141:). It is possible to improve on a single-junction cell by vertically stacking cells with different bandgaps – termed a "tandem" or "multi-junction" approach. The same analysis shows that a two layer cell should have one layer tuned to 1.64 eV and the other to 0.94 eV, providing a theoretical performance of 44%. A three-layer cell should be tuned to 1.83, 1.16 and 0.71 eV, with an efficiency of 48%. An "infinity-layer" cell would have a theoretical efficiency of 86%, with other thermodynamic loss mechanisms accounting for the rest.
20:
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180:(PbS) colloidal quantum dots (CQD) have bandgaps that can be tuned into the far infrared, frequencies that are typically difficult to achieve with traditional solar cells. Half of the solar energy reaching the Earth is in the infrared, most in the near infrared region. A quantum dot solar cell makes infrared energy as accessible as any other.
360:
to be generated per incoming high energy photon. In traditional photovoltaics, this excess energy is lost to the bulk material as lattice vibrations (electron-phonon coupling). MEG occurs when this excess energy is transferred to excite additional electrons across the band gap, where they can contribute to the short-circuit current density.
148:, which due to a relaxed requirement in crystal momentum preservation can achieve direct bandgaps and intermixing of carbon, can tune the bandgap, but other issues have prevented these from matching the performance of traditional cells. Most tandem-cell structures are based on higher performance semiconductors, notably
940:
Ip, Alexander H.; Thon, Susanna M.; Hoogland, Sjoerd; Voznyy, Oleksandr; Zhitomirsky, David; Debnath, Ratan; Levina, Larissa; Rollny, Lisa R.; Carey, Graham H.; Fischer, Armin; Kemp, Kyle W.; Kramer, Illan J.; Ning, Zhijun; Labelle, André J.; Chou, Kang Wei; Amassian, Aram; Sargent, Edward H. (2012).
429:
QD Solar takes advantage of the tunable band gap of quantum dots to create multi-junction solar cells. By combining efficient silicon solar cells with infrared solar cells made from quantum dots, QD Solar aims to harvest more of the solar spectrum. QD Solar's inorganic quantum dots are processed with
359:
The
Shockley-Queisser limit, which sets the maximum efficiency of a single-layer photovoltaic cell to be 33.7%, assumes that only one electron-hole pair (exciton) can be generated per incoming photon. Multiple exciton generation (MEG) is an exciton relaxation pathway which allows two or more excitons
175:
The ability to tune the bandgap makes quantum dots desirable for solar cells. For the sun's photon distribution spectrum, the
Shockley-Queisser limit indicates that the maximum solar conversion efficiency occurs in a material with a band gap of 1.34 eV. However, materials with lower band gaps will be
433:
UbiQD is developing photovoltaic windows using quantum dots as fluorophores. They have designed a luminescent solar concentrator (LSC) using near-infrared quantum dots which are cheaper and less toxic than traditional alternatives. UbiQD hopes to provide semi-transparent windows that convert passive
183:
Moreover, CQD offer easy synthesis and preparation. While suspended in a colloidal liquid form they can be easily handled throughout production, with a fumehood as the most complex equipment needed. CQD are typically synthesized in small batches, but can be mass-produced. The dots can be distributed
402:
In 2014 a
University of Toronto group manufactured and demonstrated a type of CQD n-type cell using PbS with special treatment so that it doesn't bind with oxygen. The cell achieved 8% efficiency, just shy of the current QD efficiency record. Such cells create the possibility of uncoated "spray-on"
363:
Within quantum dots, quantum confinement increases coulombic interactions which drives the MEG process. This phenomenon also decreases the rate of electron-phonon coupling, which is the dominant method of exciton relaxation in bulk semiconductors. The phonon bottleneck slows the rate of hot carrier
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However, the use of multiple materials makes multi-junction solar cells too expensive for many commercial uses. Because the band gap of quantum dots can be tuned by adjusting the particle radius, multi-junction cells can be manufactured by incorporating quantum dot semiconductors of different sizes
286:
Traditionally, multi-junction solar cells are made with a collection of multiple semiconductor materials. Because each material has a different band gap, each material's p-n junction will be optimized for a different incoming wavelength of light. Using multiple materials enables the absorbance of a
171:
considerations, the electron energies that can exist within them become finite, much alike energies in an atom. Quantum dots have been referred to as "artificial atoms". These energy levels are tuneable by changing their size, which in turn defines the bandgap. The dots can be grown over a range of
425:
Quantum
Materials Corp. (QMC) and subsidiary Solterra Renewable Technologies are developing and manufacturing quantum dots and nanomaterials for use in solar energy and lighting applications. With their patented continuous flow production process for perovskite quantum dots, QMC hopes to lower the
1455:
Ning, Z.; Voznyy, O.; Pan, J.; Hoogland, S.; Adinolfi, V.; Xu, J.; Li, M.; Kirmani, A. R.; Sun, J. P.; Minor, J.; Kemp, K. W.; Dong, H.; Rollny, L.; Labelle, A.; Carey, G.; Sutherland, B.; Hill, I.; Amassian, A.; Liu, H.; Tang, J.; Bakr, O. M.; Sargent, E. H. (2014). "Air-stable n-type colloidal
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processes. However, the lattice mismatch results in accumulation of strain and thus generation of defects, restricting the number of stacked layers. Droplet epitaxy growth technique shows its advantages on the fabrication of strain-free QDs. Alternatively, less expensive fabrication methods were
336:
Another way to improve efficiency is to capture the extra energy in the electron when emitted from a single-bandgap material. In traditional materials like silicon, the distance from the emission site to the electrode where they are harvested is too far to allow this to occur; the electron will
211:
To create a solid, these solutions are cast down and the long stabilizing ligands are replaced with short-chain crosslinkers. Chemically engineering the nanocrystal surface can better passivate the nanocrystals and reduce detrimental trap states that would curtail device performance by means of
406:
Also in 2014, another research group at MIT demonstrated air-stable ZnO/PbS solar cells that were fabricated in air and achieved a certified 8.55% record efficiency (9.2% in lab) because they absorbed light well, while also transporting charge to collectors at the cell's edge. These cells show
420:
Although quantum dot solar cells have yet to be commercially viable on the mass scale, several small commercial providers have begun marketing quantum dot photovoltaic products. Investors and financial analysts have identified quantum dot photovoltaics as a key future technology for the solar
215:
A more recent study uses different ligands for different functions by tuning their relative band alignment to improve the performance to 8.6%. The cells were solution-processed in air at room-temperature and exhibited air-stability for more than 150 days without encapsulation.
82:
exceeds 18.1%. Quantum dot solar cells have the potential to increase the maximum attainable thermodynamic conversion efficiency of solar photon conversion up to about 66% by utilizing hot photogenerated carriers to produce higher photovoltages or higher photocurrents.
371:
reported spectroscopic evidence that several excitons could be efficiently generated upon absorption of a single, energetic photon in a quantum dot. Capturing them would catch more of the energy in sunlight. In this approach, known as "carrier multiplication" (CM) or
364:
cooling, which allows excitons to pursue other pathways of relaxation; this allows MEG to dominate in quantum dot solar cells. The rate of MEG can be optimized by tailoring quantum dot ligand chemistry, as well as by changing the quantum dot material and geometry.
265:
Using quantum dots as an alternative to molecular dyes was considered from the earliest days of DSSC research. The ability to tune the bandgap allowed the designer to select a wider variety of materials for other portions of the cell. Collaborating groups from the
1199:
Kerestes, C., Polly, S., Forbes, D., Bailey, C., Podell, A., Spann, J., . . . Hubbard, S. (2013). Fabrication and analysis of multijunction solar cells with a quantum dot (In)GaAs junction. Progress in
Photovoltaics: Research and Applications,22 (11), 1172-1179.
782:
Wu, Jiang; Yu, Peng; Susha, Andrei S.; Sablon, Kimberly A.; Chen, Haiyuan; Zhou, Zhihua; Li, Handong; Ji, Haining; Niu, Xiaobin (2015-04-01). "Broadband efficiency enhancement in quantum dot solar cells coupled with multispiked plasmonic nanostars".
231:
The idea of using quantum dots as a path to high efficiency was first noted by
Burnham and Duggan in 1989. At the time, the science of quantum dots, or "wells" as they were known, was in its infancy and early examples were just becoming available.
459:
nanocrystals have been explored due to their safety and abundance; exploration with solar cells based with these materials have demonstrated comparable conversion efficiencies (> 9%) and short-circuit current densities (> 27 mA/cm). UbiQD's
172:
sizes, allowing them to express a variety of bandgaps without changing the underlying material or construction techniques. In typical wet chemistry preparations, the tuning is accomplished by varying the synthesis duration or temperature.
120:
of the material. Effectively, photons with energies lower than the bandgap do not get absorbed, while those that are higher can quickly (within about 10 s) thermalize to the band edges, reducing output. The former limitation reduces
301:. These cells did not use quantum dots, but shared features with them, such as spin-casting and the use of a thin film conductor. At low production scales quantum dots are more expensive than mass-produced nanocrystals, but
1587:
Bernechea, M., Miller, N. C., Xercavins, G., So, D., Stavrinadis, A., & Konstantatos, G. (2016). Solution-processed solar cells based on environmentally friendly AgBiS2 nanocrystals. Nature
Photonics,10( 8), 521-525.
454:
Many heavy-metal quantum dot (lead/cadmium chalcogenides such as PbSe, CdSe) semiconductors can be cytotoxic and must be encapsulated in a stable polymer shell to prevent exposure. Non-toxic quantum dot materials such as
291:(and therefore different band gaps). Using the same material lowers manufacturing costs, and the enhanced absorption spectrum of quantum dots can be used to increase the short-circuit current and overall cell efficiency.
376:" (MEG), the quantum dot is tuned to release multiple electron-hole pairs at a lower energy instead of one pair at high energy. This increases efficiency through increased photocurrent. LANL's dots were made from
1597:
Wang, Y., Kavanagh, S.R., Burgués-Ceballos, I. et al. Cation disorder engineering yields AgBiS2 nanocrystals with enhanced optical absorption for efficient ultrathin solar cells. Nat. Photon. 16, 235–241 (2022).
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thin-film silicon was tried as an alternative, but the defects inherent to these materials overwhelmed their potential advantage. Modern thin-film cells remain generally less efficient than traditional silicon.
136:
The band gap (1.34 eV) of an ideal single-junction cell is close to that of silicon (1.1 eV), one of the many reasons that silicon dominates the market. However, silicon's efficiency is limited to about 30%
345:
Nanostructured donors can be cast as uniform films that avoid the problems with defects. These would be subject to other issues inherent to quantum dots, notably resistivity issues and heat retention.
67:
that are adjustable across a wide range of energy levels by changing their size. In bulk materials, the bandgap is fixed by the choice of material(s). This property makes quantum dots attractive for
1241:
Goodwin, H., Jellicoe, T. C., Davis, N. J., & Böhm, M. L. (2018). Multiple exciton generation in quantum dot-based solar cells. Nanophotonics,7 (1), 111-126. doi:10.1515/nanoph-2017-0034
223:
as a ligand that does not bond to oxygen was introduced. This maintains stable n- and p-type layers, boosting the absorption efficiency, which produced power conversion efficiency up to 8%.
155:
However, the QDSCs suffer from weak absorption and the contribution of the light absorption at room temperature is marginal. This can be addressed by utilizing multibranched Au nanostars.
320:-sensitive electron donor to produce then record-efficiency IR solar cells. Spin-casting may allow the construction of "tandem" cells at greatly reduced cost. The original cells used a
23:
Spin-cast quantum dot solar cell built by the
Sargent Group at the University of Toronto. The metal disks on the front surface are the electrical connections to the layers below.
387:
demonstrated similar performance using DCCS cells. Lead-sulfur (PbS) dots demonstrated two-electron ejection when the incoming photons had about three times the bandgap energy.
1190:
Semonin, O. E., Luther, J. M., & Beard, M. C. (2012). Quantum dots for next-generation photovoltaics. Materials Today,15 (11), 508-515. doi:10.1016/s1369-7021(12)70220-1
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297:(CdTe) is used for cells that absorb multiple frequencies. A colloidal suspension of these crystals is spin-cast onto a substrate such as a thin glass slide, potted in a
271:
112:
one part of the semiconductor interface with atoms that act as electron donors (n-type doping) and another with electron acceptors (p-type doping) that results in a
129:. As a result, semiconductor cells suffer a trade-off between voltage and current (which can be in part alleviated by using multiple junction implementations). The
1250:
Beard, M. C. (2011). Multiple
Exciton Generation in Semiconductor Quantum Dots. The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters,2 (11), 1282-1288. doi:10.1021/jz200166y
188:, either by hand or in an automated process. Large-scale production could use spray-on or roll-printing systems, dramatically reducing module construction costs.
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demonstrated MEG in quantum dots, producing three electrons per photon and a theoretical efficiency of 65%. In 2007, they achieved a similar result in silicon.
1212:
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1315:
1912:
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Ellingson, Randy J.; Beard, Matthew C.; Johnson, Justin C.; Yu, Pingrong; Micic, Olga I.; Nozik, Arthur J.; Shabaev, Andrew; Efros, Alexander L. (2005).
52:
262:-polypyridine, which injects electrons into the titanium dioxide upon photoexcitation. This dye is relatively expensive, and ruthenium is a rare metal.
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743:
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later developed. These use wet chemistry (for CQD) and subsequent solution processing. Concentrated nanoparticle solutions are stabilized by long
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developed a design based on a rear electrode directly in contact with a film of quantum dots, eliminating the electrolyte and forming a depleted
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Uni-Solar holds the record using a three-layer a-Si cell, with 14.9% initial production, but falling to 13% over a short time. See Yang et al.,
258:
as the semiconductor valve as well as a mechanical support structure. During construction, the sponge is filled with an organic dye, typically
144:
Traditional (crystalline) silicon preparation methods do not lend themselves to this approach due to lack of bandgap tunability. Thin-films of
1175:
1260:
Schaller, R.; Klimov, V. (2004). "High
Efficiency Carrier Multiplication in PbSe Nanocrystals: Implications for Solar Energy Conversion".
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unprecedented air-stability for quantum dot solar cells that the performance remained unchanged for more than 150 days of storage in air.
152:(InGaAs). Three-layer InGaAs/GaAs/InGaP cells (bandgaps 0.94/1.42/1.89 eV) hold the efficiency record of 42.3% for experimental examples.
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278:. These cells reached 7.0% efficiency, better than the best solid-state DSSC devices, but below those based on liquid electrolytes.
1567:
1521:
1532:
Johnson, T. (n.d.). "This Company's 'Tiny Dots' Promise to Turn the ENTIRE Renewable Energy Industry on its Head". Retrieved from
108:) and the resulting flow of electrons and holes creates an electric current. The internal electrochemical potential is created by
2528:
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shows that this efficiency can not exceed 33% if one uses a single material with an ideal bandgap of 1.34 eV for a solar cell.
68:
60:
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better suited to generate electricity from lower-energy photons (and vice versa). Single junction implementations using
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1973:
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1978:
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Chatsko, M. (2018, July 19). 3 Wild Solar Power Technologies That Could Secure the Industry's Future. Retrieved from
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2014:
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cost of quantum dot solar cell production in addition to applying their nanomaterials to other emerging industries.
1927:
1902:
1742:
673:
Shockley, William; Queisser, Hans J. (1961). "Detailed Balance Limit of Efficiency of p-n Junction Solar Cells".
518:
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high-throughput and cost-effective technologies and are more light- and air- stable than polymeric nanomaterials.
241:
744:"Triple-junction amorphous silicon alloy solar cell with 14.6% initial and 13.0% stable conversion efficiencies"
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2428:
2410:
2301:
2147:
2134:
2129:
2029:
1117:
B. O’Regan and M. Gratzel (1991). "A low-cost, high efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO
904:
708:
Brown, A; Green, M (2002). "Detailed balance limit for the series constrained two terminal tandem solar cell".
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undergo many interactions with the crystal materials and lattice, giving up this extra energy as heat.
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Baskoutas, Sotirios; Terzis, Andreas F. (2006). "Size-dependent band gap of colloidal quantum dots".
717:
682:
639:
71:, where a variety of materials are used to improve efficiency by harvesting multiple portions of the
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963:
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buildings into energy generation units, while simultaneously reducing the heat gain of the building.
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cells. However, these air-stable n-type CQD were actually fabricated in an oxygen-free environment.
2162:
2142:
2109:
1917:
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999:"Improved performance and stability in quantum dot solar cells through band alignment engineering"
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885:
800:
544:"Selected I-III-VI2 Semiconductors: Synthesis, Properties and Applications in Photovoltaic Cells"
523:
298:
1522:
https://www.fool.com/investing/2018/07/19/3-wild-solar-power-technologies-that-could-secure.aspx
2203:
163:
Quantum dots are semiconducting particles that have been reduced below the size of the Exciton
104:. This pair is separated by an internal electrochemical potential (present in p-n junctions or
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2219:
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1948:
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broader range of wavelengths, which increases the cell's electrical conversion efficiency.
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100:, producing an electron-hole (e-h) pair; the pair may be bound and is referred to as an
43:
as the captivating photovoltaic material. It attempts to replace bulk materials such as
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2244:
2096:
1998:
1988:
1958:
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1031:
998:
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105:
72:
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997:
Chuang, Chia-Hao M.; Brown, Patrick R.; Bulović, Vladimir; Bawendi, Moungi G. (2014).
729:
651:
542:
Shishodia, Shubham; Chouchene, Bilel; Gries, Thomas; Schneider, Raphaël (2023-10-31).
2684:
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2188:
2178:
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1983:
1700:
1679:
1316:"Highly Efficient Multiple Exciton Generation in Colloidal PbSe and PbS Quantum Dots"
889:
495:
445:
intends to start volume production of its QuantumGlass product between 2020 and 2021.
97:
804:
116:. The generation of an e-h pair requires that the photons have energy exceeding the
2633:
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2321:
1993:
1631:
1534:
https://www.stockgumshoe.com/reviews/cutting-edge-the/this-companys-tiny-dots-promi
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185:
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Berkeley Lab Air-stable Inorganic Nanocrystal Solar Cells Processed from Solution
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796:
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2331:
1968:
1943:
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40:
1232:, Workshop on Nanoscience for Solar Energy Conversion, 27–29 October 2008, p. 8
601:
464:
quantum dot material is another example of a non-toxic semiconductor compound.
2114:
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1616:
Quantum-Dots Leap: Tapping tiny crystals' inexplicable light-harvesting talent
1229:
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36:
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1274:
1230:"Quantum Dot Solar Cells: Semiconductor Nanocrystals As Light Harvesters"
560:
317:
903:
Yu, Peng; Wu, Jiang; Gao, Lei; Liu, Huiyun; Wang, Zhiming (2017-03-01).
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44:
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carrier recombination. This approach produces an efficiency of 7.0%.
205:
1547:"ML System zawarła z firmą Servitech umowę wartą 26,7 mln zł netto"
1435:"Quantum dot breakthrough could lead to cheap spray-on solar cells"
905:"InGaAs and GaAs quantum dot solar cells grown by droplet epitaxy"
18:
1648:
1367:"Quantum Dot Materials Can Reduce Heat, Boost Electrical Output"
391:
321:
1652:
1568:"Kolejny krok milowy ML System w ramach projektu Quantum Glass"
1056:"New nanoparticles bring cheaper, lighter solar cells outdoors"
761:
1078:"A new approach to high-efficiency multi-band-gap solar cells"
1536:
se-to-turn-the-entire-renewable-energy-industry-on-its-head/
309:
are rare and highly toxic metals subject to price swings.
1397:"Quantum Dots May Boost Photovoltaic Efficiency To 65%"
1167:
Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements
1501:"New record efficiency for quantum-dot photovoltaics"
1421:"Unique Quantum Effect Found in Silicon Nanocrystals"
632:
Physica E: Low-dimensional Systems and Nanostructures
1380:"Work light twice as hard to make cheap solar cells"
96:
In a conventional solar cell light is absorbed by a
2566:
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2541:
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2354:
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2007:
1936:
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1852:
1827:
1781:
1693:
1686:
992:
990:
941:"Hybrid passivated colloidal quantum dot solids".
208:that keep the nanocrystals suspended in solution.
1210:"New Inexpensive Solar Cell Design is Pioneered"
16:Type of solar cell based on quantum dot devices
1626:Nanocrystal Discovery Has Solar Cell Potential
2558:List of countries by photovoltaics production
2235:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One
1664:
1170:. Oxford University Press. pp. 368–370.
8:
244:, or DSSC. DSSCs use a sponge-like layer of
2040:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
2547:
2362:
2066:
1913:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells
1860:
1690:
1671:
1657:
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1600:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-021-00950-4
1342:
1273:
1101:
1030:
962:
935:
933:
762:"Spire pushes solar cell record to 42.3%"
577:
559:
2375:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system
1643:Sunny Future For Nanocrystal Solar Cells
272:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
2342:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge
2337:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
534:
125:, while the thermalization reduces the
1219:, University of Toronto, 3 August 2010
1076:Barnham, K. W. J.; Duggan, G. (1990).
912:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
602:"Best Research Cell Efficiency Chart"
7:
2663:
606:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
324:substrate as an electrode, although
2380:List of photovoltaic power stations
2396:Rooftop photovoltaic power station
1799:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)
1748:Third-generation photovoltaic cell
1423:, NREL Press Release, 24 July 2007
504:Third-generation photovoltaic cell
240:Another modern cell design is the
14:
2401:Building-integrated photovoltaics
1898:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
1804:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)
1369:, NREL Press Release, 23 May 2005
2662:
2651:
2650:
1773:Polarizing organic photovoltaics
488:
474:
1908:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics
1789:List of semiconductor materials
1499:Jeffrey, Colin (May 27, 2014).
1164:Emsley, John (25 August 2011).
2020:Incremental conductance method
1814:Copper indium gallium selenide
1763:Thermodynamic efficiency limit
1433:Borghino, Dario (2014-06-10).
1054:Mitchell, Marit (2014-06-09).
369:Los Alamos National Laboratory
49:copper indium gallium selenide
1:
2327:South African Solar Challenge
1292:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.186601
730:10.1016/S1386-9477(02)00364-8
652:10.1016/S1386-9477(02)00374-0
1974:Photovoltaic mounting system
1588:doi:10.1038/nphoton.2016.108
924:10.1016/j.solmat.2016.12.024
797:10.1016/j.nanoen.2015.02.012
131:detailed balance calculation
1979:Maximum power point tracker
374:multiple exciton generation
355:multiple exciton generation
196:Early examples used costly
2717:
2230:Solar panels on spacecraft
2077:Solar-powered refrigerator
2035:Concentrated photovoltaics
2015:Perturb and observe method
1794:Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
1082:Journal of Applied Physics
820:Journal of Applied Physics
675:Journal of Applied Physics
626:Nozik, A. J (2002-04-01).
352:
69:multi-junction solar cells
2646:
1928:Heterojunction solar cell
1903:Dye-sensitized solar cell
1743:Multi-junction solar cell
1733:Nominal power (Watt-peak)
1215:January 28, 2011, at the
628:"Quantum dot solar cells"
519:Photoelectrochemical cell
242:dye-sensitized solar cell
2411:Strasskirchen Solar Park
2302:American Solar Challenge
2148:Solar-powered flashlight
2135:Solar-powered calculator
2130:Solar cell phone charger
1819:Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
2317:Frisian Solar Challenge
2287:List of solar car teams
2045:Space-based solar power
2025:Constant voltage method
1954:Solar charge controller
1840:Timeline of solar cells
1835:Growth of photovoltaics
1570:(in Polish). 2019-11-05
1549:(in Polish). 2019-10-30
1262:Physical Review Letters
855:"Infrared Quantum Dots"
853:H. Sargent, E. (2005).
748:Applied Physics Letters
509:Nanocrystalline silicon
482:Renewable energy portal
312:The Sargent Group used
150:indium gallium arsenide
139:Shockley–Queisser limit
2307:Formula Sun Grand Prix
2139:Solar-powered fountain
2082:Solar air conditioning
1883:Quantum dot solar cell
1873:Nanocrystal solar cell
1768:Sun-free photovoltaics
973:10.1038/nnano.2012.127
882:10.1002/adma.200401552
826:(1): 013708–013708–4.
198:molecular beam epitaxy
29:quantum dot solar cell
24:
2297:World Solar Challenge
2120:Photovoltaic keyboard
2050:PV system performance
1923:Perovskite solar cell
1721:Solar cell efficiency
1614:Science News Online,
1456:quantum dot solids".
943:Nature Nanotechnology
443:Warsaw Stock Exchange
385:University of Wyoming
268:University of Toronto
63:). Quantum dots have
22:
2567:Individual producers
2275:Solar vehicle racing
1964:Solar micro-inverter
1893:Plasmonic solar cell
1738:Thin-film solar cell
1706:Photoelectric effect
1200:doi:10.1002/pip.2378
561:10.3390/nano13212889
416:Commercial Providers
328:works just as well.
2701:Quantum electronics
2163:Solar traffic light
2143:Solar-powered radio
2110:Solar-powered watch
1918:Printed solar panel
1753:Solar cell research
1645:, October 23, 2005.
1470:2014NatMa..13..822N
1335:2005NanoL...5..865E
1284:2004PhRvL..92r6601S
1135:1991Natur.353..737O
1094:1990JAP....67.3490B
1015:2014NatMa..13..796C
955:2012NatNa...7..577I
874:2005AdM....17..515H
832:2006JAP....99a3708B
722:2002PhyE...14...96B
687:1961JAP....32..510S
644:2002PhyE...14..115N
441:producer listed on
411:Market Introduction
332:Hot-carrier capture
219:In 2014 the use of
92:Solar cell concepts
2199:The Quiet Achiever
2158:Solar street light
2105:Solar-powered pump
1878:Organic solar cell
1758:Thermophotovoltaic
1726:Quantum efficiency
1628:, January 6, 2006.
862:Advanced Materials
524:Organic solar cell
437:ML System S.A., a
299:conductive polymer
184:on a substrate by
25:
2678:
2677:
2642:
2641:
2537:
2536:
2350:
2349:
2225:Mauro Solar Riser
2220:Electric aircraft
2153:Solar-powered fan
2058:
2057:
1949:Balance of system
1937:System components
1888:Hybrid solar cell
1848:
1847:
1809:Cadmium telluride
1353:10.1021/nl0502672
1177:978-0-19-960563-7
1129:(6346): 737–740.
840:10.1063/1.2158502
760:SPIE Europe Ltd.
695:10.1063/1.1736034
349:Multiple excitons
295:Cadmium telluride
169:quantum mechanics
146:amorphous silicon
57:cadmium telluride
39:design that uses
2708:
2666:
2665:
2654:
2653:
2548:
2389:Building-mounted
2367:PV power station
2363:
2292:Solar challenges
2282:Solar car racing
2250:Solar Challenger
2240:Gossamer Penguin
2067:
1861:
1711:Solar irradiance
1691:
1673:
1666:
1659:
1650:
1603:
1595:
1589:
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1579:
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1530:
1524:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1509:
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1496:
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1489:
1478:10.1038/nmat4007
1458:Nature Materials
1452:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1442:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1408:
1399:. Archived from
1393:
1387:
1386:, 1 October 2010
1376:
1370:
1364:
1346:
1320:
1311:
1277:
1275:cond-mat/0404368
1257:
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1248:
1242:
1239:
1233:
1228:Prashant Kamat,
1226:
1220:
1207:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1188:
1182:
1181:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1143:10.1038/353737a0
1114:
1108:
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1105:
1103:10.1063/1.345339
1073:
1067:
1066:
1064:
1063:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1034:
1023:10.1038/nmat3984
1003:Nature Materials
994:
985:
984:
966:
937:
928:
927:
909:
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894:
893:
859:
850:
844:
843:
815:
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751:
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734:
733:
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670:
664:
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623:
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581:
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256:
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2716:
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2681:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2638:
2562:
2533:
2415:
2384:
2357:
2346:
2270:
2259:Water transport
2254:
2208:
2194:Solar golf cart
2167:
2125:Solar road stud
2054:
2008:System concepts
2003:
1932:
1855:
1844:
1823:
1777:
1682:
1677:
1622:InformationWeek
1618:, June 3, 2006.
1611:
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1344:10.1.1.453.4612
1318:
1313:
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1259:
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1254:
1249:
1245:
1240:
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1227:
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1217:Wayback Machine
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1120:
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1111:
1075:
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1048:
996:
995:
988:
964:10.1.1.259.9381
939:
938:
931:
907:
902:
901:
897:
857:
852:
851:
847:
817:
816:
812:
781:
780:
776:
767:
765:
759:
758:
754:
741:
737:
716:(1–2): 96–100.
707:
706:
702:
672:
671:
667:
625:
624:
620:
610:
608:
600:
599:
595:
541:
540:
536:
532:
494:
487:
480:
473:
470:
463:
458:
452:
450:Safety Concerns
418:
413:
400:
357:
351:
334:
284:
253:
250:
249:
248:
246:
238:
229:
194:
161:
106:Schottky diodes
94:
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17:
12:
11:
5:
2714:
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2606:
2604:Solar Frontier
2601:
2596:
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2581:
2579:Hanwha Q CELLS
2576:
2570:
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2524:United Kingdom
2521:
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2506:
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2496:
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2481:
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2459:Czech Republic
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2278:
2276:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2268:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2252:
2247:
2245:Qinetiq Zephyr
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2175:
2173:
2172:Land transport
2169:
2168:
2166:
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2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2099:
2097:Solar backpack
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2073:
2071:
2064:
2060:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2004:
2002:
2001:
1999:Synchronverter
1996:
1991:
1989:Solar shingles
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1959:Solar inverter
1956:
1951:
1946:
1940:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1869:
1867:
1858:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1842:
1837:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1729:
1728:
1718:
1716:Solar constant
1713:
1708:
1703:
1697:
1695:
1688:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1676:
1675:
1668:
1661:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1641:ScienceDaily,
1639:
1629:
1619:
1610:
1609:External links
1607:
1605:
1604:
1590:
1580:
1559:
1538:
1525:
1513:
1491:
1464:(8): 822–828.
1447:
1425:
1413:
1388:
1371:
1268:(18): 186601.
1252:
1243:
1234:
1221:
1202:
1192:
1183:
1176:
1156:
1118:
1109:
1068:
1046:
1009:(8): 796–801.
986:
949:(9): 577–582.
929:
895:
868:(5): 515–522.
845:
810:
774:
752:
735:
700:
665:
638:(1): 115–120.
618:
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533:
531:
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353:Main article:
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282:Multi-junction
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276:heterojunction
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73:solar spectrum
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2213:Air transport
2211:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2189:Solar roadway
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2179:Solar vehicle
2177:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2092:Solar charger
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2065:
2061:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1984:Solar tracker
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1935:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1851:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
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1790:
1787:
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1780:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
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1736:
1734:
1731:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1701:Photovoltaics
1699:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1680:Photovoltaics
1674:
1669:
1667:
1662:
1660:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1644:
1640:
1637:
1633:
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1594:
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1569:
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1542:
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1535:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1517:
1514:
1502:
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1487:
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1471:
1467:
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1459:
1451:
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1436:
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1422:
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1414:
1403:on 2022-01-23
1402:
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1375:
1372:
1368:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1329:(5): 865–71.
1328:
1324:
1317:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1276:
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1033:
1028:
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398:Non-oxidizing
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1632:Berkeley Lab
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2030:Fill factor
1969:Solar cable
1944:Solar panel
1865:Solar cells
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785:Nano Energy
203:hydrocarbon
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2115:Solar Tuki
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1694:Technology
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1553:2020-02-06
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530:References
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192:Production
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2184:Solar car
1782:Materials
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710:Physica E
660:1386-9477
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1638:, 2005.
1466:Bibcode
1331:Bibcode
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227:History
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127:voltage
123:current
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