637:. Two images were used to describe it: either as a dome, or as a tent; the latter inspired from biblical references, though the latter is without an evident precedent. As for its composition, just as in cuneiform literature the rabbinic texts describe that the firmament was made out of a solid form of water, not just the conventional liquid water known on the Earth. A different tradition makes an analogy between the creation of the firmament and the curdling of milk into cheese. Another tradition is that a combination of fire and water makes up the heavens. This is somewhat similar to a view attributed to Anaximander, whereby the firmament is made of a mixture of hot and cold (or fire and moisture). Yet another dispute concerned how thick the firmament was. A view attributed to R. Joshua b. R. Nehemiah was that it was extremely thin, no thicker than two or three fingers. Some rabbis compared it to a leaf. On the other hand, some rabbis viewed it as immensely thick. Estimates that it was as thick as a 50 year journey or a 500 year journey were made. Debates on the thickness of the firmament also impacted debates on the path of the sun in its journey as it passes through the firmament through passageways called the "doors" or "windows" of heaven. The number of heavens or firmaments was often given as more than one: sometimes two, but much more commonly, seven. It is unclear whether the notion of the seven heavens is related to earlier near eastern cosmology or the Greek notion of the surrounding of the Earth by seven concentric spheres: one for the sun, one for the moon, and one for each of the five other (known) planets. A range of additional discussions in rabbinic texts surrounding the firmament included those on the upper waters, the movements of the heavenly bodies and the phenomena of precipitation, and more.
684:. Another commonality between the two is in describing the firmament as being decorated by stars. The heavens are analogized to a roof, structure, and edifice without crack or fissure. It is extremely broad and stretched, but it is also constantly broadening. Though there has been some dispute over the exact shape of the Quranic firmament (primarily over whether it is flat or domed), the most recent study by Tabatabaʾi and Mirsadri favors a flat firmament. In addition, there are seven heavens or firmaments and they were made from smoke during the creation week, resembling the view of
467:
401:(the earth god) lay outstretched between the arms and feet of Nut. Nut consumes the celestial bodies from the west and gives birth to them again in the following morning. The stars are inscribed across the belly of Nut and one needs to identify with one of them, or a constellation, in order to join them after death. The fourth model was a flat (or slightly convex) celestial plane which, depending on the text, was thought to be supported in various ways: by pillars, staves, scepters, or mountains at the extreme ends of the Earth. The four supports give rise to the motif of the "
41:
133:
377:
Egyptian texts particularly, these gates also served as conduits between the earthly and heavenly realms for which righteous people could ascend. The gateways could be blocked by gates to prevent entry by the deceased as well. As such, funerary texts included prayers enlisting the help of the gods to enable the safe ascent of the dead. Ascent to the celestial realm could also be done by a celestial ladder made by the gods.
2223:
2508:
311:
633:, though the conception is rooted deeply in the tradition of near eastern cosmology recorded in Hebrew, Akkadian, and Sumerian sources, combined with some additional influences in the newer Greek ideas about the structure of the cosmos and the heavens in particular. The rabbis viewed the heavens to be a solid object spread over the Earth, which was described with the biblical Hebrew word for the firmament,
2568:
2580:
2520:
510:, who proposed a distinction between the material and eternal creations but does not appear to have associated matter or materiality with evil. Under Origen's influence the waters above became associated with the spiritual plane of Christian contemplative exercise and the waters below with the demonic and infernal. The firmament is the boundary between the physical and spiritual worlds.
2532:
2556:
2544:
716:
proposed a cosmology without a firmament: an infinite universe in which the stars are actually suns with their own planetary systems. After
Galileo began using a telescope to examine the sky it became harder to argue that the heavens were perfect, as Aristotelian philosophy required, and by 1630 the
380:
Four different
Egyptian models of the firmament and/or the heavenly realm are known. One model was that it was the shape of a bird: the firmament above represented the underside of a flying falcon, with the sun and moon representing its eyes, and its flapping causing the wind that humans experience.
353:
The two primary structural representations of the firmament was that it was flat and hovering over the Earth, or that it was a dome and entirely enclosed the Earth's surface. Beyond the firmament is the upper waters, above which further still is the divine abode. The gap between heaven and Earth was
563:
struggled with understanding how the waters above the firmament could be held up given the spherical nature of the cosmos: the solution was to be sought in God's dominion over the cosmos, in the same way that God held up the Earth in the middle of the cosmos though it has no support. About this
376:
texts, and from texts across the near east generally, the firmament was described as having special doors or gateways on the eastern and western horizons to allow for the passage of heavenly bodies during their daily journeys. These were known as the windows of heaven or the gates of heaven. In
575:. It made no sense under the explanations of the natural world proposed by Aristotle, recalling the statement from Augustine's literal commentary on Genesis: "Our business now, after all, is to inquire how God's Scriptures say he established things according to their proper natures."
648:
composed around 300 BC. In this text, the sun rises from one of six gates from the east. It crosses the sky and sets into a window through the firmament in the west. The sun then travels behind the firmament back to the other end of the Earth, from whence it could rise again. In the
598:
Whether the firmament was hard/firm or soft/fluid was also up for debate: the notion of a soft or fluid firmament was held until it was challenged in the 13th century by the introduction of the
Aristotelian-Ptolemaic cosmos, a trend that would only culminate in the 16th century.
653:, the heavens are conceived in a tripartite structure and demons are portrayed as being capable of flying up to and past the firmament in order to eavesdrop on the decisions of God. Another example of Jewish literature describing the firmament can be found in
393:. The cow consumed the sun in the evening and rebirthed it in the next morning. The third is a celestial woman, also represented by Nut. The heavenly bodies would travel across her body from east to west. The midriff of Nut was supported by
427:
in the 6th century BC, the early Greek conception of cosmology was closely related to that of near eastern cosmology and envisioned a flat Earth with a solid firmament above the Earth supported by pillars. However, the work of
675:
describes a concrete firmament above the Earth, built by God and lifted up: the firmament is maintained not by any pillars but by God directly maintaining it, in a description resembling that of the Syriac theologian
262:)" and distinguish two main uses: 1. "(flat) expanse (as if of ice), as base, support", and 2. "the vault of heaven, or 'firmament,' regarded by Hebrews as solid and supporting 'waters' above it." A related noun,
700:
placed the Sun at the center of the system he included an outer sphere that held the stars (and by having the earth rotate daily on its axis it allowed the firmament to be completely stationary).
547:
would distinguish between the waters below the firmament and the waters above the firmament. This involved the spiritual interpretation of the upper waters. In this, he was followed by
557:(perhaps his least studied work) Augustine wrote: "only God knows how and why are there, but we cannot deny the authority of Holy Scripture which is greater than our understanding".
532:
the firmament is depicted as spherical or domed with a flat underside that formed a pocket or membrane in which the waters were held. Not all of the Church fathers followed Origen.
350:. Between these two main sources, there is a fundamental agreement in the cosmological models pronounced: this included a flat and likely disk-shaped world with a solid firmament.
358:
and these supported stairways that allowed gods to descend into the Earth from the heavenly realm. A Babylonian clay tablet from the 6th century BC illustrates a world map.
1624:"Maintenir le ciel en l'air " sans colonnes visibles " et quelques autres motifs de la creatio continua selon le Coran en dialogue avec les homélies de Jacques de Saroug"
882:
448:
ushered in the notions of a spherical Earth and an Earth floating in the center of the cosmos as opposed to resting on a body of water. This picture was
152:
2615:
2620:
2605:
2123:
2100:
2043:
2021:
1999:
1980:
1949:
1825:
1795:
1776:
1660:
1206:
The
Reception and Interpretation of the Bible in Late Antiquity: Proceedings of the Montréal Colloquium in Honour of Charles Kannengiesser
2630:
2168:
513:
Origen's model of two heavens was followed by later writers who kept the concept of a spiritual and immaterial heaven of the first day (
2326:
2081:
841:
281:
means that which is firmly hammered, stamped (a word of the same root in
Phoenecian means "tin dish"!). The meaning of the verb
529:
323:
165:
161:
61:
466:
185:
157:
2498:
2610:
1609:
681:
255:
2140:
528:, including that it had been made out of air, out of the four elements, or out of a yet-distinct fifth element. In the
2270:
2115:
712:
were the first major challenges to the idea that orbs existed as solid, incorruptible, material objects, and in 1584
696:
The model established by
Aristotle became the dominant model in the Classical and Medieval world-view, and even when
2600:
2282:
1596:
874:
420:
339:
99:
2625:
2382:
640:
The firmament also appears in non-rabbinic Jewish literature, such as in the cosmogonic views represented in the
402:
270:), found in Numbers 16.38 (Hebrew numbering 17.3), refers to the process of hammering metal into sheets.
1809:
2485:
2418:
382:
40:
2319:
2299:
2161:
1614:
1604:
2265:
2031:
1813:
285:
concerns the hammering of the vault of heaven into firmness (Isa. 42.5; Ps.136.6). The
Vulgate translates
31:
587:(who offered that the location of the waters as recorded by Moses could only be explained by a miracle),
2304:
2074:
Ancient Near
Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible
1219:
Lemay, Helen
Rodnite (1977). "Science and Theology at Chartres: The Case of the Supracelestial Waters".
592:
553:
475:
433:
414:
1882:
Tabatabaʾi, Mohammad Ali; Mirsadri, Saida (2016). "The Qurʾānic
Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself".
2478:
1600:
650:
548:
503:
114:
2524:
2467:
2309:
2251:
630:
611:) in the midst of the waters so should be interpreted as having the firmness of crystalline stone (
588:
507:
1177:
132:
2560:
2397:
2154:
1937:
1732:
1710:
584:
580:
544:
394:
367:
73:
2332:
2119:
2096:
2077:
2039:
2017:
1995:
1976:
1945:
1845:
1821:
1791:
1772:
1656:
774:
750:
685:
666:
537:
437:
230:
110:
1960:
1766:
2536:
2462:
2338:
1964:
1891:
1744:
1702:
1228:
1173:
1167:
732:
624:
533:
449:
331:
2572:
2314:
2177:
2053:
1903:
1805:
677:
271:
217:
77:
2584:
2246:
2222:
2069:
756:
713:
705:
543:
Appealing to a Platonic division between base matter and heavenly or spiritual matter,
525:
479:
347:
1641:
Creation and Contemplation The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background
747: – Pseudoscientific attempt to reconcile geology with the Genesis flood narrative
2594:
837:
762:
744:
709:
645:
629:
A distinctive collection of ideas about the cosmos were drawn up and recorded in the
579:
engaged in the pursuit of applying natural science to illuminate the sacred included
576:
386:
373:
310:
2548:
2512:
2472:
2434:
2411:
2404:
2389:
1648:
738:
44:
An artist's depiction of the early Hebrew conception of the cosmos. The firmament (
170:
2291:
2259:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2009:
701:
572:
429:
2567:
1992:
Heaven and Earth in Ancient Greek Cosmology: From Thales to Heraclides Ponticus
603:
reasoned that the waters might be held in place if they were frozen solid: the
571:
The debate about the waters being located above the heavens continued into the
2579:
1895:
1232:
697:
654:
487:
461:
203:
1748:
109:
The concept was adopted into the subsequent Classical and Medieval models of
2519:
2061:
1911:
768:
641:
441:
327:
254:), meaning "to beat or spread out thinly". The Hebrew lexicographers
1942:
Creation, Un-Creation, Re-Creation: A Discursive Commentary on Genesis 1–11
1589:
The Heavenlies in Ephesians: A Lexical, Exegetical, and Conceptual Analysis
1846:""The Heavens Proclaim the Glory of God..." A Study in Rabbinic Cosmology"
568:
wrote: "Wise men of the world say that water cannot be over the heavens".
355:
2093:
The Lost World of Adam and Eve: Genesis 2-3 and the Human Origins Debate
1837:
In the Path of the Moon: Babylonian Celestial Divination and Its Legacy
1714:
1690:
765: – Outermost moving sphere in the geocentric model of the universe
759: – Ancient Egyptian personification of the primordial watery abyss
565:
560:
445:
424:
228:), used for example in Genesis 1.6, where it is contrasted with
175:
150:
In English, the word "firmament" is recorded as early as 1250, in the
17:
2351:
2241:
499:
390:
343:
239:
191:
179:
125:
1706:
1623:
1466:
1464:
524:
Various views on the materiality of the firmament emerged among the
482:
and the Latin inscription "Where God divides waters from the waters"
2543:
2356:
901:
899:
672:
474:
between the waters above and below, anthropomorphic depictions of
465:
335:
314:
The sun, planets and angels and the firmament. Woodcut dated 1475.
309:
131:
103:
72:
that separated the heavenly waters above from the Earth below. In
53:
49:
39:
385:. The cosmos is a giant celestial cow represented by the goddess
106:
into upper and lower portions so that the dry land could appear.
2439:
726:
600:
91:
2150:
206:, the Greek translation made by Jewish scholars around 200 BC.
2444:
2361:
2237:
1691:"The Sun at Night and the Doors of Heaven in Babylonian Texts"
1149:
1147:
1145:
952:
950:
490:
interpreters was in understanding the distinction between the
398:
258:
gloss the noun with "extended surface, (solid) expanse (as if
119:
95:
2146:
2036:
When the Gods Were Born: Greek Cosmogonies and the Near East
2014:
Creation and Cosmology: A Historical and Comparative Inquiry
1733:"The enigma of the five heavens and early Jewish cosmology"
1192:
The Making of Orthodoxy: Essays in Honour of Henry Chadwick
1853:
Bekhol Derakhekha Daehu–Journal of Torah and Scholarship
1653:
Planets, Stars, and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200-1687
1299:
The Unmaking of the Medieval Christian Cosmos, 1500–1760
1553:
1551:
753: – Dwelling place of God and other heavenly beings
2496:
1961:"Creatio ex Nihilo in the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible"
540:'s "strong tone of criticsm" of Origen's teaching.
452:
and represented the cosmos as a whole as spherical.
115:
advances in astronomy in the 16th and 17th centuries
2455:
2427:
2375:
2290:
2281:
2230:
2185:
1194:. Cambridge University Press. 2002. pp. 69–70.
419:Prior to the systematic study of the cosmos by the
1506:
1470:
1169:Journey Back to God: Origen on the Problem of Evil
1610:A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament
905:
861:
440:, followed by classical Greek theoreticians like
197:
196:), also meaning a solid or firm structure (Greek
183:
735: – Chinese theological conception of Heaven
607:(heaven of the celestial bodies) was made firm (
330:literature such as the Babylonian creation myth
1973:: Origins, Development, Contemporary Challenges
1672:First Century Gnosticism: Its Origin and Motifs
1272:Philosophy and Theology in the Late Middle Ages
470:Panel from the Tapís de la Creació showing the
276:
1866:Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary
1221:The British Journal for the History of Science
729: – Primeval sea in Mesopotamian mythology
717:concept of solid orbs was no longer dominant.
2162:
1395:
1383:
1371:
1359:
1347:
1335:
1323:
1311:
1088:
1076:
956:
8:
1573:(On the Infinite Universe and Worlds), 1584.
779: – The primordial in Chinese philosophy
1818:Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament
1737:Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha
2287:
2169:
2155:
2147:
1542:
1518:
1482:
1455:
941:
875:"Lexicon Results Strong's H7549 – raqiya'"
812:
342:as well as some passing references in the
153:Middle English Story of Genesis and Exodus
1994:. Springer Science & Business Media.
1768:Heaven and earth in the Gospel of Matthew
1284:
1178:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199841141.003.0004
1136:
1112:
1100:
838:"Online Etymology Dictionary – Firmament"
1245:
1153:
1124:
929:
824:
800:
2503:
1431:
992:
917:
793:
1530:
1443:
1419:
1407:
1064:
1052:
1040:
1028:
1016:
1004:
968:
293:, and that remains the best rendering.
1682:The Globe: How the Earth Became Round
1557:
1494:
980:
771: – Deity associated with the sky
117:. Today it is known as a synonym for
27:Solid dome dividing the primal waters
7:
2112:Creation Stories of the Middle East
81:
1875:The Hebrew Conception of the World
506:of the Hellenistic Jewish scholar
25:
494:created on the first day and the
381:The second was a cow, as per the
178:(4th century). This in turn is a
2578:
2566:
2554:
2542:
2530:
2518:
2506:
2221:
1944:. T&T Clarke International.
1765:Pennington, Jonathan T. (2007).
644:. A prominent example is in the
2616:Vulgate Latin words and phrases
906:Brown, Driver & Briggs 1906
885:from the original on 2011-11-03
862:Brown, Driver & Briggs 1906
844:from the original on 2012-10-18
530:Hexaemeron of Basil of Caesarea
202:= rigid), which appears in the
2621:Ancient near eastern cosmology
1873:Stadelmann, Luis I.J. (1970).
1756:Lieber, Laura Suzanne (2022).
1655:. Cambridge University Press.
1571:De l'infinito universo e mondi
1507:Tabatabaʾi & Mirsadri 2016
1471:Tabatabaʾi & Mirsadri 2016
1259:The Waters Above the Firmament
319:Ancient near eastern cosmology
216:These words all translate the
62:ancient near eastern cosmology
1:
1868:. Princeton University Press.
1844:Simon-Shoshan, Moshe (2008).
1724:Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography
1274:. Brill. 2011. p. 44-46.
517:) and the corporeal/sidereal
174:(a firm object), used in the
2606:Obsolete scientific theories
2038:. Harvard University Press.
1975:. University of Notre Dame.
1959:Clifford, Richard J (2017).
1835:Rochberg, Francesca (2010).
1695:Journal of Cuneiform Studies
192:
160:. The same word is found in
2116:Jessica Kingsley Publishers
1921:The Early History of Heaven
1877:. Biblical Institute Press.
1816:; Ringgren, Helmer (eds.).
1639:Decharneux, Julien (2023).
1622:Decharneux, Julien (2019).
1208:. Brill. 2008. p. 512.
498:created in the second day.
156:. It later appeared in the
2647:
2631:Genesis creation narrative
1923:. Oxford University Press.
1919:Wright, Edward J. (2000).
1758:Classical Samaritan Poetry
1689:Heimpel, Wolfgang (1986).
1297:Randles, W. G. L. (1999).
1166:Scott, Mark S. M. (2012).
741: – Mythological motif
664:
622:
459:
412:
365:
340:Genesis creation narrative
198:
184:
100:Genesis creation narrative
29:
2219:
1990:Couprie, Dirk L. (2011).
1896:10.1163/15700585-12341398
1731:Kulik, Alexander (2019).
1670:van Groningen, G (1967).
1587:Brannon, M. Jeff (2011).
1233:10.1017/S0007087400015673
403:four corners of the world
267:
251:
238:), translated as "
235:
225:
166:German Bible translations
82:
2486:Apollo 8 Genesis reading
2419:Be fruitful and multiply
2327:Framework interpretation
2110:Wasilewska, Ewa (2000).
2091:Walton, John H. (2015).
1963:. In Anderson, Gary A.;
1786:Rasmussen, Adam (2019).
1749:10.1177/0951820719861900
1722:Horowitz, Wayne (1998).
1591:. Bloomsbury Publishing.
383:Book of the Heavenly Cow
326:is primarily known from
256:Brown, Driver and Briggs
30:For the video game, see
2320:Progressive creationism
2300:Young Earth creationism
1864:Sinai, Nicolai (2023).
1814:Botterweck, G. Johannes
1615:Oxford University Press
113:, but was dropped with
2393:(original translation)
2095:. InterVarsity Press.
1680:Hannam, James (2023).
577:Scholastic theologians
483:
324:Near eastern cosmology
315:
303:
246:derives from the root
137:
57:
2405:According to its kind
2305:Old Earth creationism
2058:Genesis: A Commentary
1908:Genesis: A Commentary
593:Philip the Chancellor
554:De Genesi ad litteram
469:
460:Further information:
415:Early Greek cosmology
409:Early Greek cosmology
338:: in particular, the
313:
135:
43:
2271:Christian conception
2252:Christian conception
2032:López-Ruiz, Carolina
1007:, p. 19, 33–34.
651:Testament of Solomon
549:John Scotus Eriugena
504:cosmological dualism
90:) is the vast solid
2611:Christian cosmology
2310:Day-age creationism
2141:The Vault of Heaven
1938:Blenkinsopp, Joseph
1172:. Oxford Academic.
631:rabbinic literature
613:cristallini Iapidis
589:William of Auvergne
508:Philo of Alexandria
456:Patristic cosmology
136:Firmament cosmology
2398:Let there be light
2076:. Baker Academic.
1788:Genesis and Cosmos
1628:Oriens Christianus
1605:Briggs, Charles A.
1545:, p. 128–129.
1521:, p. 185–193.
1509:, p. 218–233.
1497:, p. 413–414.
1458:, p. 180–185.
1446:, p. 137–138.
1410:, p. 150–151.
1396:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1384:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1372:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1360:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1348:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1336:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1324:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1312:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1248:, p. 349–350.
1156:, p. 350–353.
1089:van Groningen 1967
1077:Simon-Shoshan 2008
995:, p. 132–140.
957:Simon-Shoshan 2008
704:'s studies of the
585:William of Auxerre
581:Alexander of Hales
545:Augustine of Hippo
484:
397:(the air god) and
368:Egyptian cosmology
362:Egyptian cosmology
316:
242:" in Genesis 1.1.
138:
74:biblical cosmology
58:
2601:Ancient astronomy
2494:
2493:
2468:Parashat Bereshit
2347:
2346:
2333:Creatio ex nihilo
2266:Jewish conception
2247:Jewish conception
2125:978-1-85302-681-2
2102:978-0-8308-9771-1
2045:978-0-674-04946-8
2023:978-90-04-37807-0
2001:978-1-4419-8116-5
1982:978-0-268-10256-2
1965:Bockmuehl, Markus
1951:978-0-567-57455-8
1827:978-0-8028-2330-4
1797:978-90-04-39693-7
1778:978-90-04-16205-1
1684:. Reaktion Books.
1662:978-0-521-56509-7
1257:Boccaletti Dino,
879:Blue Letter Bible
751:Heaven in Judaism
686:Basil of Caesarea
667:Quranic cosmology
661:Quranic cosmology
538:Basil of Caesarea
168:, all from Latin
76:, the firmament (
70:celestial barrier
16:(Redirected from
2638:
2626:Jewish cosmology
2583:
2582:
2571:
2570:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2547:
2546:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2523:
2522:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2502:
2463:Primeval history
2383:In the beginning
2339:Special creation
2288:
2225:
2171:
2164:
2157:
2148:
2129:
2106:
2087:
2065:
2054:von Rad, Gerhard
2049:
2027:
2005:
1986:
1955:
1924:
1915:
1904:von Rad, Gerhard
1899:
1890:(3–4): 201–234.
1878:
1869:
1860:
1850:
1840:
1831:
1806:Ringgren, Helmer
1801:
1782:
1761:
1752:
1727:
1718:
1685:
1675:
1666:
1644:
1635:
1618:
1592:
1574:
1569:Giordano Bruno,
1567:
1561:
1555:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
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1468:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1405:
1399:
1398:, p. 88–96.
1393:
1387:
1386:, p. 81–88.
1381:
1375:
1374:, p. 80–81.
1369:
1363:
1362:, p. 77–80.
1357:
1351:
1350:, p. 75–77.
1345:
1339:
1338:, p. 72–75.
1333:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1268:
1262:
1255:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1236:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1188:
1182:
1181:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1140:
1134:
1128:
1122:
1116:
1110:
1104:
1103:, p. 118-9.
1098:
1092:
1086:
1080:
1079:, p. 70–71.
1074:
1068:
1067:, p. 10–16.
1062:
1056:
1050:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1020:
1014:
1008:
1002:
996:
990:
984:
978:
972:
971:, p. 19–20.
966:
960:
954:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
909:
903:
894:
893:
891:
890:
871:
865:
859:
853:
852:
850:
849:
834:
828:
822:
816:
810:
804:
798:
733:Chinese theology
692:Modern cosmology
625:Jewish cosmology
619:Jewish cosmology
534:Manlio Simonetti
486:One problem for
374:ancient Egyptian
301:
298:Gerhard von Rad
269:
253:
237:
227:
201:
200:
195:
189:
188:
158:King James Bible
111:heavenly spheres
102:to separate the
86:
84:
21:
2646:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2636:
2635:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2577:
2565:
2555:
2553:
2541:
2531:
2529:
2517:
2507:
2505:
2497:
2495:
2490:
2451:
2423:
2371:
2343:
2315:Gap creationism
2277:
2226:
2217:
2181:
2175:
2137:
2132:
2126:
2109:
2103:
2090:
2084:
2070:Walton, John H.
2068:
2052:
2046:
2030:
2024:
2008:
2002:
1989:
1983:
1958:
1952:
1936:
1932:
1930:Further reading
1927:
1918:
1902:
1881:
1872:
1863:
1848:
1843:
1834:
1828:
1804:
1798:
1785:
1779:
1764:
1755:
1730:
1721:
1707:10.2307/1359796
1688:
1679:
1669:
1663:
1647:
1638:
1621:
1595:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1568:
1564:
1556:
1549:
1543:Decharneux 2023
1541:
1537:
1529:
1525:
1519:Decharneux 2023
1517:
1513:
1505:
1501:
1493:
1489:
1483:Decharneux 2019
1481:
1477:
1469:
1462:
1456:Decharneux 2023
1454:
1450:
1442:
1438:
1430:
1426:
1418:
1414:
1406:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1382:
1378:
1370:
1366:
1358:
1354:
1346:
1342:
1334:
1330:
1322:
1318:
1310:
1306:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1256:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1190:
1189:
1185:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1152:
1143:
1135:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1111:
1107:
1099:
1095:
1087:
1083:
1075:
1071:
1063:
1059:
1055:, p. 8–10.
1051:
1047:
1039:
1035:
1027:
1023:
1015:
1011:
1003:
999:
991:
987:
979:
975:
967:
963:
955:
948:
942:Stadelmann 1970
940:
936:
928:
924:
916:
912:
904:
897:
888:
886:
873:
872:
868:
860:
856:
847:
845:
836:
835:
831:
823:
819:
813:Pennington 2007
811:
807:
799:
795:
791:
786:
723:
694:
678:Jacob of Serugh
669:
663:
627:
621:
464:
458:
423:in the city of
417:
411:
370:
364:
321:
308:
302:
297:
272:Gerhard von Rad
218:Biblical Hebrew
214:
148:
143:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2644:
2642:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2593:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2575:
2563:
2551:
2539:
2527:
2515:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2415:
2408:
2401:
2394:
2386:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2336:
2329:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2302:
2296:
2294:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2268:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2234:
2232:
2231:Divine figures
2228:
2227:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2166:
2159:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2136:
2135:External links
2133:
2131:
2130:
2124:
2107:
2101:
2088:
2082:
2066:
2050:
2044:
2028:
2022:
2006:
2000:
1987:
1981:
1956:
1950:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1925:
1916:
1900:
1879:
1870:
1861:
1841:
1832:
1826:
1802:
1796:
1783:
1777:
1762:
1760:. Eisenbrauns.
1753:
1743:(4): 239–266.
1728:
1726:. Eisenbrauns.
1719:
1701:(2): 127–151.
1686:
1677:
1667:
1661:
1645:
1636:
1619:
1597:Brown, Francis
1593:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1575:
1562:
1560:, p. 349.
1547:
1535:
1533:, p. 184.
1523:
1511:
1499:
1487:
1475:
1473:, p. 209.
1460:
1448:
1436:
1434:, p. 196.
1424:
1422:, p. 149.
1412:
1400:
1388:
1376:
1364:
1352:
1340:
1328:
1316:
1304:
1289:
1287:, p. 119.
1285:Rasmussen 2019
1277:
1263:
1250:
1238:
1227:(3): 226–236.
1211:
1197:
1183:
1158:
1141:
1139:, p. 120.
1137:Rasmussen 2019
1129:
1127:, p. 349.
1117:
1115:, p. 121.
1113:Rasmussen 2019
1105:
1101:Rasmussen 2019
1093:
1081:
1069:
1057:
1045:
1043:, p. 7–8.
1033:
1031:, p. 6–7.
1021:
1009:
997:
985:
983:, p. 243.
973:
961:
946:
934:
922:
910:
908:, p. 956.
895:
866:
864:, p. 955.
854:
829:
817:
805:
803:, p. 344.
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
781:
780:
772:
766:
760:
754:
748:
742:
736:
730:
722:
719:
714:Giordano Bruno
693:
690:
682:his Hexaemeron
665:Main article:
662:
659:
623:Main article:
620:
617:
605:siderum caelum
526:Church Fathers
457:
454:
413:Main article:
410:
407:
366:Main article:
363:
360:
348:Book of Isaiah
320:
317:
307:
304:
295:
213:
208:
147:
144:
142:
139:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2643:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2562:
2552:
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2528:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2514:
2504:
2500:
2487:
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2476:
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2399:
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2378:
2374:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2280:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2260:Spirit of God
2257:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2172:
2167:
2165:
2160:
2158:
2153:
2152:
2149:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2127:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2108:
2104:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2083:0-8010-2750-0
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1774:
1770:
1769:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1649:Grant, Edward
1646:
1643:. De Gruyter.
1642:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1572:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1512:
1508:
1503:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1368:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1329:
1326:, p. 72.
1325:
1320:
1317:
1314:, p. 69.
1313:
1308:
1305:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1281:
1278:
1273:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1254:
1251:
1247:
1246:Rochberg 2010
1242:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1212:
1207:
1201:
1198:
1193:
1187:
1184:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1162:
1159:
1155:
1154:Rochberg 2010
1150:
1148:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1133:
1130:
1126:
1125:Rochberg 2010
1121:
1118:
1114:
1109:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1094:
1091:, p. 67.
1090:
1085:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1025:
1022:
1019:, p. 22.
1018:
1013:
1010:
1006:
1001:
998:
994:
989:
986:
982:
977:
974:
970:
965:
962:
959:, p. 70.
958:
953:
951:
947:
943:
938:
935:
931:
930:Horowitz 1998
926:
923:
920:, p. 53.
919:
914:
911:
907:
902:
900:
896:
884:
880:
876:
870:
867:
863:
858:
855:
843:
839:
833:
830:
827:, p. 92.
826:
825:Ringgren 1990
821:
818:
815:, p. 42.
814:
809:
806:
802:
801:Rochberg 2010
797:
794:
788:
783:
778:
777:
773:
770:
767:
764:
763:Primum Mobile
761:
758:
755:
752:
749:
746:
745:Flood geology
743:
740:
737:
734:
731:
728:
725:
724:
720:
718:
715:
711:
710:Comet of 1577
707:
703:
699:
691:
689:
687:
683:
679:
674:
668:
660:
658:
656:
652:
647:
646:Book of Enoch
643:
638:
636:
632:
626:
618:
616:
614:
610:
606:
602:
596:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
569:
567:
562:
558:
556:
555:
550:
546:
541:
539:
535:
531:
527:
522:
520:
516:
511:
509:
505:
502:followed the
501:
497:
493:
489:
481:
477:
473:
468:
463:
455:
453:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
426:
422:
421:Ionian School
416:
408:
406:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
378:
375:
369:
361:
359:
357:
351:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
318:
312:
305:
300:
294:
292:
288:
284:
280:
275:
273:
265:
261:
257:
249:
245:
241:
233:
232:
223:
219:
212:
209:
207:
205:
194:
187:
182:of the Greek
181:
177:
173:
172:
167:
163:
159:
155:
154:
145:
140:
134:
130:
128:
127:
122:
121:
116:
112:
107:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
56:are depicted.
55:
51:
47:
42:
36:
34:
19:
2525:Christianity
2479:The Creation
2477:
2473:Cosmic ocean
2435:Adam and Eve
2412:Image of God
2390:Tohu wa-bohu
2388:
2366:
2331:
2186:Noted verses
2111:
2092:
2073:
2057:
2035:
2013:
1991:
1972:
1968:
1941:
1920:
1907:
1887:
1883:
1874:
1865:
1856:
1852:
1836:
1820:. Eerdmans.
1817:
1787:
1767:
1757:
1740:
1736:
1723:
1698:
1694:
1681:
1676:</ref>
1671:
1652:
1640:
1631:
1627:
1608:
1601:Driver, S.R.
1588:
1570:
1565:
1538:
1526:
1514:
1502:
1490:
1478:
1451:
1439:
1432:Brannon 2011
1427:
1415:
1403:
1391:
1379:
1367:
1355:
1343:
1331:
1319:
1307:
1301:. Routledge.
1298:
1292:
1280:
1271:
1266:
1258:
1253:
1241:
1224:
1220:
1214:
1205:
1200:
1191:
1186:
1168:
1161:
1132:
1120:
1108:
1096:
1084:
1072:
1060:
1048:
1036:
1024:
1012:
1000:
993:Heimpel 1986
988:
976:
964:
937:
925:
918:von Rad 1961
913:
887:. Retrieved
878:
869:
857:
846:. Retrieved
832:
820:
808:
796:
775:
739:Cosmic ocean
706:nova of 1572
695:
670:
639:
634:
628:
612:
608:
604:
597:
570:
559:
552:
542:
523:
518:
514:
512:
495:
491:
485:
471:
418:
379:
371:
352:
322:
299:
290:
286:
282:
278:
277:
263:
259:
247:
243:
229:
221:
215:
210:
169:
151:
149:
124:
118:
108:
87:
69:
65:
59:
45:
35:(video game)
32:
2561:Outer space
2292:Creationism
2193:Genesis 1:1
2010:James, E.O.
1531:Hannam 2023
1444:Lieber 2022
1420:Hannam 2023
1408:Hannam 2023
1261:, p.36 2020
1065:Wright 2000
1053:Wright 2000
1041:Wright 2000
1029:Wright 2000
1017:Wright 2000
1005:Wright 2000
969:Hannam 2023
702:Tycho Brahe
573:Middle Ages
519:firmamentum
472:firmamentum
430:Anaximander
354:bridged by
291:firmamentum
171:firmamentum
98:during the
94:created by
2595:Categories
2428:Characters
2060:. London:
1910:. London:
1634:: 237–267.
1613:. Oxford:
1558:Grant 1996
1495:Sinai 2023
981:Kulik 2019
889:2009-12-04
848:2010-10-25
784:References
698:Copernicus
462:Hexaemeron
450:geocentric
434:Anaximenes
332:Enūma Eliš
274:explains:
260:beaten out
204:Septuagint
104:primal sea
2537:Astronomy
2367:Firmament
2062:SCM Press
2016:. Brill.
1971:ex nihilo
1969:Creation
1912:SCM Press
1790:. Brill.
1771:. Brill.
789:Citations
769:Sky deity
657:poetry.
655:Samaritan
642:apocrypha
496:firmament
488:Christian
442:Aristotle
356:ziggurats
328:cuneiform
240:heaven(s)
146:Firmament
141:Etymology
66:firmament
33:Firmament
2573:Language
2283:Creation
2072:(2006).
2056:(1961).
2034:(2010).
2012:(1969).
1967:(eds.).
1940:(2011).
1906:(1961).
1859:: 67–96.
1839:. Brill.
1808:(1990).
1674:. Brill.
1651:(1996).
1607:(1906).
883:Archived
842:Archived
721:See also
708:and the
609:firmatum
346:and the
334:and the
296:—
268:רִקּוּעַ
236:שָׁמַיִם
231:shamayim
226:רָקִ֫יעַ
193:steréōma
186:στερέωμᾰ
83:רָקִ֫יעַ
68:means a
2585:Society
2499:Portals
2456:Related
2376:Phrases
2178:Genesis
1884:Arabica
1715:1359796
1580:Sources
566:Ambrose
561:Ambrose
446:Ptolemy
425:Miletus
306:History
264:riqquaʿ
199:στερεός
176:Vulgate
85:
2352:Heaven
2242:Elohim
2122:
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1998:
1979:
1948:
1824:
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635:raki’a
591:, and
536:noted
515:caelum
500:Origen
492:heaven
438:Thales
436:, and
391:Hathor
344:Psalms
287:rāqīaʿ
279:Rāqīaʿ
244:Rāqīaʿ
222:rāqīaʿ
180:calque
162:French
126:heaven
88:rāqīaʿ
78:Hebrew
64:, the
52:, and
18:Raqiya
2549:Stars
2513:Bible
2482:(art)
2357:Tehom
1849:(PDF)
1812:. In
1810:"Yam"
1711:JSTOR
673:Quran
551:. In
336:Bible
289:with
252:רָקַע
220:word
211:Raqia
54:Tehom
50:Sheol
46:raqia
2440:Adam
2120:ISBN
2097:ISBN
2078:ISBN
2040:ISBN
2018:ISBN
1996:ISBN
1977:ISBN
1946:ISBN
1822:ISBN
1792:ISBN
1773:ISBN
1657:ISBN
776:Wuji
727:Abzu
671:The
601:Bede
480:Luna
478:and
444:and
164:and
92:dome
2445:Eve
2362:Yom
2238:God
1892:doi
1745:doi
1703:doi
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1229:doi
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476:Sol
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395:Shu
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