and Jurassic, a period that saw the emergence of the

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During the Devonian (416-359 Mya) the combined landmass of Baltica and Avalonia rotated around Laurentia, which remained static near the Equator. The Laurentian warm, shallow seas and on

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in central Laurussia (today New York, United States). In the late Carboniferous, Laurussia was centred on the Equator and covered by tropical rainforests, commonly referred to as the

497:, but the exact fit of various continents within Rodinia is debated. In some reconstructions, Baltica was attached to Greenland along its Scandinavian or Caledonide margin while 1299:, a continental fragment sitting on top of the Eurasian Plate, and North America. By 56 Mya Greenland had become an independent plate, separated from North America by the 350:

proposed that Pangaea was divided into two larger landmasses, Laurasia in the Northern Hemisphere and Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere, separated by the Tethys Ocean.

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were then added to Pangaea 290–300 Ma to form Laurasia. Laurasia finally became an independent continental mass when Pangaea broke up into Gondwana and Laurasia.

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finally collided with Baltica in the Late Permian to form Laurasia. A series of continental blocks that now form East and Southeast Asia were later added to Laurasia.

710:(480–420 Mya). Baltica-Avalonia was then rotated and pushed north towards Laurentia. The collision between these continents closed the Iapetus Ocean and formed 3181: 2998:"Late Riphean rifting and breakup of Laurasia: data on geochronological studies of ultramafic alkaline complexes in the southern framing of the Siberian craton" 838:

The subduction of the Iapetus Ocean resulted in the first contact between Laurussia and Gondwana in the Late Devonian and terminated in full collision or the

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Laurentia remained almost static near the Equator throughout the early Palaeozoic, separated from Baltica by the up to 3,000 km (1,900 mi)-wide

3135:. Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System — Memoir 14, Volume I: Regional Syntheses. pp. 15–48. 707: 2415:

Milner, A. C.; Milner, A. R.; Evans, S. E. (2000). "Amphibians, reptiles and birds: a biogeographical review". In Culver, S. J.; Rawson, P. F. (eds.).

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opened between them. Laurentia then began to move quickly (20 cm/year (7.9 in/year)) north towards the Equator where it got stuck over a

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proposed that the continents in the Southern Hemisphere were once merged into a larger continent called Gondwana. In 1915 German meteorologist

683:. In the Late Cambrian, the mid-ocean ridge in the Iapetus Ocean subducted beneath Gondwana which resulted in the opening of a series of large 1733:, Assembly of Western Pangaea: Carboniferous–Permian, pp. 453–454; Assembly of Eastern Pangaea: Late Permian–Jurassic, p. 454; Fig. 10, p. 454 989: 730:

during the Devonian. The continent covered 37,000,000 km (14,000,000 sq mi) including several large Arctic continental blocks.

3935: 3021:

Zhao, G.; Cawood, P. A.; Wilde, S. A.; Sun, M. (2002). "Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga orogens: implications for a pre-Rodinia supercontinent".

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Cocks, L. R. M.; Torsvik, T. H. (2011). "The Palaeozoic geography of Laurentia and western Laurussia: a stable craton with mobile margins".

1285:, between eastern North America, from what is today the Gulf of Mexico to Nova Scotia, and in Africa and Europe, from Morocco to Greenland. 460:

a major large igneous province 1,380 Mya during the breakup of the Nuna/Columbia supercontinent connects Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia,

2901:

Torsvik, T. H.; Smethurst, M. A.; Meert, J. G.; Van der Voo, R.; McKerrow, W. S.; Brasier, M. D.; Sturt, B. A.; Walderhaug, H. J. (1996).

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where the northward directed subduction of the ocean floor between Gondwana and Laurussia pushed continental fragments towards the latter.

1304: 1146:(crurotarsans, pterosaurs and dinosaurs including birds) had a global distribution, especially crurotarsans, the group ancestral to the 257: 3985: 2724:

Seton, M.; Müller, R. D.; Zahirovic, S.; Gaina, C.; Torsvik, T.; Shephard, G.; Talsma, A.; Gurnis, M.; Maus, S.; Chandler, M. (2012).

3970: 3950: 3174: 3149: 2646: 2432: 2405: 2003: 885: 553: 912: – evolved and diversified, alongside other arthropods who were herbivorous and carnivorous, and tetrapods – 1139:

to fire-prone landscapes. By the end of the Cretaceous, pines were established across Laurasia, from North America to East Asia.

992:. Tentional stresses across Eurasia developed into a large system of rift basins (Urengoy, East Uralian-Turgay and Khudosey) and 3990: 3945: 3960: 3940: 3925: 627:

or Greater Gondwana. At this time a series of continental blocks – Peri-Gondwana – that now form part of Asia, the

411:) and the Volhyn—Central Russia and Pachelma orogenies (across western Russia) in Baltica; and the Akitkan Orogen in Siberia. 3930: 1911: 3965: 3883: 997: 3789: 3167: 1605:, Closure of Proto-Tethys Ocean and the first assembly of East Asian blocks at the northern margin of Gondwana, pp. 7-10 1300: 857:. Heavy rainfall resulted in high groundwater tables, in turn resulting in peat formation and extensive coal deposits. 2203:"Geochemical evidence of First Forestation in the southernmost euramerica from Upper Devonian (Famennian) Black shales" 3749: 1073: 2851: 3975: 2302:"A Laurasian origin for a pantropical bird radiation is supported by genomic and fossil data (Aves: Coraciiformes)" 1186:

slowly settled in Laurasia from Gondwana in the Triassic, the latter of which was the living area of their Permian

1088:, Sikuleh, southwest Sumatra, West Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo broke off during the Late Triassic-Late Jurassic. 861:

non-marine species. By the Late Ordovician, when continents were pushed closer together closing the oceanic gaps,

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Pangaea formed during the closure of the Rheic Ocean 330 Mya (early Carboniferous) (view centred on 30°S,30°E)

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Laurussia (left) during the closure of the Iapetus Ocean 430 Mya (middle Silurian) (view centred on 0°,-60°).

450:(Ukraine), southern Siberia, northern Laurentia, and West Africa indicate these cratons were linked to each other; 3694: 3684: 3437: 388: 2902: 2444:"Permo–Triassic intraplate magmatism and rifting in Eurasia: implications for mantle plumes and mantle dynamics" 1786:, Closure of Paleo-Asian Ocean: collision of Tarim, Alex and North China with East Europe and Siberia, pp. 11-14 291:

c. 400 Ma to form Laurussia/Euramerica. Laurussia/Euramerica then collided with Gondwana to form Pangaea.

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Yarmolyuk, V. V.; Kovalenko, V. I.; Sal'nikova, E. B.; Nikiforov, A. V.; Kotov, A. B.; Vladykin, N. V. (2006).

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period) during the breakup of Pangaea, drifting farther north after the split and finally broke apart with the

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Gheerbrant, E.; Rage, J. C. (2006). "Paleobiogeography of Africa: how distinct from Gondwana and Laurasia?".

1171: – was similar to that of the crocodilians. East Asia remained isolated with endemic species including 3726: 3721: 3085:"Geological reconstructions of the East Asian blocks: From the breakup of Rodinia to the assembly of Pangea" 1897:

Blakey, R. C. (2003). Wong, T. E. (ed.). "Carboniferous–Permian paleogeography of the assembly of Pangaea".

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Laurentia and Baltica first formed a continental mass known as Proto-Laurasia as part of the supercontinent

2678:"Late Proterozoic plate tectonics and palaeogeography: a tale of two supercontinents, Rodinia and Pannotia" 3664: 1970: 985: 545: 510: 439: 379: 2903:"Continental break-up and collision in the Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic—a tale of Baltica and Laurentia" 442:

provide evidences for continental mergers during this period. Those related to Proto-Laurasia includes:

3549: 3457: 3267: 3262: 2946: 2201:

Lu, M.; Lu, Y.; Ikejiri, T.; Hogancamp, N.; Sun, Y.; Wu, Q.; Carroll, R.; Çemen, I.; Pashin, J. (2019).

1303:. By 33 Mya spreading had ceased in the Labrador Sea and relocated to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The 1120: 800: 541: 493:

In the vast majority of plate tectonic reconstructions, Laurentia formed the core of the supercontinent

2252:

McKerrow, W. S.; Mac Niocaill, C.; Ahlberg, P. E.; Clayton, G.; Cleal, C. J.; Eagar, R. M. C. (2000).

3888: 3643: 3534: 3096: 3063: 3030: 2961: 2917: 2866: 2815: 2800: 2737: 2689: 2626: 2586: 2538: 2498: 2455: 2361: 2265: 2214: 2174: 2092: 2056: 2023: 1962: 1926: 877: 632: 428: 408: 400: 168: 2388:

Metcalfe, I. (1999). "Gondwana dispersion and Asian accretion: an overview". In Metcalfe, I. (ed.).

1975: 3898: 3845: 3635: 3594: 2484:"Stratigraphic record of the early Mesozoic breakup of Pangea in the Laurasia-Gondwana rift system" 1262: 1253: 1244: 854: 756: 738: 533: 514: 465: 457:

in southern Siberia that can be connected to the Melville Bugt dyke swarm in western Greenland; and

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originated in Laurasia in the Early Cretaceous c. 130 Mya in competition with faster growing

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a 1,630–1,640 Mya-old continent composed of Siberia, Laurentia, and Baltica is suggested by

432: 320: 288: 142: 137: 3872: 1993: 2424: 3820: 3674: 3639: 3145: 2642: 2428: 2401: 2333: 2240: 2045:"Large Igneous Provinces and supercontinents: Toward completing the plate tectonic revolution" 1999: 796: 791: 779: 727: 700: 640: 347: 95: 3835: 3499: 3104: 3071: 3038: 2977: 2969: 2925: 2874: 2823: 2780: 2745: 2697: 2634: 2594: 2546: 2506: 2463: 2416: 2393: 2369: 2323: 2313: 2273: 2230: 2222: 2182: 2128: 2100: 2064: 2031: 1980: 1934: 1191: 1085: 839: 498: 447: 396: 346:

proposed the existence of a supercontinent called Pangaea. In 1937 South African geologist

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Nikishin, A. M.; Ziegler, P. A.; Abbott, D.; Brunet, M. F.; Cloetingh, S. A. P. L. (2002).

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Rodinia 900 Mya centred on Laurentia with Baltica and Amazonia on its southern margin.

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of North America and continental fragments that now make up part of Europe, collided with

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Avalonia rifted from Gondwana in the Early Ordovician and collided with Baltica near the

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Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia remained connected to each other within the short-lived,

3100: 3067: 3034: 2965: 2921: 2870: 2819: 2741: 2693: 2630: 2590: 2542: 2502: 2459: 2365: 2269: 2218: 2178: 2096: 2060: 2027: 1966: 1930: 1899:

Proceedings of the XVTH International Congress on Carboniferous and Permian Stratigraphy

1774:, Closure of Paleo-Tethys Ocean and assembly of Pangea with East Asian blocks, pp. 14-16 42:

Laurasia (centre) and Gondwana (bottom) as part of Pangaea 200 Mya (Early Jurassic)

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staying in Laurasia (until further descendants switched to Gondwana starting from the

1050: 1041: 1030: 955: 946: 937: 3919: 3774: 3312: 3307: 3297: 3292: 3116: 3084: 2997: 2929: 2886: 2835: 2765: 2725: 2709: 2677: 2574: 2558: 2526: 2443: 2417: 2285: 2253: 2044: 1321: 1221: 1195: 1109: 1081: 771: 680: 644: 564:

in the Proto-pacific. Baltica remained near Gondwana in southern latitudes into the

557: 354: 324: 101: 3108: 3075: 2973: 2766:"Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica" 2749: 2606: 2186: 2142: 1984: 671: 3877: 3830: 3564: 3539: 3350: 3345: 2510: 1282: 1168: 1147: 993: 981: 874: 809: 742: 518: 461: 363: 339: 332: 292: 127: 2827: 2598: 2277: 1150:. This cosmopolitanism ended as Gondwana fragmented and Laurasia was assembled. 972:

During the Carboniferous–Permian Siberia, Kazakhstan, and Baltica collided in the

2104: 2068: 1938: 1059:

Journey of the Asian blocks from Gondwana to Laurasia 450, 350, 300, and 200 Mya.

3731: 3699: 3689: 2852:"Earth geography from 400 to 250 Ma: a palaeomagnetic, faunal and facies review" 913: 897: 881: 843: 813: 748:

the western margin were the western shelves of Laurentia, later affected by the

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no later than 570 Mya and traces of this breakup can still be found in the

415: 261: 147: 3051: 2226: 2113: 3769: 3679: 3659: 3509: 3237: 3232: 2397: 2133: 1207: 1187: 1124: 909: 893: 804: 565: 561: 424: 238: 17: 2373: 2035: 1822:, Introduction, pp. 445–446; Mesozoic origin and diversification, pp. 450–451 1277:

In the Triassic–Early Jurassic (c. 200 Mya), the opening of the Central

505:. Australia and East Antarctica were located on Laurentia's western margin. 3840: 3809: 3704: 3654: 3574: 3569: 3514: 3447: 3190: 2878: 1537:, Abstract; Initial break-up of Rodinia and Vendian glaciations, pp. 237–240 1281:

was preceded by the formation of a series of large rift basins, such as the

1164: 1160: 1151: 1143: 917: 842:

in the early Carboniferous (340 Mya). The Variscan orogeny closed the

830: 795:

the Early Devonian produced natural barriers in Laurussia which resulted in

787: 696: 663: 628: 590: 581: 265: 117: 37: 3083:

Zhao, G.; Wang, Y.; Huang, B.; Dong, Y.; Li, S.; Zhang, G.; Yu, S. (2018).

2346: 2337: 2318: 2244: 483: 2575:"The Scandinavian Caledonides and their relationship to the Variscan belt" 988:

when they reached the crust. This tectonic activity also resulted in the

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which was assembled 2,100—1,800 Mya to encompass virtually all known

3764: 3649: 3529: 3519: 3482: 3467: 3442: 3365: 3360: 1519: 1199: 1156: 1142:

From the Triassic to the Early Jurassic, before the break-up of Pangaea,

1116: 905: 889: 866: 692: 636: 624: 620: 610: 316: 276: 253: 247: 242: 232: 964:

The Uralian orogeny and the formation of Laurasia 300, 280, and 240 Mya.

556:) forced Laurentia and Baltica to separate ca. 650–600 Mya and the 226:) was the more northern of two large landmasses that formed part of the 3784: 3779: 3544: 3524: 3504: 3472: 3462: 3395: 3390: 3380: 3375: 2981: 2300:

McCullough, J. M.; Moyle, R. G.; Smith, B. T.; Andersen, M. J. (2019).

2160:"Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: A synthesis" 1183: 1129: 921: 901: 862: 825: 783: 764: 494: 478: 392: 312: 284: 280: 227: 122: 81: 3159: 3052:"A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup" 2390:

Gondwana Dispersion and Asian Accretion. IGCP 321 final results volume

3815: 3584: 3282: 3277: 3222: 3217: 2784: 1995:

Our wandering continents : an hypothesis of continental drifting

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With the Caledonian orogeny completed Laurussia was delimited thus:

687:. During the Ordovician, these basins evolved into a new ocean, the 2550: 2347:"What's in a name? The Columbia (Paleopangaea/Nuna) supercontinent" 1757:, Differences Between Gondwana and Laurasia in Pangea, pp. 127, 130 1194:

returning to Gondwana (and stayed there after Pangaea split) while

865:(brachiopods and trilobites) could spread between continents while 631:

terranes – Indochina, North China, and South China – and

366:, though their intermittent duration and recurrent fit is debated. 3589: 3194: 3142:

Evolution of Laurussia: A study in Late Palaeozoic plate tectonics

1689: 1461:, Laurentia (North America and Greenland) and Baltica, pp. 145-149 1135: 829: 670: 662: 482: 378: 1653: 1092:

Cimmerian blocks rifted from Gondwana in the Late Carboniferous.

3252: 3247: 2726:"Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200Ma" 1534: 1495: 269: 87: 27:

Northern landmass that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinent

3163: 601:

Right: Laurasia during the breakup of Pannotia at 550 Mya.

2254:"The late Palaeozoic relations between Gondwana and Laurussia" 2043:

Ernst, R. E.; Bleeker, W.; Söderlund, U.; Kerr, A. C. (2013).

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orogeny which marked the collision between Laurussia and the

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in Greenland; the Kola-Karelian (the northwest margin of the

191: 1855: 1530: 1528: 1742: 218: 215: 206: 200: 1507: 1483: 1381:, From Laurentia to Laurussia and Laurasia: Overview, p. 6 212: 1879: 1470: 884:. By the Permian, the climate had become arid and these 2947:"Phanerozoic polar wander, palaeogeography and dynamics" 1680:, Geological Evidence of the Pangean Megamonsoon, p. 223 1581: 1579: 2419:

Biotic Response to Global Change-The Last Million Years

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Opening of the North Atlantic Ocean 90, 50, and 30 Mya.

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former. The distribution of the three major groups of

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Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J.; Falcon-Lang, H. J. (2010).

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spreading had begun in the North Atlantic between the

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evolved in the early Mesozoic c. 250 Mya and the

2625:. Vol. 7. Oxford University Press. p. 653. 1430: 1428: 1426: 873:

The oldest tree fossils are from the Middle Devonian

1912:"The late Archean record: a puzzle in ca. 35 pieces" 1767: 1765: 1763: 1701: 1598: 1596: 1594: 323:

c. 430–420 Mya to form Laurussia. In the Late

197: 188: 2014:Rhenohercynian zone, Central European Variscides". 509:what is now the 3,000 km (1,900 mi)-long 194: 156: 110: 70: 60: 52: 47: 1473:, Progress on continental reconstructions, pp. 8–9 1458: 718:Another historical term for this continent is the 2085:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1843: 1831: 1783: 1771: 1602: 3050:Zhao, G.; Sun, M.; Wilde, S. A.; Li, S. (2004). 2808:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2682:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2579:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2258:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 599:Left: Laurasia as part of Pannotia 600 Mya. 1613: 1611: 790:exceeding 1 m (3 ft 3 in). The 528:opened and Rodinia began to breakup during the 446:1,750 Mya extensive magmatism in Baltica, 2114:"Ecology and evolution of pine life histories" 1807: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1446: 1434: 691:, which separated a series of terranes – 3175: 2491:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 1754: 1668:, Paleogeographic Evolution of Pangea, p. 216 8: 1641: 1629: 1389: 1387: 1366: 799:within the benthic fauna. In Laurentia the 770:and the southern margin was a Pacific-style 30: 726:, in reference to abundant red beds of the 353:"Laurussia" was defined by Swiss geologist 3623: 3618: 3418: 3413: 3335: 3330: 3207: 3202: 3182: 3168: 3160: 2392:. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema. pp. 9–28. 36: 3554: 2327: 2317: 2234: 2132: 1974: 1882:, Rockall–North America/Greenland, p. 222 2850:Torsvik, T. H.; Cocks, L. R. M. (2004). 2573:Rey, P.; Burg, J. P.; Casey, M. (1997). 1795: 1558: 1307:had effectively broken Laurasia in two. 846:(between Avalonia and Armorica) and the 327:Laurussia and Gondwana formed Pangaea. 2423:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1677: 1665: 1617: 1570: 1546: 1417: 1405: 1354: 1338: 56:1,071 Mya (Proto-Laurasia) 253 Mya 2664: 2654: 2527:"Climate of the supercontinent Pangea" 1819: 1730: 1510:, Siberia–Laurentia connection, p. 189 1369:, Laurussia and Laurasia, pp. 558, 560 1133:adapted to stressful environments and 29: 1867: 1745:, Introduction, pp. 4–5; Fig. 4, p. 8 1714:Sahney, Benton & Falcon-Lang 2010 1449:, Summary and Discussion, pp. 114–115 1393: 303:Terminology and origin of the concept 7: 2621:Rogers, J. J.; Santosh, M. (2004). 1305:opening of the North Atlantic Ocean 1179:(club-tailed, armoured dinosaurs). 651:, now spread from Europe to China. 258:opening of the North Atlantic Ocean 2306:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 25: 2859:Journal of the Geological Society 1692:, The narrowing oceans, pp. 10–11 1573:, The break-up of Pannotia, p. 78 1190:. They split in two groups, with 1096:Gondwana collided with Laurasia. 990:Permian–Triassic extinction event 554:Central Iapetus Magmatic Province 409:Svecokarelian/Svecofennian orogen 3956:Natural history of North America 3894: 3893: 3871: 3389: 3374: 3359: 3344: 3306: 3291: 3276: 3261: 3246: 3231: 3216: 1482:"Consensus" reconstruction from 1261: 1252: 1243: 1049: 1040: 1029: 1020: 954: 945: 936: 892:(giant mosses) were replaced by 589: 580: 536:(c. 650 Mya, also known as 338:In 1904–1909 Austrian geologist 184: 3717:Possible future supercontinents 3133:Laurussia—the old red continent 3109:10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.10.003 3076:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.02.003 2974:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.06.007 2750:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.002 2187:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.021 1985:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.01.007 1844:Milner, Milner & Evans 2000 1832:Milner, Milner & Evans 2000 1076:, the largest orogen on Earth. 786:evolved, including the largest 603:View centred on the South Pole. 395:continental blocks. Surviving 2623:Continents and supercontinents 2511:10.1146/annurev.earth.25.1.337 1998:. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. 1632:, Facies and faunas, pp. 10–11 1227:The placental mammal group of 1: 3043:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00073-9 2828:10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.173.01.01 2639:10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70827-3 2599:10.1144/GSL.SP.1997.121.01.08 2468:10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00123-3 2278:10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.03 1656:, Introduction, pp. 1484–1486 1289: 920:such as amphibians and early 900:fauna – including 245:. It separated from Gondwana 3936:Carboniferous paleogeography 3495:Other prehistoric continents 2930:10.1016/0012-8252(96)00008-6 2105:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.016 2069:10.1016/j.lithos.2013.02.017 1939:10.1016/j.lithos.2003.07.003 1301:Labrador Sea-Baffin Bay Rift 1108:Pangaea split in two as the 816:in the basins of Laurentia. 755:the northern margin was the 737:The eastern margin were the 708:Ordovician–Silurian boundary 383:Columbia/Nuna 1,590 Mya 1074:Central Asian Orogenic Belt 724:Old Red Sandstone Continent 517:in northern Canada and the 501:was docked along Baltica's 489:View centred on 30°S,130°E. 399:from this assembly are the 230:supercontinent from around 4007: 2227:10.1038/s41598-019-43993-y 1808:Gheerbrant & Rage 2006 1642:Rey, Burg & Casey 1997 1522:, p. 1031; Fig. 1, p. 1032 1061:View centred on 0°S,105°E. 966:View centred on 25°N,35°E. 840:Hercynian/Variscan orogeny 823: 675:Euramerica in the Devonian 608: 476: 307:Laurentia, the Palaeozoic 283:, and a series of smaller 3986:Natural history of Europe 3863: 3621: 3617: 3416: 3412: 3333: 3329: 3205: 3201: 2398:10.1080/08120099608728282 2134:10.1007/s13595-012-0201-8 1755:Rogers & Santosh 2004 1345:Oxford English Dictionary 1231:is named after Laurasia. 427:were emplaced, including 260:c. 56 Mya. The name is a 35: 3971:Geology of North America 3951:Paleocene paleogeography 3904:Chronology of continents 2799:Stampfli, G. M. (2000). 2374:10.1016/j.gr.2011.12.002 2121:Annals of Forest Science 2036:10.1016/j.gr.2013.05.018 1630:Cocks & Torsvik 2011 1367:Torsvik & Cocks 2004 1206:divided continents: the 896:. In the dry climate a 782:a diverse assemblage of 3991:Natural history of Asia 3946:Mesozoic paleogeography 3140:Ziegler, P. A. (2012). 3131:Ziegler, P. A. (1988). 2879:10.1144/0016-764903-098 2676:Scotese, C. R. (2009). 2525:Parrish, J. T. (1993). 1992:Du Toit, A. L. (1937). 1716:, Introduction, p. 1079 1644:, Introduction, pp. 1–2 1620:, Introduction, pp. 1–4 1175:(horned dinosaurs) and 986:large igneous provinces 703: – from Gondwana. 440:large igneous provinces 252:(beginning in the late 3961:Mesozoic North America 3941:Permian paleogeography 3926:Former supercontinents 3665:Great Australian Bight 3002:Doklady Earth Sciences 2531:The Journal of Geology 2319:10.1098/rspb.2019.0122 2112:Keeley, J. E. (2012). 1870:, Introduction, p. 338 1856:McCullough et al. 2019 1810:, Introduction, p. 225 1498:, Rodinia, pp. 236–237 835: 676: 668: 511:Central Asian Foldbelt 490: 405:Nagssugtoqidian orogen 384: 3931:Historical continents 3089:Earth-Science Reviews 3056:Earth-Science Reviews 3023:Earth-Science Reviews 2954:Earth-Science Reviews 2910:Earth-Science Reviews 2730:Earth-Science Reviews 2482:Olsen, P. E. (1997). 2345:Meert, J. G. (2012). 1955:Earth-Science Reviews 1654:Eckelmann et al. 2014 1520:Yarmolyuk et al. 2006 886:rainforests collapsed 833: 808:boundary resulted in 801:Transcontinental Arch 674: 666: 486: 382: 3966:Geology of Greenland 3889:Continental fragment 3884:Regions of the world 2167:Precambrian Research 1910:Bleeker, W. (2003). 1743:Nikishin et al. 2002 1690:McKerrow et al. 2000 1561:, Palaeotethys, p. 3 855:Pangaean megamonsoon 659:Euramerica/Laurussia 552:A mantle plume (the 248:215 to 175 233:335 to 175 169:North American Plate 96:Arabian subcontinent 48:Historical continent 3846:Indian Subcontinent 3636:Submerged continent 3101:2018ESRv..186..262Z 3068:2004ESRv...67...91Z 3035:2002ESRv...59..125Z 2966:2012ESRv..114..325T 2922:1996ESRv...40..229T 2871:2004JGSoc.161..555T 2820:2000GSLSP.173....1S 2742:2012ESRv..113..212S 2694:2009GSLSP.326...67S 2631:2004GondR...7..653R 2591:1997GSLSP.121..179R 2543:1993JG....101..215P 2503:1997AREPS..25..337O 2460:2002Tectp.351....3N 2366:2012GondR..21..987M 2270:2000GSLSP.179....9M 2219:2019NatSR...9.7581L 2179:2008PreR..160..179L 2097:2006PPP...241..224G 2061:2013Litho.174....1E 2028:2014GondR..25.1484E 1967:2011ESRv..106....1C 1931:2003Litho..71...99B 1905:. Utrecht: 443–456. 1586:Torsvik et al. 2012 1535:Torsvik et al. 1996 1496:Torsvik et al. 1996 1379:Torsvik et al. 2012 1004:, and South China. 998:West Siberian Basin 515:Franklin dike swarm 401:Trans-Hudson orogen 241:), the other being 92:Indian subcontinent 32: 3627: 3422: 3339: 3211: 2312:(1910): 20190122. 2207:Scientific Reports 1858:, Conclusion, p. 7 1396:, pp. 991–992 1293: 83 Mya 976:to form Laurasia. 848:Proto-Tethys Ocean 836: 677: 669: 491: 385: 321:Caledonian orogeny 289:Caledonian orogeny 287:, collided in the 111:Smaller continents 3976:Geology of Europe 3913: 3912: 3859: 3858: 3854: 3853: 3675:Kerguelen Plateau 3613: 3612: 3608: 3607: 3408: 3407: 3403: 3402: 3325: 3324: 3320: 3319: 2779:(12): 1079–1082. 2354:Gondwana Research 2016:Gondwana Research 1880:Seton et al. 2012 1471:Ernst et al. 2013 792:Old Red Sandstone 728:Old Red Sandstone 720:Old Red Continent 348:Alexander du Toit 235:million years ago 177: 176: 16:(Redirected from 3998: 3897: 3896: 3878:World portal 3876: 3875: 3813: 3762: 3719: 3647: 3624: 3619: 3497: 3435: 3419: 3414: 3393: 3378: 3363: 3348: 3336: 3331: 3310: 3295: 3280: 3265: 3250: 3235: 3220: 3208: 3203: 3184: 3177: 3170: 3161: 3155: 3136: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3079: 3046: 3029:(1–4): 125–162. 3017: 3015: 3013: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2960:(3–4): 325–368. 2951: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2916:(3–4): 229–258. 2907: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2856: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2805: 2801:"Tethyan oceans" 2795: 2793: 2791: 2785:10.1130/G31182.1 2770: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2720: 2718: 2716: 2672: 2666: 2662: 2660: 2652: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2488: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2438: 2422: 2411: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2351: 2341: 2331: 2321: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2248: 2238: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2173:(1–2): 179–210. 2164: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2136: 2118: 2108: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2039: 2022:(4): 1484–1500. 2009: 1988: 1978: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1916: 1906: 1883: 1877: 1871: 1865: 1859: 1853: 1847: 1841: 1835: 1829: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1798:, pp. 15–16 1793: 1787: 1784:Zhao et al. 2018 1781: 1775: 1772:Zhao et al. 2018 1769: 1758: 1752: 1746: 1740: 1734: 1728: 1717: 1711: 1705: 1699: 1693: 1687: 1681: 1675: 1669: 1663: 1657: 1651: 1645: 1639: 1633: 1627: 1621: 1615: 1606: 1603:Zhao et al. 2018 1600: 1589: 1583: 1574: 1568: 1562: 1556: 1550: 1544: 1538: 1532: 1523: 1517: 1511: 1505: 1499: 1493: 1487: 1480: 1474: 1468: 1462: 1459:Zhao et al. 2002 1456: 1450: 1447:Zhao et al. 2004 1444: 1438: 1435:Zhao et al. 2004 1432: 1421: 1415: 1409: 1403: 1397: 1391: 1382: 1376: 1370: 1364: 1358: 1352: 1346: 1343: 1294: 1291: 1265: 1256: 1247: 1125:flowering plants 1053: 1044: 1033: 1024: 958: 949: 940: 714:, also known as 635:terranes – 593: 584: 503:Tornquist margin 251: 236: 225: 224: 221: 220: 217: 214: 209: 208: 205: 202: 199: 196: 193: 190: 82:Balkan Peninsula 40: 33: 21: 4006: 4005: 4001: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3996: 3995: 3981:Geology of Asia 3916: 3915: 3914: 3909: 3908: 3870: 3855: 3850: 3836:Eastern Siberia 3826:Central America 3814: 3807: 3801: 3796:Terra Australis 3763: 3747: 3741: 3737:Pangaea Proxima 3720: 3715: 3709: 3648: 3644:microcontinents 3633: 3609: 3604: 3550:East Antarctica 3498: 3493: 3487: 3436: 3432:supercontinents 3428: 3404: 3399: 3394: 3384: 3379: 3369: 3364: 3354: 3349: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3301: 3296: 3286: 3281: 3271: 3266: 3256: 3251: 3241: 3236: 3226: 3221: 3197: 3188: 3158: 3152: 3139: 3130: 3121: 3119: 3082: 3062:(1–2): 91–123. 3049: 3020: 3011: 3009: 2995: 2986: 2984: 2949: 2943: 2934: 2932: 2905: 2900: 2891: 2889: 2854: 2849: 2840: 2838: 2803: 2798: 2789: 2787: 2768: 2763: 2754: 2752: 2723: 2714: 2712: 2702:10.1144/SP326.4 2675: 2663: 2653: 2649: 2620: 2611: 2609: 2572: 2563: 2561: 2524: 2515: 2513: 2486: 2481: 2472: 2470: 2441: 2435: 2414: 2408: 2387: 2378: 2376: 2349: 2344: 2299: 2290: 2288: 2251: 2200: 2191: 2189: 2162: 2156: 2147: 2145: 2116: 2111: 2082: 2073: 2071: 2042: 2012: 2006: 1991: 1976:10.1.1.663.2972 1952: 1943: 1941: 1925:(2–4): 99–134. 1914: 1909: 1896: 1892: 1887: 1886: 1878: 1874: 1866: 1862: 1854: 1850: 1842: 1838: 1830: 1826: 1818: 1814: 1806: 1802: 1794: 1790: 1782: 1778: 1770: 1761: 1753: 1749: 1741: 1737: 1729: 1720: 1712: 1708: 1700: 1696: 1688: 1684: 1676: 1672: 1664: 1660: 1652: 1648: 1640: 1636: 1628: 1624: 1616: 1609: 1601: 1592: 1584: 1577: 1569: 1565: 1557: 1553: 1545: 1541: 1533: 1526: 1518: 1514: 1506: 1502: 1494: 1490: 1481: 1477: 1469: 1465: 1457: 1453: 1445: 1441: 1433: 1424: 1416: 1412: 1404: 1400: 1392: 1385: 1377: 1373: 1365: 1361: 1353: 1349: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1313: 1297:Rockall Plateau 1292: 1275: 1274: 1273: 1272: 1268: 1267: 1266: 1258: 1257: 1249: 1248: 1237: 1106: 1104:Flora and fauna 1065: 1064: 1063: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1055: 1054: 1046: 1045: 1036: 1035: 1034: 1026: 1025: 1014: 974:Uralian orogeny 970: 969: 968: 967: 965: 961: 960: 959: 951: 950: 942: 941: 930: 828: 822: 743:Moscow Platform 685:back-arc basins 661: 623:supercontinent 613: 607: 606: 605: 604: 602: 600: 596: 595: 594: 586: 585: 574: 488: 481: 475: 438:Traces left by 377: 372: 305: 246: 231: 211: 187: 183: 173: 157:Tectonic plates 152: 106: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4004: 4002: 3994: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3918: 3917: 3911: 3910: 3907: 3906: 3901: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3865: 3864: 3861: 3860: 3857: 3856: 3852: 3851: 3849: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3831:Eastern Africa 3828: 3823: 3818: 3804: 3802: 3800: 3799: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3630: 3628: 3622: 3615: 3614: 3611: 3610: 3606: 3605: 3603: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3527: 3522: 3517: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3425: 3423: 3417: 3410: 3409: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3400: 3387: 3385: 3372: 3370: 3357: 3355: 3342: 3340: 3334: 3327: 3326: 3323: 3322: 3318: 3317: 3304: 3302: 3289: 3287: 3274: 3272: 3259: 3257: 3244: 3242: 3229: 3227: 3214: 3212: 3206: 3199: 3198: 3189: 3187: 3186: 3179: 3172: 3164: 3157: 3156: 3150: 3137: 3128: 3080: 3047: 3018: 3008:(7): 1031–1036 2993: 2941: 2898: 2865:(4): 555–572. 2847: 2796: 2761: 2736:(3): 212–270. 2721: 2673: 2665:|journal= 2647: 2618: 2585:(1): 179–200. 2570: 2551:10.1086/648217 2537:(2): 215–233. 2522: 2497:(1): 337–401. 2479: 2448:Tectonophysics 2439: 2433: 2412: 2406: 2385: 2360:(4): 987–993. 2342: 2297: 2249: 2198: 2154: 2127:(4): 445–453. 2109: 2091:(2): 224–246. 2080: 2040: 2010: 2004: 1989: 1950: 1907: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1885: 1884: 1872: 1860: 1848: 1836: 1824: 1812: 1800: 1788: 1776: 1759: 1747: 1735: 1718: 1706: 1704:, pp. 1–2 1702:Lu et al. 2019 1694: 1682: 1670: 1658: 1646: 1634: 1622: 1607: 1590: 1575: 1563: 1551: 1539: 1524: 1512: 1508:Li et al. 2008 1500: 1488: 1484:Li et al. 2008 1475: 1463: 1451: 1439: 1422: 1410: 1398: 1383: 1371: 1359: 1347: 1337: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1324: 1319: 1317:Laurasiatheria 1312: 1309: 1279:Atlantic Ocean 1270: 1269: 1260: 1259: 1251: 1250: 1242: 1241: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1236: 1233: 1229:Laurasiatheria 1214:Grande Coupure 1177:Ankylosauridae 1169:ornithischians 1105: 1102: 1058: 1057: 1048: 1047: 1039: 1038: 1037: 1028: 1027: 1019: 1018: 1017: 1016: 1015: 1013: 1010: 984:that produced 963: 962: 953: 952: 944: 943: 935: 934: 933: 932: 931: 929: 926: 824:Main article: 821: 818: 776: 775: 768: 753: 750:Antler orogeny 746: 660: 657: 649:Hunic terranes 609:Main article: 598: 597: 588: 587: 579: 578: 577: 576: 575: 573: 570: 538:Snowball Earth 530:Neoproterozoic 477:Main article: 474: 471: 470: 469: 458: 451: 435:in Laurentia. 403:in Laurentia; 376: 373: 371: 370:Proto-Laurasia 368: 344:Alfred Wegener 304: 301: 175: 174: 172: 171: 166: 164:Eurasian Plate 160: 158: 154: 153: 151: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 114: 112: 108: 107: 105: 104: 99: 85: 74: 72: 68: 67: 65:Supercontinent 62: 58: 57: 54: 50: 49: 45: 44: 41: 26: 24: 18:Proto-Laurasia 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4003: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3923: 3921: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3879: 3874: 3867: 3866: 3862: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3812: 3811: 3810:Subcontinents 3806: 3805: 3803: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3775:Kumari Kandam 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3761: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3718: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3651: 3646: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 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