Research in lithium-ion batteries

1725:. The 1 mm diameter fibers were claimed to be lightweight enough to create weavable and wearable textile batteries. The yarn was capable of storing nearly 71 mAh/g. Lithium manganate (LMO) particles were deposited on a carbon nanotube (CNT) sheet to create a CNT-LMO composite yarn for the cathode. The anode composite yarns sandwiched a CNT sheet between two silicon-coated CNT sheets. When separately rolled up and then wound together separated by a gel electrolyte the two fibers form a battery. They can also be wound onto a polymer fiber, for adding to an existing textile. When silicon fibers charge and discharge, the silicon expands in volume up to 300 percent, damaging the fiber. The CNT layer between the silicon-coated sheet buffered the silicon's volume change and held it in place. 514:. Experiments and multiscale calculations revealed that low-temperature hydrogen treatment of defect-rich graphene can improve rate capacity. The hydrogen interacts with the graphene defects to open gaps to facilitate lithium penetration, improving transport. Additional reversible capacity is provided by enhanced lithium binding near edges, where hydrogen is most likely to bind. Rate capacities increased by 17–43% at 200 mA/g. In 2015, researchers in China used porous graphene as the material for a lithium-ion battery anode in order to increase the specific capacity and binding energy between lithium atoms at the anode. The properties of the battery can be tuned by applying strain. The binding energy increases as biaxial strain is applied. 1828:

battery cells, packs, and modules, but could not detail the steps and specifics. For applications in the real world, the design, form factor, and materials of the existing battery cells, packs, and modules often vary greatly from one another. It is difficult to develop a unified technical procedure. Furthermore, information on the detailed technical procedures applied is usually not available in the open literature, except for Schneider et al. who demonstrated the procedure to refurbish small cylindrical NiMH batteries used in mobile phones, Zhao who published the successful experiences of some grid-oriented applications of electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries in China, and Chung who reported the procedure described in UL 1974 on a LiFePO

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makes morphological control an important variable in its electrochemical cell rate performance. Although the iron analogue is the most commercial owing to its stability, the same composition exists for nickel, manganese, and cobalt although the observed high cell charging voltages and synthetic challenges for these materials make them viable but more difficult to commercialize. While the material has good ionic conductivity it possesses poor intrinsic electronic conductivity. This combination makes nanophase compositions and composites or coatings (to increase electronic conductivity of the whole matrix) with materials such as carbon advantageous. Alternatives to nanoparticles include mesoscale structure such as

1467:"redox center", carbon, and electrolyte. During discharge, the lithium ions plate the cathode with lithium metal and the sulfur is not reduced unless irreversible deep discharge occurs. The thickened cathode is a compact way to store the used lithium. During recharge, this lithium moves back into the glassy electrolyte and eventually plates the anode, which thickens. No dendrites form. The cell has 3 times the energy density of conventional lithium-ion batteries. An extended life of more than 1,200 cycles was demonstrated. The design also allows the substitution of sodium for lithium minimizing lithium environmental issues. 563:

contributes to fast anode degradation is the solid-electrolyte interface (SEI). During the first lithium insertion phase, the SEI forms on the electrode's surface and acts as a massive impediment between the electrode and the electrolyte. Because of this blockage, Lithium-ion conduction is permitted while functioning as an insulator, restricting additional electrolyte breakdown and keeping the lithium-ion battery's cycle performance from gradually declining. Everything from the most fundamental battery performance to the overall efficacy and cyclability of the LIB is influenced by the kind of SEI.

551:. One of silicon's inherent traits, unlike carbon, is the expansion of the lattice structure by as much as 400% upon full lithiation (charging). For bulk electrodes, this causes great structural stress gradients within the expanding material, inevitably leading to fractures and mechanical failure, which significantly limits the lifetime of the silicon anodes. In 2011, a group of researchers assembled data tables that summarized the morphology, composition, and method of preparation of those nanoscale and nanostructured silicon anodes, along with their electrochemical performance. 1824:

suggested. Some retired power batteries still have ~80% of their initial capacity. So they can be repurposed and reused as second-life applications, for instance, to serve the batteries in the energy storage systems. Governments in different countries have acknowledged this emergent problem and prepared to launch their policies to deal with repurposed batteries, such as coding principles, traceability management system, manufacturing factory guidelines, dismantling process guidelines, residual energy measurement, tax credits, rebates, and financial support.

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diffusion distances while increasing the surface area of the current collector. In 2015, researchers announced a solid-state 3-D battery anode using the electroplated copper antimonide (copper foam). The anode is then layered with a solid polymer electrolyte that provides a physical barrier across which ions (but not electrons) can travel. The cathode is an inky slurry. The volumetric energy density was up to twice as much energy conventional batteries. The solid electrolyte prevents dendrite formation.

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materials for the negative electrode. However, along with the desired characteristics from some of the materials, a number of weaknesses have also been shown. For example, although silicon has a theoretical specific capacity that is 10 times higher than graphite, it has low intrinsic electrical conductivity. Current research focuses on engineering materials so that their characteristics are retained and their weaknesses are accommodated.

6807: 128: 66: 25: 1744:. The device can also be used as a supercapacitor. Rapid charging allows supercapacitor-like rapid discharge, while charging with a lower current rate provides slower discharge. It retained 76 percent of its original capacity after 10,000 charge-discharge cycles and 1,000 bending cycles. Energy density was measured at 384 Wh/kg, and power density at 112 kW/kg. 840:. The device achieved a power density of 7.4 W/cm/mm. In 2019, the team develop a high areal and volumetric capacity 3D-structured tin-carbon anode by using a two steps electroplating process, which exhibits a high volumetric/areal capacity of ~879 mAh/cm and 6.59 mAh/cm after 100 cycles at 0.5 °C and 750 mAh/cm and 5.5 mAh/cm (delithiation) at 10 °C with a 20% 819:

analogue. Later work by Vaughey et al., highlighted the utility of electrodeposition of electroactive metals on copper foams to create thin film intermetallic anodes. These porous anodes have high power in addition to higher stability as the porous open nature of the electrode allows for space to absorb some of the volume expansion. In 2011, researchers at

371:. This material inserted approximately 3.5Li per formula unit (about 125 mAh/g) at a voltage near 1.3 V (vs Li). This lower voltage (compared to titantes) is useful in systems where higher energy density is desirable without significant SEI formation as it operates above the typical electrolyte breakdown voltage. A high rate titanium niobate (TiNb 768:

process to fill the two crystallographic vacancies in the lattice, at the same time as the 0.2 extra coppers are displaced to the grain boundaries. Efforts to charge compensate the main group metal lattice to remove the excess copper have had limited success. Although significant retention of structure is noted down to the ternary lithium compound Li

1157:. The mechanism for the high capacity and the gradual voltage fade has been extensively examined. It is generally believed the high-voltage activation step induces various cation defects that on cycling equilibrate through the lithium-layer sites to a lower energy state that exhibits a lower cell voltage but with a similar capacity,. 1343:) have garnered recent interest as conversion-type cathode materials due to their high theoretical gravimetric energy densities and specific capacities, 571 mAh g and 712 mAh g respectively. This high energy density and capacity derives from iron fluorides’ ability to transfer 2-3 electrons per Fe atom per reaction. 250:. Graphite anodes are limited to a theoretical capacity of 372 mAh/g for their fully lithiated state. At this time, significant other types of lithium-ion battery anode materials have been proposed and evaluated as alternatives to graphite, especially in cases where niche applications require novel approaches. 781:

as copper, has been shown to reduce stress. As for low dimensional applications, thin films have been produced with discharge capacities of 1127 mAhg with excess capacity assigned to lithium ion storage at grain boundaries and associated with defect sites. Other approaches include making nanocomposites with Cu

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Chadha, Utkarsh; Hafiz, Mohammed; Bhardwaj, Preetam; Padmanaban, Sanjeevikumar; Sinha, Sanyukta; Hariharan, Sai; Kabra, Dikshita; Venkatarangan, Vishal; Khanna, Mayank; Selvaraj, Senthil Kumaran; Banavoth, Murali; Sonar, Prashant; Badoni, Badrish; R, Vimala (November 2022). "Theoretical progresses in

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A third approach produced rechargeable batteries that can be printed cheaply on commonly used industrial screen printers. The batteries used a zinc charge carrier with a solid polymer electrolyte that prevents dendrite formation and provides greater stability. The device survived 1,000 bending cycles

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cathodes., These high-capacity high-voltage materials consist of nanodomains of the two structurally similar but different materials. On first charge, noted by its long plateau around 4.5 V (vs Li), the activation step creates a structure that gradually equilibrates to a more stable materials by

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Conventional lithium-ion cells use binders to hold together the active material and keep it in contact with the current collectors. These inactive materials make the battery bigger and heavier. Experimental binderless batteries do not scale because their active materials can be produced only in small

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vapors. The nanofibers contain 10 nm diameter nanopores on their surface. Along with additional gaps in the fiber network, these allow for silicon to expand without damaging the cell. Three other factors reduce expansion: a 1 nm shell of silicon dioxide; a second carbon coating that creates

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The Si@void@C(N) electrode was tested to be capable of ultrafast charging and durability over 1000 cycles, the specific capacity maintained high levels (~800 mAh g) even at very high current densities (up to 8 A g). No lithium plating was observed for the Si@void@C(N) electrode even after 1000 cycles

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Tang, Yuxin; Rui, Xianhong; Zhang, Yanyan; Lim, Tuti Mariana; Dong, Zhili; Hng, Huey Hoon; Chen, Xiaodong; Yan, Qingyu; Chen, Zhong (2013). "Vanadium pentoxide cathode materials for high-performance lithium-ion batteries enabled by a hierarchical nanoflower structure via an electrochemical process".

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to learn that in conventional devices each increment of charge is absorbed by a single or a small number of particles until they are charged, then moves on. By distributing charge/discharge circuitry throughout the electrode, heating and degradation could be reduced while allowing much greater power

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electrolyte of lithium, oxygen, and chlorine ions doped with barium, a lithium metal anode, and a composite cathode in contact with a copper substrate. A spring behind the copper cathode substrate holds the layers together as the electrodes change thickness. The cathode comprises particles of sulfur

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with borate compounds at 900 C and quickly cooled the melt to form glass. The resulting paper-thin sheets were then crushed into a powder to increase their surface area. The powder was coated with reduced graphite oxide (RGO) to increase conductivity while protecting the electrode. The coated powder

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Researchers have taken various approaches to improving performance and other characteristics by using nanostructured materials. One strategy is to increase electrode surface area. Another strategy is to reduce the distance between electrodes to reduce transport distances. Yet another strategy is to

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and consists of a three dimensional lattice of an framework surrounding a lithium cation. The lithium cation sits in a one dimensional channel along the axis of the crystal structure. This alignment yields anisotropic ionic conductivity that has implications for its usage as a battery cathode and

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introduced a battery with double the energy density while only taking 15 minutes for an 80% charge. They used a nanostructured vanadium oxide, which is able to load two to three times more lithium ions onto the cathode than the layered lithium cobalt oxide. In 2013 researchers announced a synthesis

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and elemental copper. This complete lithiation is accompanied by volume expansion of approximately 250%. Current research focuses on investigating alloying and low dimensional geometries to mitigate mechanical stress during lithiation. Alloying tin with elements that do not react with lithium, such

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As for oxide intercalation (or insertion) anode materials, similar classes of materials where the lithium cation is inserted into crystallographic vacancies within a metal host lattice have been discovered and studied since 1997. In general because of the metallic lattice, these types of materials,

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developed a large-scale and low-cost approach for synthesizing Si/Cu nanowires. Firstly, Si/Cu/Zn ternary microspheres are prepared by a pulsed electrical discharging method in a scalable manner, and then Zn and partial Si in the microspheres was partially removed by chemical etching to form Si/Cu

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Porous silicon nanoparticles are more reactive than bulk silicon materials and tend to have a higher weight percentage of silica as a result of the smaller size. Porous materials allow for internal volume expansion to help control overall materials expansion. Methods include a silicon anode with an

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Materials that are taken into consideration for the next generation lithium-ion battery (LIBs) negative electrode share common characteristics such as low cost, high theoretical specific capacity, and good electrical conductivity, etc. Carbon- and silicon- based materials have shown to be promising

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While no solid-state batteries have reached the market, multiple groups are researching this alternative. The notion is that solid-state designs are safer because they prevent dendrites from causing short circuits. They also have the potential to substantially increase energy density because their

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cathode to create a battery with 800 mAh/g for 1,000 cycles of charge/discharge, over 5 times the energy density of commercial cathodes. Sulfur is abundant, low cost and has low toxicity. Sulfur has been a promising cathode candidate owing to its high theoretical energy density, over 10 times

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CuSb product. First reported in 2001. In 2011, researchers reported a method to create porous three dimensional electrodes materials based on electrodeposited antimony onto copper foams followed by a low temperature annealing step. It was noted to increase the rate capacity by lowering the lithium

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In 2000, researchers from the Université de Picardie Jules Verne examined the use of nano-sized transition-metal oxides as conversion anode materials. The metals used were cobalt, nickel, copper, and iron, which proved to have capacities of 700 mAh/g and maintain full capacity for 100 cycles.

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Finally, adjusting the geometries of the electrodes, e.g., by interdigitating anode and cathode units variously as rows of anodes and cathodes, alternating anodes and cathodes, hexagonally packed 1:2 anodes:cathodes and alternating anodic and cathodic triangular poles. One electrode can be nested

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found that it is possible to recharge the (conventional) lithium-ion batteries of EV's in under 10 minutes. He did so by heating the battery to 60 °C, recharging it and then cooling if quickly afterwards. This causes only very little damage to the batteries. Professor Wang used a thin nickel

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Another challenge with metal fluoride conversion cathodes includes volume expansion upon cycling. Volume expansion decreases the reversibility of reactions and cycle stability. In addition, volume expansion results in the mechanical fatigue and fracture of the metal/LiF matrix, and can ultimately

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fluorides (TMFs) form a metallic phase within a LiF matrix upon reacting with lithium. TMFs typically display poor electrochemical reversibility, and poor ionic and electronic conductivity. Although researchers are still working to understand the exact electrochemical reaction mechanisms of TMFs,

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Nanoengineered porous electrodes have the advantage of short diffusion distances, room for expansion and contraction, and high activity. In 2006 an example of a three dimensional engineered ceramic oxide based on lithium titanate was reported that had dramatic rate enhancement over the non-porous

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Tests from the Si@void@C microreactors demonstrated high Coulombic Efficiency of 91% during the first lithiation process, which is significantly higher than other reported silicon anodes. The design also enabled high Coulombic Efficiency of 100% after 5 cycles, indicating no discernible SEI layer

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Dr. Leon Shaw’s research group from Illinois Institute of Technology has developed the Si@void@C microreactors which show exceptional test results to be LIBs anode. The process of creating Si@void@C microreactors begins with the production of nanostructured silicon particles through a high-energy

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with no compromise in performance. In superhalogens the vertical electron detachment energies of the moieties that make up the negative ions are larger than those of any halogen atom. The researchers also found that the procedure outlined for Li-ion batteries is equally valid for other metal-ion

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In 2015, researchers worked with a lithium carbon fluoride battery. They incorporated a solid lithium thiophosphate electrolyte wherein the electrolyte and the cathode worked in cooperation, resulting in capacity 26 percent. Under discharge, the electrolyte generates a lithium fluoride salt that

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anode. This scaffold can accommodate the volume change of a high-specific-capacity during operation. And nickel–tin anode is supported by an electrochemically inactive conductive scaffold with an engineered free volume and controlled characteristic dimensions, so the electrode with significantly

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The major obstacle in the commercialization of silicon as anode material for Li-ion battery is higher volumetric changes and formation of SEI. Recent research works have highlighted the strategies for the optimization and maintaining the structural stability of the electrode. Another aspect that

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has become an attractive potential anode material due to its high theoretical specific capacity, resistance against Li metal plating especially when compared to carbon-based anodes, and ambient stability. In this and related NiAs-type materials, lithium intercalation occurs through an insertion

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Standards for second-life applications of retired electric vehicle batteries are still emerging technology. One of the few standards, UL 1974, was published by Underwriters Laboratories (UL). The document gives a general procedure of the safety operations and performance tests on retired power

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The elimination of power batteries made by lithium-ion batteries has largely increased, causing environmental protection threats and waste of resources. About 100-120 GWh of electric vehicle batteries will be retired by 2030. Hence, recycling and reuse of such retired power batteries have been

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In 2016, researchers announced a reversible shutdown system for preventing thermal runaway. The system employed a thermoresponsive polymer switching material. This material consists of electrochemically stable, graphene-coated, spiky nickel nanoparticles in a polymer matrix with a high thermal

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that of metal oxide or phosphate cathodes. However, sulfur's low cycle durability has prevented its commercialization. Graphene oxide coating over sulfur is claimed to solve the cycle durability problem. Graphene oxide high surface area, chemical stability, mechanical strength and flexibility.

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Si intermetallic. Copper nanoparticles were deposited on silicon particles articles, dried, and laminated onto a copper foil. After annealing, the copper nanoparticles annealed to each other and to the copper current collector to produce a porous electrode with a copper binder once the initial

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Lombardo, Teo; Duquesnoy, Marc; El-Bouysidy, Hassna; Årén, Fabian; Gallo-Bueno, Alfonso; Jørgensen, Peter Bjørn; Bhowmik, Arghya; Demortière, Arnaud; Ayerbe, Elixabete; Alcaide, Francisco; Reynaud, Marine; Carrasco, Javier; Grimaud, Alexis; Zhang, Chao; Vegge, Tejs; Johansson, Patrik; Franco,

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anode systems, issues associated with volume expansion (associated with gradual filling of p-orbitals and essential cation insertion), unstable SEI formation, and electronic isolation have been studied in an attempt to commercialize these materials. In 2013, work on morphological variation by

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metal anode as they need a source of lithium to function. While not as common in secondary cell designs, this class is commonly seen in primary batteries that do not require recharging, such as implantable medical device batteries. The second variety are discharged cathodes where the cathode

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metal with little difference between the charge and discharge steps. Specifically the mechanism of insertion involves lithium cations filling crystallographic vacancies in the host lattice with minimal changes to the bonding within the host lattice. This differentiates intercalation negative

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expansion coefficient. Film electrical conductivity at ambient temperature was up to 50 S cm−1. Conductivity decreases within one second by 10-10 at the transition temperature and spontaneously recovers at room temperature. The system offers 10–10x greater sensitivity than previous devices.

1756:), which provides a good metric to compare and contrast all electrode materials. Recently, some of the more promising materials are showing some large volume expansions which need to be considered when engineering devices. Lesser known to this realm of data is the volumetric capacity (mAh/ 877:

reported lithium-ion batteries, where the electroactive solids are stored as pure (i.e. without binders, conductive additives, current collectors) powders in tanks, and washed by liquids with dissolved redox couples, capable of electron exchange with the electroactive solids, with a

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quantities. The prototype has no need for current collectors, polymer binders or conductive powder additives. Silicon comprises over 80 percent of the electrode by weight. The electrode delivered 802 mAh/g after more than 600 cycles, with a Coulombic efficiency of 99.9 percent.

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The materials operate by reduction of the metal cation to either metal nanoparticles or to a lower oxidation state oxide. These promising results show that transition-metal oxides may be useful in ensuring the integrity of the lithium-ion battery over many discharge-recharge cycles.

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economies of scale have already been reached, and future cost reductions from increased production volumes are minimal. Prismatic cells, which are able to further capitalize on the cost reduction from larger formats, can offer further reductions than those possible for cylindrical

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utilizes shear-forces to form fine particles which can improve conductivity by increasing particle surface area and reducing carrier pathlength to reaction sites. While there has been some success with ball milling, this method can lead to a non-uniform particle size distribution.

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was used for the battery cathodes. Trials indicated that capacity was quite stable at high discharge rates and remained consistently over 100 charge/discharge cycles. Energy density reached around 1,000 watt-hours per kilogram and a discharge capacity that exceeded 300 mAh/g.

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discovered that uniform charging could be used with increased charge speed to speed up battery charging. This discovery could also increase cycle durability to ten years. Traditionally slower charging prevented overheating, which shortens cycle durability. The researchers used a

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In 2016, researchers announced an anode composed of a slurry of Lithium-iron phosphate and graphite with a liquid electrolyte. They claimed that the technique increased safety (the anode could be deformed without damage) and energy density. A flow battery without carbon, called

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lead to the failure of the cell. Recent success with solid polymer electrolytes (SPE) has increased the electrochemical stability and elasticity of the cathode electrolyte interface (CEI). Unlike traditional liquid electrolytes that form a thick, brittle CEI layer, these FeF

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developed a battery that operates in extreme temperatures without the need for thermal management material. It went through 2,000 full charge-discharge cycles at 45 °C while maintaining over 90% energy density. It does this using a nanophosphate positive electrode.

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typically in a discharged state (cation in a stable reduced oxidation state), has electrochemically active lithium, and when charged, crystallographic vacancies are created. Due to their increased manufacturing safety and without the need for a lithium source at the

1427:(PFPE). PFPE is usually used as an industrial lubricant, e.g., to prevent marine life from sticking to the ship bottoms. The material exhibited unprecedented high transference numbers and low electrochemical polarization, indicative of a higher cycle durability. 225:(ML) is becoming popular in many fields including using it for lithium-ion battery research. These methods have been used in all aspects of battery research including materials, manufacturing, characterization, and prognosis/diagnosis of batteries. 4483:

C. S. Johnson, J. T. Vaughey, M. M. Thackeray, T. E. Bofinger, and S. A. Hackney "Layered Lithium-Manganese Oxide Electrodes Derived from Rock-Salt LixMnyOz (x+y=z) Precursors" 194th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Boston, MA, Nov.1-6,

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that can have rate capabilities two orders of magnitude higher than randomly ordered materials. The rapid charging is related to the nanoballs high surface area where electrons are transmitted to the surface of the cathode at a higher rate.

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due to the formation of SEI on the anode electrode, which has previously only been accomplished with non-aqueous electrolytes. Using aqueous rather than organic electrolyte could significantly improve the safety of Li-ion batteries.

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Several varieties of cathode exist, but typically they can easily divided into two categories, namely charged and discharged. Charged cathodes are materials with pre-existing crystallographic vacancies. These materials, for instance

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Dogan, F.; Croy, J.; Balasubramanian, M.; Slater, M.D.; Iddir, H.; Johnson, C.S.; Vaughey, J.; Key, B. (2015). "Solid State NMR Studies of Li2MnO3 and Li-Rich Cathode Materials: Proton Insertion, Local Structure, and Voltage Fade".

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Suo, Liumin; Borodin, Oleg; Sun, Wei; Fan, Xiulin; Yang, Chongyin; Wang, Fei; Gao, Tao; Ma, Zhaohui; Schroeder, Marshall (13 June 2016). "Advanced High-Voltage Aqueous Lithium-Ion Battery Enabled by "Water-in-Bisalt" Electrolyte".

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Zhu, Juner; Mathews, Ian; Ren, Dongsheng; Li, Wei; Cogswell, Daniel; Xing, Bobin; Sedlatschek, Tobias; Kantareddy, Sai Nithin R.; Yi, Mengchao; Gao, Tao; Xia, Yong; Zhou, Qing; Wierzbicki, Tomasz; Bazant, Martin Z. (August 2021).

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Kamath, Dipti; Shukla, Siddharth; Arsenault, Renata; Kim, Hyung Chul; Anctil, Annick (July 2020). "Evaluating the cost and carbon footprint of second-life electric vehicle batteries in residential and utility-level applications".

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Chen, Zheng; Hsu, Po-Chun; Lopez, Jeffrey; Li, Yuzhang; To, John W. F.; Liu, Nan; Wang, Chao; Andrews, Sean C.; Liu, Jia (11 January 2016). "Fast and reversible thermoresponsive polymer switching materials for safer batteries".

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Wang, Fei; Lin, Yuxiao; Suo, Liumin; Fan, Xiulin; Gao, Tao; Yang, Chongyin; Han, Fudong; Qi, Yue; Xu, Kang (29 November 2016). "Stabilizing high voltage LiCoO2 cathode in aqueous electrolyte with interphase-forming additive".

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Martinez-Laserna, E.; Gandiaga, I.; Sarasketa-Zabala, E.; Badeda, J.; Stroe, D.-I.; Swierczynski, M.; Goikoetxea, A. (October 2018). "Battery second life: Hype, hope or reality? A critical review of the state of the art".

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that uses air as its cathode. When fully developed, the energy density could exceed 1,000 Wh/kg. In 2014, researchers at the School of Engineering at the University of Tokyo and Nippon Shokubai discovered that adding

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cation re-positioning from high-energy points to lower-energy points in the lattice. The intellectual property surrounding these materials has been licensed to several manufacturers, including BASF, General Motors for the

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is now being integrated in to each cell of the battery. This will help to monitor the state of charge in real time which will be helpful not only for security reason but also be useful to maximize the use of the battery.

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capable of speeding up re-charge time by a factor of 3-6, while also increasing cycle durability. The technology is able to understand how the battery needs to be charged most effectively, while avoiding the formation of

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contributes to poor kinetics within battery cells. Among TMFs, iron fluoride is of particular interest because iron is Earth abundant and environmentally friendly compared to popular intercalation-type cathode materials,

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inside carbon shells, and then encapsulated clusters of the shells with more carbon. The shells provide enough room inside to allow the nanoparticles to swell and shrink without damaging the shells, improving durability.

579:. Graphene layers then coated the metal. Acid dissolved the nickel, leaving enough of a void within the cage for the silicon to expand. The particles broke into smaller pieces, but remained functional within the cages. 5261:

Suo, Liumin; Borodin, Oleg; Gao, Tao; Olguin, Marco; Ho, Janet; Fan, Xiulin; Luo, Chao; Wang, Chunsheng; Xu, Kang (20 November 2015). ""Water-in-salt" electrolyte enables high-voltage aqueous lithium-ion chemistries".

288:. Conversion systems typically disproportionate to lithia and a metal (or lower metal oxide) at low voltages, < 1 V vs Li, and reform the metal oxide at voltage > 2 V, for example, CoO + 2Li -> Co+Li 6373:

Gur, K.; Chatzikyriakou, D.; Baschet, C.; Salomon, M. (2018). "The reuse of electrified vehicle batteries as a means of integrating renewable energy into the European electricity grid: A policy and market analysis".

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increases Coulombic efficiency and avoids the physical damage from silicon's expansion/contractions. The nanofibers were created by applying a high voltage between a rotating drum and a nozzle emitting a solution of

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cell chemistry, but were eventually replaced due to dendrite formation which caused internal short-circuits and was a fire hazard. Effort continued in areas that required lithium, including charged cathodes such as

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Qi, Zhaoxiang; Liu, Aaron L.; Koenig, Gary M. (20 February 2017). "Carbon-free Solid Dispersion LiCoO2 Redox Couple Characterization and Electrochemical Evaluation for All Solid Dispersion Redox Flow Batteries".

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nanostructure can decrease charge time by a factor of 10 to 100. The technology is also capable of delivering a higher voltage output. In 2013, the team improved the microbattery design, delivering 30 times the

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energy density above 1,100 mAh/g and a durability of 600 cycles that used porous silicon particles using ball-milling and stain-etching. In 2013, researchers developed a battery made from porous silicon

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Tan, Xin Fu; McDonald, Stuart D.; Gu, Qinfen; Hu, Yuxiang; Wang, Lianzhou; Matsumura, Syo; Nishimura, Tetsuro; Nogita, Kazuhiro (2019). "Characterisation of lithium-ion battery anodes fabricated via in-situ

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polymeric binder burned out. The design had performance similar to conventional electrode polymer binders with exceptional rate capability owing to the metallic nature of the structure and current pathways.

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Schneider, E.L.; Oliveira, C.T.; Brito, R.M.; Malfatti, C.F. (September 2014). "Classification of discarded NiMH and Li-Ion batteries and reuse of the cells still in operational conditions in prototypes".

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foil with one end attached to the negative terminal and the other end extending to outside the cell in order to create a third terminal. A temperature sensor attached to a switch completes the circuit.

1236:@C porous nanoboxes were synthesized via a wet-chemistry solid-state reaction method. The material displayed a hollow nanostructure with a crystalline porous shell composed of phase-pure Li 600:

nanowires. This technology utilizes relatively cheap materials and flexible processing methods, costing approximately $ 0.3 g−1, which is promising to boost the yield of Si alloy NWs with low cost.

355:. This layered oxide can be produced in multiple forms including nanowires, nanotubes, or oblong particles with an observed capacity of 210 mAh/g in the voltage window 1.5–2.0 V (vs Li). 6066:

Tong, Shijie; Fung, Tsz; Klein, Matthew P.; Weisbach, David A.; Park, Jae Wan (June 2017). "Demonstration of reusing electric vehicle battery for solar energy storage and demand side management".

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of a carbon precursor containing nitrogen element. Finally, the particles are etched with NaOH to create voids with nano-channel morphology inside the Si core to form the Si@void@C microreactors.

1049:(NMC) materials but without the cation ordering. The extra lithium creates better diffusion pathways and eliminates high energy transition points in the structure that inhibit lithium diffusion. 485:

Various forms of carbon are used in lithium-ion battery cell configurations. Besides graphite poorly or non-electrochemically active types of carbon are used in cells such as CNTs, carbon black,

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Aricò, Antonino Salvatore; Bruce, Peter; Scrosati, Bruno; Tarascon, Jean-Marie; van Schalkwijk, Walter (May 2005). "Nanostructured materials for advanced energy conversion and storage devices".

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that allows it to fully utilize the active materials in battery cells. The process maintains lithium-ion diffusion at optimal levels and eliminates concentration polarization, thus allowing the

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Chan, Candace K.; Peng, Hailin; Liu, Gao; McIlwrath, Kevin; Zhang, Xiao Feng; Huggins, Robert A.; Cui, Yi (16 December 2007). "High-performance lithium battery anodes using silicon nanowires".

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Ye, Jianchao; Ong, Mitchell T.; Heo, Tae Wook; Campbell, Patrick G.; Worsley, Marcus A.; Liu, Yuanyue; Shin, Swanee J.; Charnvanichborikarn, Supakit; Matthews, Manyalibo J. (5 November 2015).

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glass with reduced graphite oxide) as a cathode material. The cathode achieved around 1000 Wh/kg with high specific capacities in the range of ~ 300 mAh/g for the first 100 cycles.

500:(SWCNTs) accommodate lithium much more efficiently than their semiconducting counterparts. If made denser, semiconducting SWCNT films take up lithium at levels comparable to metallic SWCNTs. 267:

formation beyond 5 cycles. Additionally, the specific capacity increased in subsequent cycles due to the activation of more electrode material, suggesting robust electrochemical stability.

6295:"A Comprehensive Review on Second-Life Batteries: Current State, Manufacturing Considerations, Applications, Impacts, Barriers & Potential Solutions, Business Strategies, and Policies" 4549:

Croy, J.; Balasubramanian, M.; Gallagher, K.; Burrell, A.K. (2015). "Review of the U.S. Department of Energy's "Deep Dive" Effort to Understand Voltage Fade in Li- and Mn-Rich Cathodes".

2069:

Lee, Won Jun; Hwang, Tae Hoon; Hwang, Jin Ok; Kim, Hyun Wook; Lim, Joonwon; Jeong, Hu Young; Shim, Jongwon; Han, Tae Hee; Kim, Je Young; Choi, Jang Wook; Kim, Sang Ouk (23 January 2014).

1454:

further catalyzes the electrochemical activity, converting an inactive component to an active one. More significantly, the technique was expected to substantially increase battery life.

331:

has also been evaluated and found to be electrochemically active when produced as nanoparticles with a capacity approximately half that of anatase (0.25Li/Ti). In 2014, researchers at

3922:

Sun, Pengcheng; Davis, Jerome; Cao, Luoxia; Jiang, Zhelong; Cook, John B.; Ning, Hailong; Liu, Jinyun; Kim, Sanghyeon; Fan, Feifei; Nuzzo, Ralph G.; Braun, Paul V. (1 February 2019).

4646:

Yang, X. F.; Yang, J.-H.; Zaghib, K.; Trudeau and, M. L.; Ying, J. Y. (March 2015). "Synthesis of phase-pure Li2MnSiO4@C porous nanoboxes for high-capacity Li-ion battery cathodes".

1359:-SPE cathodes form elastic CEI layers which are encapsulated by the elastic electrolyte and strong composite layer. The elastic SPE is able to withstand the volume expansion of FeF 3085:

Li, Yuzhang; Yan, Kai; Lee, Hyun-Wook; Lu, Zhenda; Liu, Nian; Cui, Yi (2016). "Growth of conformal graphene cages on micrometre-sized silicon particles as stable battery anodes".

571:

As a method to control the ability of fully lithiated silicon to expand and become electronically isolated, a method for caging 3 nm-diameter silicon particles in a shell of

510:

electrodes in LIBs was shown to improve their capacity and transport properties. Chemical synthesis methods used in standard anode manufacture leave significant amounts of atomic

3344: 755:

CuSn, with 0.2 Cu atoms occupying a usually unoccupied crystallographic position in the lattice. These copper atoms are displaced to the grain boundaries when charged to form Li

323:

has been observed to have a maximum capacity of 150 mAh/g (0.5Li/Ti) with the capacity limited by the availability of crystallographic vacancies in the framework. The TiO

3154:

Hong, Juan; Cheng, Kun; Xu, Guiyin; Stapelberg, Myles; Kuai, Yuan; Sun, Pengcheng; Qu, Subing; Zhang, Zexin; Geng, Qidong; Wu, Zhuangzhao; Zhu, Meifang (15 September 2021).

5654: 5089: 1111:, which is a lot more than the traditional 400 W·h/kg. It has a solid lithium positive electrode and a solid electrolyte. It could be used in underwater applications. 38: 1686:

announced a battery management system that increased cycles four-fold, that with specific energy of 110–175 Wh/kg using a battery pack architecture and controlling

1399:. Common solvents are organic carbonates (cyclic, straight chain), sulfones, imides, polymers (polyethylene oxide) and fluorinated derivatives. Common salts include LiPF 4494:

Thackeray, M.; Kang, S.-H; Johnson, C.S.; Vaughey, John; Benedek, Roy; Hackney, S (2007). "Li2MnO3-Stabilized LiMO2 (M-Mn,Ni,Co)Electrodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries".

5556: 1732:

A fourth group created a device that is one hundredth of an inch thick and doubles as a supercapacitor. The technique involved etching a 900 nanometer-thick layer of

1363:

and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) strengthen the composite to prevent mechanical fatigue. Another technique to circumvent volume expansion includes creating a lithiated FeF

964:

Vanadium oxides have been a common class of cathodes to study due to their high capacity, ease of synthesis, and electrochemical window that matches well with common

6578: 5947:

Ahmadi, Leila; Yip, Arthur; Fowler, Michael; Young, Steven B.; Fraser, Roydon A. (June 2014). "Environmental feasibility of re-use of electric vehicle batteries".

2982:

Chadha, Utkarsh; Selvaraj, Senthil Kumaran; Ashokan, Hridya; Hariharan, Sai P.; Mathew Paul, V.; Venkatarangan, Vishal; Paramasivam, Velmurugan (8 February 2022).

6547: 4592:

A123 Systems introduces new Nanophosphate EXT Li-ion battery technology with optimized performance in extreme temperatures; OEM micro-hybrid program due next year

614:

In 2012, Vaughey, et al., reported a new all-inorganic electrode structure based on electrochemically active silicon particles bound to a copper substrate by a Cu

968:. Vanadium oxides cathodes, typically classed as charged cathodes, are found in many different structure types. These materials have been extensively studied by 5526: 5444:

Wu, Fanglin; Fang, Shan; Kuenzel, Matthias; Mullaliu, Angelo; Kim, Jae-Kwang; Gao, Xinpei; Diemant, Thomas; Kim, Guk-Tae; Passerini, Stefano (18 August 2021).

1615:

above 560 Wh kg−1 at >4 volts. Capacity after 1k cycles was 88%. Importantly, the cathode retained its structural integrity throughout the charging cycles.

1442:

solid nature prevents dendrite formation and allows the use of pure metallic lithium anodes. They may have other benefits such as lower temperature operation.

3626:

Jansen, A.; Clevenger, Jessica; Baebler, Anna; Vaughey, John (2011). "Variable Temperature Performance of Intermetallic Lithium Ion Battery Anode Materials".

997:

aqueous solution. Electrochemical tests demonstrate deliver high reversible specific capacities with 100% coulombic efficiency, especially at high C rates (

5208:

Santanab Giri; Swayamprabha Behera; Puru Jena (14 October 2014). "Superhalogens as Building Blocks of Halogen-Free Electrolytes in Lithium-Ion Batteries".

1769: 6033:

Podias, Andreas; Pfrang, Andreas; Di Persio, Franco; Kriston, Akos; Bobba, Silvia; Mathieux, Fabrice; Messagie, Maarten; Boon-Brett, Lois (18 July 2018).

1445:

In 2015, researchers announced an electrolyte using superionic lithium-ion conductors, which are compounds of lithium, germanium, phosphorus and sulfur.

820: 691: 596: 6035:"Sustainability Assessment of Second Use Applications of Automotive Batteries: Ageing of Li-Ion Battery Cells in Automotive and Grid-Scale Applications" 2984:"Complex Nanomaterials in Catalysis for Chemically Significant Applications: From Synthesis and Hydrocarbon Processing to Renewable Energy Applications" 861:, was reported, proposing increased energy density and high operating efficiencies. A review of different semi-solid battery systems can be found here. 452:

have extensively studied the role of solvent and salt in the formation of films on the lithium surface. Notable observations were the addition of LiNO

5014:"Metal Fluorides Nanoconfined in Carbon Nanopores as Reversible High Capacity Cathodes for Li and Li-Ion Rechargeable Batteries: FeF 2 as an Example" 5502: 4760:

Qi, Zhaoxiang; Koenig, Gary M. (16 August 2016). "High-Performance LiCoO2Sub-Micrometer Materials from Scalable Microparticle Template Processing".

5102: 4949:

Huang, Qiao; Turcheniuk, Kostiantyn; Ren, Xiaolei; Magasinski, Alexandre; Song, Ah-Young; Xiao, Yiran; Kim, Doyoub; Yushin, Gleb (December 2019).

4620: 1275: 1812: 1502: 1131: 1120: 1025:

found that creating high lithium content lithium-ion batteries materials with cation disorder among the electroactive metals could achieve 660

44: 4188:

Chernova, N.; Roppolo, M; Dillon, Anne; Whittingham, Stanley (2009). "Layered vanadium and molybdenum oxides: batteries and electrochromics".

1711:

In 2014, multiple research teams and vendors demonstrated flexible battery technologies for potential use in textiles and other applications.

1633: 1141: 1046: 1022: 933: 4735: 2897: 6571: 858: 805:

Sb-type structure are attractive anode materials due to the open gallery space available and structural similarities to the discharge Li

3753:

Fransson, L.; Vaughey, J; Benedek, R.; Vaughey, John; Edstrom, K; Thomas, J.; Thackeray, M.M. (2001). "Phase Transition in Lithiated Cu

2032:"Silicon Microreactor as a Fast Charge, Long Cycle Life Anode with High Initial Coulombic Efficiency Synthesized via a Scalable Method" 5539: 3793: 3348: 4951:"Cycle stability of conversion-type iron fluoride lithium battery cathode at elevated temperatures in polymer electrolyte composites" 3237:

Trahey, L.; Kung, H; Thackeray, M.; Vaughey, John (2011). "Effect of Electrode Dimensionality and Morphology on the Performance of Cu

284:

electrode from conversion negative electrode that store lithium by complete disruption and formation of alternate phases, usually as

6531: 4096:

Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena

1079: 189: 171: 109: 52: 5154:

Braga, M. H.; Grundish, N. S.; Murchison, A. J.; Goodenough, J. B. (2017). "Alternative strategy for a safe rechargeable battery".

4889:"High-Capacity Lithium-Ion Battery Conversion Cathodes Based on Iron Fluoride Nanowires and Insights into the Conversion Mechanism" 4411: 138: 76: 6293:

Hossain, Eklas; Murtaugh, Darren; Mody, Jaisen; Faruque, Hossain Mansur Resalat; Haque Sunny, Md. Samiul; Mohammad, Naeem (2019).

1295:. In 2017, researchers at University of Virginia reported a scalable method to produce sub-micrometer scale lithium cobalt oxide. 1518: 1249: 332: 279:

Several types of metal oxides and sulfides can reversibly intercalate lithium cations at voltages between 1 and 2 V against

259:

ball milling process with micron-sized silicon powder. The nanostructured Si particles are then encapsulated with carbon through

1752:

Current research has been primarily focused on finding new materials and characterising them by means of specific capacity (mAh/

690:

processes to create nanoscale tin needles that show 33% lower volume expansion during charging. In 2015, the research team at

3567:

Wang, Zhaodong; Shan, Zhongqiang; Tian, Jianhua; Huang, Wenlong; Luo, Didi; Zhu, Xi; Meng, Shuxian (2017). "Immersion-plated Cu

1436: 4462: 6833: 6718: 6564: 6147:"Fast Electrical Characterizations of High-Energy Second Life Lithium-Ion Batteries for Embedded and Stationary Applications" 5694: 1346:

Decreasing particle size is one of the main methods researchers have used to overcome iron fluoride’s insulating properties.

6451:

Schneider, E.L.; Kindlein, W.; Souza, S.; Malfatti, C.F. (April 2009). "Assessment and reuse of secondary batteries cells".

5182: 661:, have been studied as anode materials in lithium-ion energy storage systems for several decades. First reported in 1981 by 460:, and hexafluoroarsenate salts. They appeared to create films that inhibit dendrite formation while incorporating reduced Li 6811: 6698: 1718:. This discovery uses conventional materials and could be commercialized for foldable smartphones and other applications. 1252:

images revealed that the high phase purity and porous nanobox architecture were achieved via monodispersed MnCO

433:

based cell designs. The interest in lithium metal anodes was re-established with the increased interest in high capacity

1629: 1420: 5747: 2357:

Lu, Yuhao (2011). "Behavior of Li Guest in KNb5O13 Host with One-Dimensional Tunnels and Multiple Interstitial Sites".

1694:

to be more uniformly attached/detached to the cathode. The SEI layer remains stable, preventing energy density losses.

523: 146: 3712:

Hu, Renzong; Waller, Gordon Henry; Wang, Yukun; Chen, Yu; Yang, Chenghao; Zhou, Weijia; Zhu, Min; Liu, Meilin (2015).

1407:, LiTFSI, and LiFSI. Research centers on increased safety via reduced flammability and reducing shorts via preventing 1137: 887: 683: 335:

used a materials derived from a titanium dioxide gel derived from naturally spherical titanium dioxide particles into

5043:

Fan, Xiulin; Zhu, Yujie; Luo, Chao; Gao, Tao; Suo, Liumin; Liou, Sz-Chian; Xu, Kang; Wang, Chunsheng (1 March 2016).

3822:(2006). "Three Dimensionally Ordered Macroporous Li4Ti5O12:Effect of Wall Structure of Electrochemical Performance". 1841: 1071: 438: 91: 5244: 2384:

Han, Jian-Tao; Huang, Yunhui; Goodenough, John B. (2011). "New Anode Framework for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries".

3331: 2411:

Poizot, P. (2000). "Nano-sized transition-metal oxides as negative-electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries".

2666:"Universal roles of hydrogen in electrochemical performance of graphene: high rate capacity and atomistic origins" 142: 87: 6620: 3060: 2722: 2186:

Zhou, Xiang-yang; Tang, Jing-jing; Yang, Juan; Zou, You-lan; Wang, Song-can; Xie, Jing; Ma, Lu-lu (30 May 2012).

271:

at 8 A g, indicating their capability for ultrafast charging without compromising safety and capacity retention.

3875:"High-power lithium ion microbatteries from interdigitated three-dimensional bicontinuous nanoporous electrodes" 471:) lithium metal strips. They were able to achieve energy density of 350 Wh/kg over 600 charge/discharge cycles. 6769: 6764: 6635: 3297:

Boukamp, B.A.; Lesh, G. C.; Huggins, R.A (1981). "All Solid Lithium Electrodes with a Mixed Conductor Matrix".

633: 6738: 6713: 6180:"Economic analysis of second use electric vehicle batteries for residential energy storage and load-levelling" 4345:

Afyon, Semih; Krumeich, Frank; Mensing, Christian; Borgschulte, Andreas; Nesper, Reinhard (19 November 2014).

3714:"Cu6Sn5@SnO2–C nanocomposite with stable core/shell structure as a high reversible anode for Li-ion batteries" 2018:

G. Shao et al. Polymer-Derived SiOC Integrated with a Graphene Aerogel As a Highly Stable Li-Ion Battery Anode

1269: 434: 5045:"In situ lithiated FeF3/C nanocomposite as high energy conversion-reaction cathode for lithium-ion batteries" 793:-c hybrids have been shown to be effective, to accommodate volume changes and overall stability over cycles. 641:

a buffer layer; and the 8-25 nm fiber size, which is below the size at which silicon tends to fracture.

559:. Below are various structural morphologies attempted to overcome issue with silicon's intrinsic properties. 6784: 6774: 6703: 6675: 5814: 4256:

Chirayil, Thomas; Zavalij, Peter; Whittingham, Stanley (1998). "Hydrothermal Synthesis of vanadium Oxides".

1490: 1026: 493: 218: 153: 2868:

Szczech, Jeannine R.; Jin, Song (2011). "Nanostructured silicon for high capacity lithium battery anodes".

2462:

Whittingham, M.Stanley (1978). "Chemistry of intercalation compounds: Metal guests in chalcogenide hosts".

6743: 5129: 2149:"Nanosized silicon-based composite derived by in situ mechanochemical reduction for lithium ion batteries" 2110:"Spray Drying Method for Large-Scale and High-Performance Silicon Negative Electrodes in Li-Ion Batteries" 1506: 539:

it has a theoretical capacity of ~3,600 milliampere hours per gram (mAh/g), which is nearly 10 times the

6670: 6615: 6587: 2627: 1736:

with regularly spaced five nanometer holes to increase capacity. The device used an electrolyte made of

1670: 1379:, therefore significantly reduces the stress/strain that occurs during lithiation upon the first cycle. 1204: 304:

reported the synthesis and evaluation of a series of lithiated titanates. Of specific interest were the

243: 5585: 3860: 5771:"Comparison between cylindrical and prismatic lithium-ion cell costs using a process based cost model" 5514: 5044: 4799: 3923: 3155: 2187: 2148: 1965: 1926: 1815:

found that prismatic cells are more likely to benefit from production scaling than cylindrical cells.

6496: 6460: 6415: 6103: 5859: 5782: 5621: 5217: 5056: 4962: 4900: 4358: 4103: 4018: 4007:"A carbon-free lithium-ion solid dispersion redox couple with low viscosity for redox flow batteries" 3886: 3819: 3678: 3584: 3525: 3306: 3094: 2834: 2783: 2677: 2580: 2569:"The synergetic effect of lithium polysulfide and lithium nitrate to prevent lithium dendrite growth" 2498: 2420: 2315: 1775:

allow the use of materials that exhibit unacceptable flaws when used in bulk forms, such as silicon.

1638: 1608: 1484:, which are toxic. In 2015 researchers claimed that these materials could be replaced with non-toxic 1103:

more than triple that of traditional lithium-ion batteries using the halides or organic materials in

929: 874: 547:

electrodes, which exhibit a maximum capacity of 372 mAh/g for their fully lithiated state of LiC

4849: 4715:"Researchers Develop Solid-State, Rechargeable Lithium–Air Battery; Potential to Exceed 1,000 Wh/kg" 3848: 2070: 720:

Sb, lower voltages and higher capacities have been found when compared to their oxide counterparts.

6723: 6708: 6660: 6630: 3477: 3129: 2936:

Ge, Mingyuan; Rong, Jiepeng; Fang, Xin; Zhang, Anyi; Lu, Yunhao; Zhou, Chongwu (12 February 2013).

2071:"N-doped graphitic self-encapsulation for high performance silicon anodes in lithium-ion batteries" 1796:

Finally, various nanocoatings have been examined, to increase electrode stability and performance.

1737: 1733: 969: 965: 449: 430: 336: 208: 3981:"A clever twist on the batteries in smartphones could help us better harness wind and solar power" 6541: 6433: 6355: 6336:"Action planning and situation analysis of repurposing battery recovery and application in China" 6316: 6275: 6127: 6015: 5929: 5893: 5637: 5557:

New battery management technology could boost Li-ion capacity by 40%, quadruple recharging cycles

5485: 5390: 5295: 4994: 4696: 4170: 3961: 3608: 3549: 3409: 3383: 3110: 3041: 2957: 2807: 2522: 2444: 2339: 2280: 2188:"Effect of polypyrrole on improving electrochemical performance of silicon based anode materials" 1424: 1408: 1336: 1245: 1179: 1058: 904: 422: 380: 5668: 5446:"Dual-anion ionic liquid electrolyte enables stable Ni-rich cathodes in lithium-metal batteries" 4747: 4347:"New High Capacity Cathode Materials for Rechargeable Li-ion Batteries: Vanadate-Borate Glasses" 1154: 5722: 5090:

First nonflammable lithium-ion battery will stop your smartphone, car, and plane from exploding

2938:"USC team develops new porous silicon nanoparticle material for high-performance Li-ion anodes" 2911: 1001:, 140 mAh g at 10 C). In 2014, researchers announced the use of vanadate-borate glasses (V 6527: 6145:

Quinard, Honorat; Redondo-Iglesias, Eduardo; Pelissier, Serge; Venet, Pascal (14 March 2019).

6119: 6007: 5885: 5699: 5655:

Origami: The surprisingly simple secret to creating flexible, high-power lithium-ion batteries

5477: 5426: 5382: 5374: 5357:

Smith, Leland; Dunn, Bruce (20 November 2015). "Opening the window for aqueous electrolytes".

5339: 5331: 5287: 5279: 5072: 4986: 4978: 4924: 4916: 4869: 4821: 4777: 4714: 4574: 4566: 4392: 4374: 4327: 4238: 4162: 4121: 4072: 4036: 3953: 3945: 3904: 3774: 3735: 3694: 3643: 3600: 3541: 3401: 3216: 3175: 3005: 2850: 2799: 2747:

Wang, Yusheng (2015). "Porous graphene for high capacity lithium ion battery anode material".

2703: 2608: 2514: 2436: 2331: 2207: 2168: 2129: 2090: 2051: 1997: 1946: 1907: 1889: 1741: 1604: 1328: 824: 418: 4436: 6728: 6665: 6655: 6650: 6504: 6468: 6423: 6383: 6347: 6306: 6267: 6234: 6224: 6191: 6158: 6111: 6075: 6046: 5997: 5987: 5956: 5921: 5875: 5867: 5790: 5629: 5467: 5457: 5418: 5366: 5323: 5271: 5225: 5163: 5064: 5025: 4970: 4908: 4861: 4811: 4769: 4686: 4655: 4591: 4558: 4531: 4503: 4382: 4366: 4319: 4265: 4228: 4197: 4152: 4111: 4064: 4026: 3935: 3894: 3831: 3766: 3725: 3686: 3635: 3592: 3533: 3489: 3458: 3393: 3314: 3273:"Going small with silicon potentially has big implications for lithium-ion battery capacity" 3250: 3206: 3167: 3102: 3033: 2995: 2949: 2937: 2877: 2842: 2791: 2756: 2693: 2685: 2598: 2588: 2549: 2506: 2471: 2428: 2393: 2366: 2323: 2262: 2199: 2160: 2121: 2082: 2043: 1987: 1977: 1938: 1897: 1879: 1846: 1663: 1510: 1303: 908: 604: 532: 426: 222: 1714:

One technique made li-ion batteries flexible, bendable, twistable and crunchable using the

339:

In addition, a non-naturally occurring electrochemically active titanate referred to as TiO

4673:

Kumar, B.; Kumar, J.; Leese, R.; Fellner, J. P.; Rodrigues, S. J.; Abraham, K. M. (2010).

1782: 1612: 1396: 1170: 994: 870: 665:, the system has a multiphase discharge curve and stores approximately 1000 mAh/g (Li 497: 363:

In 2011, Lu et al., reported reversible electrochemical activity in the porous niobate KNb

5103:"Rechargeable batteries with almost infinite lifetimes coming, say MIT-Samsung engineers" 4621:"A 'breakthrough' in rechargeable batteries for electronic devices and electric vehicles" 6500: 6464: 6419: 6213:"Second-Life Batteries on a Gas Turbine Power Plant to Provide Area Regulation Services" 6107: 5863: 5786: 5625: 5221: 5060: 4966: 4904: 4362: 4107: 4022: 3890: 3682: 3588: 3529: 3310: 3098: 2838: 2787: 2681: 2584: 2502: 2424: 2319: 1964:

Nzereogu, P. U.; Omah, A. D.; Ezema, F. I.; Iwuoha, E. I.; Nwanya, A. C. (1 June 2022).

6748: 6690: 6645: 5880: 5843: 4387: 4346: 3480:(2003). "Structural Transformations in Intermetallic Electrode for Lithium Batteries". 2698: 2665: 2147:

Yang, Xuelin; Wen, Zhaoyin; Xu, Xiaoxiong; Lin, Bin; Huang, Shahua (10 February 2007).

2017: 1902: 1867: 1292: 1279: 1150: 1146: 1100: 1083: 949: 883: 837: 829: 695: 687: 662: 540: 474:

Further information on the American battery technology innovator and entrepreneur:

212: 6178:

Heymans, Catherine; Walker, Sean B.; Young, Steven B.; Fowler, Michael (August 2014).

3770: 772:

CuSn, over discharging the material results in disproportionation with formation of Li

6827: 6680: 6437: 6359: 6320: 6279: 6131: 5933: 5897: 5489: 5394: 5299: 4998: 4603: 4174: 3965: 3612: 3553: 3156:"Novel silicon/copper nanowires as high-performance anodes for lithium ion batteries" 3114: 3045: 2553: 2475: 2448: 2266: 1658: 1463: 1423:

found a way to replace the electrolyte's flammable organic solvent with nonflammable

1372: 1308: 1288: 833: 627:

In 2015, a prototype electrode was demonstrated that consists of sponge-like silicon

583: 445: 285: 260: 6019: 5641: 5540:"In and out with 10-minute electrical vehicle recharge | Penn State University" 4950: 4700: 4068: 2961: 2811: 2540:

Pan, B (1995). "Performance and Safety Behavior of Rechargeable AA Li/LiMnO2 Cell".

2526: 2489:

Whittingham, M. S. (1976). "Electrical Energy Storage and Intercalation Chemistry".

2203: 6640: 6508: 6472: 5795: 5770: 5068: 4031: 4006: 3537: 3413: 3272: 2343: 2225:

Cava, Robert (1978). "The Crystal Structures of Lithium-Inserted Titanium Oxides Li

2164: 1578: 1191: 879: 658: 556: 475: 343:(B) can be made by ion-exchange followed by dehydration of the potassium titanate K 5992: 5975: 5183:"Solid-state EV battery breakthrough from Li-ion battery inventor John Goodenough" 5012:

Gu, Wentian; Magasinski, Alexandre; Zdyrko, Bogdan; Yushin, Gleb (February 2015).

3639: 3171: 2510: 2306:

Fujishima, A; Honda, K (1972). "A New Layered Titanate Produced by Ion Exchange".

2031: 1607:

of 214 mAh g−1 and 88% capacity retention over 1,000 cycles with an average

6115: 5527:

Software on your smartphone can speed up lithium-ion battery charging by up to 6x

4816: 4659: 4562: 3730: 3713: 2760: 1982: 1942: 956:, or intermetallic insertion materials to create a working electrochemical cell. 6387: 6311: 6294: 6196: 6179: 5976:"Second life batteries lifespan: Rest of useful life and environmental analysis" 5462: 5445: 2651: 1884: 1388: 654: 403:

anodes were used for the first lithium-ion batteries in the 1960s, based on the

6428: 6403: 5960: 5925: 5871: 5723:"Flexible, high-performance battery could soon find its way to your smartwatch" 3940: 2108:

Jung, Dae Soo; Hwang, Tae Hoon; Park, Seung Bin; Choi, Jang Wook (8 May 2013).

2030:

He, Qianran; Ashuri, Maziar; Liu, Yuzi; Liu, Bingyu; Shaw, Leon (24 May 2021).

6779: 6079: 5013: 4974: 4233: 4216: 3596: 3037: 2953: 1799: 1715: 1654: 759:

CuSn. With retention of most of the metal-metal bonding down to 0.5 V, Cu

628: 468: 6229: 6212: 6163: 6146: 5481: 5430: 5378: 5335: 5283: 5076: 4982: 4920: 4888: 4873: 4825: 4781: 4378: 4331: 4166: 4125: 4076: 4040: 3949: 3778: 3739: 3698: 3647: 3604: 3545: 3220: 3179: 3009: 2281:"Ultra-fast charging batteries that can be 70% recharged in just two minutes" 2211: 2172: 2133: 2109: 2094: 2055: 2001: 1950: 1893: 215:, safety, rate capability, cycle durability, flexibility, and reducing cost. 6351: 6271: 5370: 5275: 3106: 1687: 1347: 845: 678: 637: 457: 301: 6404:"End-of-life or second-life options for retired electric vehicle batteries" 6123: 6011: 5889: 5633: 5386: 5343: 5327: 5291: 5229: 5029: 4990: 4928: 4773: 4578: 4396: 4242: 3924:"High capacity 3D structured tin-based electroplated Li-ion battery anodes" 3908: 3669:

Electrodes: Synthesis< Properties, and Current Collector Interactions".

3405: 3397: 3254: 3130:"Pomegranate-inspired electrode could mean longer lithium-ion battery life" 3000: 2983: 2854: 2846: 2803: 2707: 2612: 2518: 2440: 2335: 2047: 1911: 1108: 3849:

Batteries charge very quickly and retain capacity, thanks to new structure

3449:

An Intermetallic Insertion Electrode for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries".

5472: 4748:

New Rechargeable Cell Has 7 Times Higher Energy Density Than Li-ion Cells

4736:

Researchers hard at work to make the workhorse lithium ion battery better

4535: 4092:"Review Article: Flow battery systems with solid electroactive materials" 2603: 1786: 1650: 1522: 1514: 1481: 1462:

In March 2017, researchers announced a solid-state battery with a glassy

1104: 945: 572: 544: 511: 507: 504: 486: 328: 247: 6556: 6051: 6034: 5974:

Casals, Lluc Canals; Amante García, B.; Canal, Camille (February 2019).

4850:"Conversion cathodes for rechargeable lithium and lithium-ion batteries" 3345:"Washington State University Gets Funding to Scale Up New Tin Batteries" 3211: 3194: 3061:"Lithium-ion battery boost could come from "caging" silicon in graphene" 535:, and is fairly inexpensive to refine to high purity. When alloyed with 6625: 6239: 6002: 5503:

Want lithium-ion batteries to last? Slow charging may not be the answer

5422: 5167: 5130:"Dual-functioning electrolyte improves capacity of long-life batteries" 4865: 4323: 3899: 3874: 3861:

Small in size, big on power: New microbatteries a boost for electronics

2881: 2593: 2568: 2086: 1868:"Artificial Intelligence Applied to Battery Research: Hype or Reality?" 1790: 1485: 1174: 1099:

In 2012, researchers at Polyplus Corporation created a battery with an

953: 937: 920: 900: 694:

create a 3D mechanically stable nickel–tin nanocomposite scaffold as a

674: 673:). Tin and its compounds have been extensively studied but, similar to 536: 528: 400: 320: 305: 280: 4912: 4691: 4674: 4570: 4370: 4269: 4157: 4140: 4116: 4091: 3957: 3835: 3818:

Sorenson, E.; Barry, S; Jung, H.K.; Rondinelli, James; Vaughey, John;

3690: 3493: 3462: 3370:

Zhang, H.; Shi, T.; Wetzel, D. J.; Nuzzo, R. G.; Braun, P. V. (2016).

3318: 3193:

Joyce, C.; Trahy, L; Bauer, Sara; Dogan, Fulya; Vaughey, John (2012).

2689: 2397: 2370: 2125: 1992: 1927:"Recent progress of advanced anode materials of lithium-ion batteries" 1925:

Cheng, Hui; Shapter, Joseph G.; Li, Yongying; Gao, Guo (1 June 2021).

4798:

Olbrich, Lorenz F.; Xiao, Albert W.; Pasta, Mauro (1 December 2021).

4507: 4201: 3661:

Kim, Il Seok.; Vaughey, John; Auciello, Orlando (2008). "Thin Film Cu

2898:

Researchers Developing Cheap, Better-Performing Lithium-Ion Batteries

2795: 2628:"Lithium strips take next-gen battery into record-breaking territory" 2432: 2327: 1683: 1317: 1313: 1284: 1087: 973: 941: 576: 309: 3195:"Metallic Copper Binders for Lithium-Ion Battery Silicon Electrodes" 94:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 5569:

Long-life laptop battery the tech industry doesn't want you to have

3388: 4675:"A Solid-State, Rechargeable, Long Cycle Life Lithium–Air Battery" 1513:

electrolytes with very high salt concentration. By increasing the

1392: 1169:

is a 3.6 V lithium-ion battery cathode initially reported by

1030: 925: 2912:"Silicon nanoparticles used to create a super-performing battery" 882:

stack being added. Such devices are expected to provide a higher

3757:

Sb Anodes for lithium Batteries: An In-Situ X-Ray Diffraction".

1722: 1526: 748: 744: 444:

Research to inhibit dendrite formation has been an active area.

6560: 4284: 1228:, was able to support a charging capacity of 335 mAh/g. Li 4285:"Subaru doubles the battery range on its electric car concept" 4217:"Structural chemistry of vanadium oxides with open frameworks" 3873:

Pikul, JH; Gang Zhang, H; Cho, J; Braun, PV; King, WP (2013).

1691: 993:

O) synthesized by an oxidation reaction of vanadium foil in a

841: 121: 59: 18: 6211:

Canals Casals, Lluc; Amante García, Beatriz (17 March 2017).

4800:"Conversion-type fluoride cathodes: Current state of the art" 2900:, Product Design & Development, 1 April 2014, Megan Hazle 1307:

there is a general agreement that the strong metal-fluoride

1260: core–shell nanocubes with controlled shell thickness. 832:

1,000x faster charging. The technology also delivers better

3794:"New Foam Batteries Promise Fast Charging, Higher Capacity" 1603:

was demonstrated in 2021. This electrolyte enables initial

1501:

In 2015, researchers at the University of Maryland and the

575:

was reported in 2016. The particles were first coated with

4139:

Tolmachev, Yuriy; Starodubceva, Svetlana (5 August 2022).

1525:, the potential window could be increased from 1.23 to 3 6335: 6255: 928:, this class is more commonly studied. Examples include 6256:"Summary of safety standards for repurposing batteries" 5586:"Stanford researchers develop heat-sensitive batteries" 1632:, Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology America and 801:

The layered intermetallic materials derived from the Cu

492:

Recent work includes efforts in 2014 by researchers at

211:. Areas of research interest have focused on improving 83: 5669:"Scientists create weavable Li-ion fiber battery yarn" 3437:

Kepler, K.; Vaughey, John; Thackeray, M.M. (1999). "Li

3024:

silicon anode substitutes for Lithium-ion batteries".

5517:, Product Design & Development, 15 September 2014 4887:

Li, Linsen; Meng, Fei; Jin, Song (14 November 2012).

4412:"Messy Innards Make for a Better Lithium Ion Battery" 2020:

ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 41, 46045–46056

1966:"Anode materials for lithium-ion batteries: A review" 1646: 919:, typically are tested in cell configurations with a 5837: 5835: 5245:"Physicists find toxic halogens in Li-ion batteries" 1074:

this system has high capacity on the formation of Li

886:

than traditional batteries, but suffer from a lower

751:

type nomenclature it would have the stoichiometry Cu

6757: 6689: 6608: 6601: 6594: 5844:"Charge and discharge profiles of repurposed LiFePO 5092:, Extreme Tech, 13 February 2014, Sebastian Anthony 3575:/Sn composite film anode for lithium ion battery". 1107:as the active cathode. Its energy density is 1,300 467:In 2021, researchers announced the use of thin (20 6524:Reuse and recycling of lithium-ion power batteries 5748:"Cooperation with AGM Batteries Ltd in full swing" 5695:"Flexible, Printed Batteries for Wearable Devices" 5657:, Extreme Tech, 5 February 2014, Sebastian Anthony 4750:, Nikkei Technology, 23 July 2014, Motohiko Hamada 3863:, News Bureau Illinois, 16 April 2013, Liz Ahlberg 3851:, News Bureau Illinois, 21 March 2011, Liz Ahlberg 1375:already contains lithium in close contact with FeF 5529:, Extreme Tech, 14 August 2014, Sebastian Anthony 4005:Qi, Zhaoxiang; Koenig, Gary M. (15 August 2016). 2723:"Using hydrogen to enhance lithium-ion batteries" 1789:have been examined for various purposes, as have 383:with an average voltage near 1.3 V (vs Li). 16:Overview of the research in lithium-ion batteries 3332:WSU Researchers Create Super Lithium-ion Battery 3241:Sb Thin Film Electrodes for Lithium Batteries". 5949:Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 4848:Wu, Feixiang; Yushin, Gleb (15 February 2017). 4410:Umair Irfan and ClimateWire (17 January 2014). 3232: 3230: 2652:Nanotubes make for better lithium-ion batteries 789:at its core with a nonreactive outer shell, SnO 5815:"Customized Lithium ion Battery Pack Supplier" 3432: 3430: 1721:Another approached used carbon nanotube fiber 6572: 4215:Zavalij, Peter; Whittingham, Stanley (1999). 3347:. MacroCurrent. 30 April 2013. Archived from 2988:Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 1538:An experimental lithium metal battery with a 1519:Bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide lithium salt 977:of hierarchical vanadium oxide nanoflowers (V 8: 5559:, TreeHugger, 5 February 2014, Derek Markham 4090:Qi, Zhaoxiang; Koenig, Gary M. (July 2017). 3476:Fransson, L.; Vaughey, John; Thackeray, M.; 1480:Conventional electrolytes generally contain 1278:announced a solid-state battery with higher 823:discovered that wrapping a thin film into a 5769:Cieza, Rebecca E.; Whitacrea, J.F. (2017). 4141:"Flow batteries with solid energy boosters" 1770:Nanoarchitectures for lithium-ion batteries 1173:and is structurally related to the mineral 53:Learn how and when to remove these messages 6806: 6605: 6598: 6579: 6565: 6557: 6546:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4738:, Gigaom, 28 July 2014, Katie Fehrenbacher 3376:Advanced Materials (Deerfield Beach, Fla.) 2893: 2891: 1577:/NCM88 cathode material with a dual-anion 1367:nanocomposite with carbon. A lithiated FeF 1291:crystal structure gave it seven times the 1140:reported on the discovery of lithium rich 821:University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 692:University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 597:University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 582:In 2014, researchers encapsulated silicon 464:As as a lithium-ion conductive component. 379:) was reported in 2011 by Han, Huang, and 207:has produced many proposed refinements of 6427: 6310: 6260:Monthly Journal of Taipower's Engineering 6238: 6228: 6195: 6162: 6050: 6001: 5991: 5879: 5794: 5471: 5461: 4815: 4690: 4386: 4232: 4156: 4115: 4030: 3939: 3898: 3729: 3387: 3210: 2999: 2697: 2602: 2592: 1991: 1981: 1901: 1883: 636:(TEOS). The material was then exposed to 610:Porous-silicon inorganic-electrode design 308:form of titanium dioxide and the lithium 190:Learn how and when to remove this message 172:Learn how and when to remove this message 110:Learn how and when to remove this message 5914:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 5848:batteries based on the UL 1974 standard" 4604:A123's new battery tech goes to extremes 1760:) of various materials to their design. 932:, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide 743:is an intermetallic alloy with a defect 152:Relevant discussion may be found on the 5316:Angewandte Chemie International Edition 3516:growth on a copper current collector". 3451:Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 3243:European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry 1857: 1276:University of Dayton Research Institute 1033:. The materials of the stoichiometry Li 6539: 4717:. 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The cells achieved a 1250:transmission electron microscopy 1045:are similar to the lithium rich 940:which can be combined with most 595:In 2021 Paul V.Braun's group at 333:Nanyang Technological University 126: 64: 23: 5181:Hislop, Martin (1 March 2017). 4069:10.1016/j.electacta.2017.01.061 3759:Electrochemistry Communications 3628:Journal of Alloys and Compounds 3160:Journal of Alloys and Compounds 2204:10.1016/j.electacta.2012.03.098 1437:Solid-state lithium-ion battery 1199:Lithium manganese silicon oxide 814:Three-dimensional nanostructure 42:or discuss these issues on the 6719:Lithium iron phosphate battery 6509:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.03.095 6473:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.12.154 6039:World Electric Vehicle Journal 5796:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.11.054 5721:Borghino, Dario (2 May 2014). 5069:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.01.004 4496:Journal of Materials Chemistry 4465:. 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4785: 4757: 4751: 4745: 4739: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4694: 4670: 4664: 4663: 4643: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4617: 4611: 4601: 4595: 4589: 4583: 4582: 4546: 4540: 4539: 4518: 4512: 4511: 4508:10.1039/b702425h 4491: 4485: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4459: 4453: 4452: 4450: 4448: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4424: 4422: 4407: 4401: 4400: 4390: 4342: 4336: 4335: 4306: 4300: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4236: 4212: 4206: 4205: 4202:10.1039/b819629j 4185: 4179: 4178: 4160: 4136: 4130: 4129: 4119: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4051: 4045: 4044: 4034: 4002: 3996: 3995: 3993: 3991: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3943: 3919: 3913: 3912: 3902: 3870: 3864: 3858: 3852: 3846: 3840: 3839: 3815: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3750: 3744: 3743: 3733: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3658: 3652: 3651: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3504: 3498: 3497: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3434: 3425: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3391: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3351:on 28 April 2014 3341: 3335: 3329: 3323: 3322: 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Reviews 1862: 1847:Trickle charging 1783:Carbon nanotubes 1779:within another. 1748:Volume expansion 1729:without damage. 1602: 1600: 1599: 1591: 1590: 1576: 1575: 1574: 1566: 1565: 1557: 1556: 1548: 1547: 1304:Transition metal 1227: 1226: 1225: 1217: 1216: 909:molybdenum oxide 844:Sn loading in a 657:, discovered by 605:Nanowire battery 591:Silicon nanowire 498:carbon nanotubes 427:molybdenum oxide 415: 413: 412: 296:Titanium dioxide 223:machine learning 195: 188: 177: 170: 166: 163: 157: 130: 129: 122: 115: 108: 104: 101: 95: 92:inline citations 68: 67: 60: 49: 27: 26: 19: 6849: 6848: 6844: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6839: 6838: 6824: 6823: 6822: 6817: 6789: 6753: 6685: 6590: 6585: 6555: 6538: 6534: 6521: 6520: 6516: 6485: 6484: 6480: 6450: 6449: 6445: 6400: 6399: 6395: 6372: 6371: 6367: 6333: 6332: 6328: 6305:: 73215–73252. 6292: 6291: 6287: 6253: 6252: 6248: 6210: 6209: 6205: 6177: 6176: 6172: 6144: 6143: 6139: 6092: 6091: 6087: 6065: 6064: 6060: 6032: 6031: 6027: 5973: 5972: 5968: 5946: 5945: 5941: 5910: 5909: 5905: 5852:Scientific Data 5847: 5841: 5840: 5833: 5823: 5821: 5813: 5812: 5808: 5768: 5767: 5763: 5753: 5751: 5746: 5745: 5741: 5731: 5729: 5720: 5719: 5715: 5705: 5703: 5692: 5691: 5687: 5677: 5675: 5666: 5665: 5661: 5653: 5649: 5610: 5609: 5605: 5595: 5593: 5584: 5583: 5579: 5567: 5563: 5555: 5551: 5538: 5537: 5533: 5525: 5521: 5513: 5509: 5501: 5497: 5443: 5442: 5438: 5407: 5406: 5402: 5356: 5355: 5351: 5312: 5311: 5307: 5260: 5259: 5252: 5242: 5241: 5237: 5207: 5206: 5202: 5192: 5190: 5180: 5179: 5175: 5153: 5152: 5148: 5138: 5136: 5127: 5126: 5122: 5112: 5110: 5101: 5100: 5096: 5088: 5084: 5042: 5041: 5037: 5011: 5010: 5006: 4948: 4947: 4936: 4886: 4885: 4881: 4847: 4846: 4833: 4797: 4796: 4789: 4762:ChemistrySelect 4759: 4758: 4754: 4746: 4742: 4734: 4730: 4720: 4718: 4713: 4712: 4708: 4672: 4671: 4667: 4645: 4644: 4640: 4630: 4628: 4619: 4618: 4614: 4602: 4598: 4590: 4586: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4520: 4519: 4515: 4493: 4492: 4488: 4482: 4478: 4468: 4466: 4461: 4460: 4456: 4446: 4444: 4435: 4434: 4430: 4420: 4418: 4409: 4408: 4404: 4344: 4343: 4339: 4308: 4307: 4303: 4293: 4291: 4282: 4281: 4277: 4255: 4254: 4250: 4214: 4213: 4209: 4187: 4186: 4182: 4138: 4137: 4133: 4089: 4088: 4084: 4053: 4052: 4048: 4004: 4003: 3999: 3989: 3987: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3921: 3920: 3916: 3872: 3871: 3867: 3859: 3855: 3847: 3843: 3817: 3816: 3812: 3802: 3800: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3756: 3752: 3751: 3747: 3711: 3710: 3706: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3659: 3655: 3634:(13): 4457–61. 3625: 3624: 3620: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3565: 3561: 3515: 3511: 3506: 3505: 3501: 3475: 3474: 3470: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3435: 3428: 3418: 3416: 3369: 3368: 3364: 3354: 3352: 3343: 3342: 3338: 3330: 3326: 3296: 3295: 3291: 3281: 3279: 3270: 3269: 3262: 3240: 3236: 3235: 3228: 3192: 3191: 3187: 3153: 3152: 3148: 3138: 3136: 3127: 3126: 3122: 3084: 3083: 3079: 3069: 3067: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3022: 3021: 3017: 2981: 2980: 2976: 2966: 2964: 2935: 2934: 2930: 2920: 2918: 2909: 2908: 2904: 2896: 2889: 2867: 2866: 2862: 2824: 2823: 2819: 2773: 2772: 2768: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2731: 2729: 2720: 2719: 2715: 2663: 2662: 2658: 2650: 2646: 2636: 2634: 2625: 2624: 2620: 2567:Lei, W (2015). 2566: 2565: 2561: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2488: 2487: 2483: 2461: 2460: 2456: 2410: 2409: 2405: 2383: 2382: 2378: 2356: 2355: 2351: 2314:(5358): 37–40. 2305: 2304: 2300: 2290: 2288: 2279: 2278: 2274: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2223: 2219: 2185: 2184: 2180: 2146: 2145: 2141: 2107: 2106: 2102: 2068: 2067: 2063: 2029: 2028: 2024: 2016: 2009: 1963: 1962: 1958: 1924: 1923: 1919: 1864: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1838: 1831: 1821: 1809: 1772: 1766: 1750: 1709: 1700: 1680: 1626: 1621: 1613:specific energy 1598: 1595: 1594: 1593: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1584: 1582: 1573: 1570: 1569: 1568: 1564: 1561: 1560: 1559: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1550: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1499: 1478: 1473: 1460: 1451: 1439: 1433: 1417: 1406: 1402: 1397:organic solvent 1385: 1378: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1342: 1334: 1326: 1301: 1272: 1266: 1259: 1255: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1219: 1215: 1212: 1211: 1210: 1208: 1201: 1185: 1171:John Goodenough 1168: 1163: 1134: 1128: 1123: 1117: 1097: 1077: 1068: 1055: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1019: 1012: 1008: 1004: 992: 984: 980: 962: 960:Vanadium oxides 918: 914: 896: 871:Michael Gratzel 867: 854: 848:configuration. 838:supercapacitors 816: 808: 804: 799: 792: 788: 784: 779: 775: 771: 766: 762: 758: 754: 742: 738: 733: 731: 727: 719: 715: 711: 705: 682:researchers at 672: 668: 651: 625: 617: 612: 607: 593: 569: 550: 526: 520: 483: 478: 463: 455: 411: 408: 407: 406: 404: 398: 389: 378: 374: 370: 366: 361: 354: 350: 346: 342: 326: 319: 315: 298: 291: 277: 256: 236: 231: 196: 185: 184: 183: 178: 167: 161: 158: 151: 141:which does not 131: 127: 116: 105: 99: 96: 81: 69: 65: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6847: 6845: 6837: 6836: 6826: 6825: 6819: 6818: 6816: 6815: 6802: 6799: 6798: 6795: 6794: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6787: 6785:Wireless power 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6761: 6759: 6755: 6754: 6752: 6751: 6749:Ultracapacitor 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6695: 6693: 6687: 6686: 6684: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6646:Home fuel cell 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6612: 6610: 6603: 6596: 6592: 6591: 6586: 6584: 6583: 6576: 6569: 6561: 6554: 6553: 6532: 6514: 6478: 6443: 6393: 6365: 6326: 6285: 6246: 6203: 6170: 6137: 6085: 6058: 6025: 5966: 5939: 5903: 5845: 5831: 5806: 5761: 5739: 5713: 5685: 5659: 5647: 5603: 5577: 5561: 5549: 5531: 5519: 5507: 5495: 5436: 5400: 5349: 5305: 5250: 5235: 5200: 5173: 5146: 5120: 5094: 5082: 5035: 5004: 4934: 4879: 4860:(2): 435–459. 4831: 4787: 4752: 4740: 4728: 4706: 4665: 4638: 4612: 4610:, 12 June 2012 4596: 4584: 4541: 4513: 4486: 4476: 4454: 4428: 4402: 4337: 4301: 4275: 4248: 4227:(5): 627–663. 4207: 4180: 4151:(4): 731–766. 4131: 4082: 4046: 3997: 3971: 3914: 3865: 3853: 3841: 3810: 3784: 3754: 3745: 3704: 3677:(6): A448–51. 3666: 3662: 3653: 3618: 3572: 3568: 3559: 3513: 3509: 3499: 3468: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3426: 3382:(4): 742–747. 3362: 3336: 3324: 3289: 3260: 3238: 3226: 3205:(6): A909–15. 3185: 3146: 3120: 3077: 3051: 3015: 2974: 2948:(3): 174–181. 2928: 2902: 2887: 2860: 2817: 2782:(5): 366–377. 2766: 2739: 2713: 2656: 2644: 2618: 2559: 2532: 2481: 2454: 2403: 2376: 2349: 2298: 2272: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2217: 2178: 2159:(2): 880–884. 2139: 2100: 2081:(2): 621–626. 2061: 2022: 2007: 1956: 1917: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1850: 1849: 1844: 1837: 1834: 1829: 1820: 1817: 1808: 1805: 1768:Main article: 1765: 1764:Nanotechnology 1762: 1749: 1746: 1708: 1705: 1699: 1696: 1679: 1676: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1596: 1587: 1571: 1562: 1553: 1544: 1535: 1532: 1498: 1495: 1477: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1459: 1456: 1450: 1447: 1435:Main article: 1432: 1429: 1416: 1413: 1404: 1400: 1384: 1381: 1376: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1340: 1332: 1325: 1322: 1300: 1297: 1293:energy density 1280:energy density 1268:Main article: 1265: 1262: 1257: 1253: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1222: 1213: 1200: 1197: 1183: 1166: 1162: 1159: 1151:Chevrolet Bolt 1147:Chevrolet Volt 1127: 1124: 1116: 1113: 1101:energy density 1096: 1093: 1084:graphite oxide 1075: 1067: 1064: 1054: 1051: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1018: 1015: 1010: 1006: 1002: 990: 982: 978: 961: 958: 950:titanium oxide 916: 912: 895: 892: 884:energy density 866: 863: 853: 850: 830:energy density 815: 812: 806: 802: 798: 795: 790: 786: 782: 777: 773: 769: 764: 760: 756: 752: 740: 736: 732: 729: 725: 722: 717: 713: 709: 708:for example Cu 704: 701: 696:Li-ion battery 688:electroplating 686:used standard 670: 666: 663:Robert Huggins 650: 647: 624: 621: 615: 611: 608: 603:Main article: 592: 589: 568: 565: 548: 541:energy density 522:Main article: 519: 516: 482: 479: 461: 453: 409: 397: 394: 388: 385: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 357: 352: 348: 344: 340: 324: 317: 313: 297: 294: 289: 276: 273: 255: 252: 235: 232: 230: 227: 213:energy density 198: 197: 180: 179: 134: 132: 125: 118: 117: 72: 70: 63: 58: 32: 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6846: 6835: 6832: 6831: 6829: 6814: 6813: 6804: 6803: 6800: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6756: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6696: 6694: 6692: 6688: 6682: 6681:Vortex engine 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6611: 6607: 6604: 6600: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6582: 6577: 6575: 6570: 6568: 6563: 6562: 6559: 6549: 6543: 6535: 6533:9781119321859 6529: 6526:. Singapore. 6525: 6518: 6515: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6490: 6482: 6479: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6447: 6444: 6439: 6435: 6430: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6414:(8): 100537. 6413: 6409: 6405: 6397: 6394: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6376:Energy Policy 6369: 6366: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6330: 6327: 6322: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6289: 6286: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6250: 6247: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6207: 6204: 6198: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6184:Energy Policy 6181: 6174: 6171: 6165: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6141: 6138: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6089: 6086: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6062: 6059: 6053: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6029: 6026: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5970: 5967: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5943: 5940: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5907: 5904: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5838: 5836: 5832: 5820: 5816: 5810: 5807: 5803: 5797: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5765: 5762: 5749: 5743: 5740: 5728: 5724: 5717: 5714: 5702: 5701: 5696: 5689: 5686: 5674: 5670: 5663: 5660: 5656: 5651: 5648: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5614:Nature Energy 5607: 5604: 5591: 5587: 5581: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5565: 5562: 5558: 5553: 5550: 5545: 5541: 5535: 5532: 5528: 5523: 5520: 5516: 5511: 5508: 5504: 5499: 5496: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5474: 5473:11573/1588399 5469: 5464: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5440: 5437: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5404: 5401: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5365:(6263): 918. 5364: 5360: 5353: 5350: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5309: 5306: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5257: 5255: 5251: 5246: 5239: 5236: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5204: 5201: 5188: 5184: 5177: 5174: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5150: 5147: 5135: 5131: 5124: 5121: 5108: 5104: 5098: 5095: 5091: 5086: 5083: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5039: 5036: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5008: 5005: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4842: 4840: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4794: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4756: 4753: 4749: 4744: 4741: 4737: 4732: 4729: 4716: 4710: 4707: 4702: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4669: 4666: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4642: 4639: 4626: 4622: 4616: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4588: 4585: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4545: 4542: 4537: 4533: 4530:: A235–A243. 4529: 4525: 4517: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4490: 4487: 4480: 4477: 4464: 4458: 4455: 4442: 4438: 4432: 4429: 4417: 4413: 4406: 4403: 4398: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4341: 4338: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4305: 4302: 4290: 4286: 4279: 4276: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4252: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4211: 4208: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4184: 4181: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4135: 4132: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4102:(4): 040801. 4101: 4097: 4093: 4086: 4083: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4050: 4047: 4042: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4001: 3998: 3986: 3982: 3975: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3918: 3915: 3910: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3869: 3866: 3862: 3857: 3854: 3850: 3845: 3842: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3814: 3811: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3785: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3749: 3746: 3741: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3657: 3654: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3622: 3619: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 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