Standard English - Knowledge

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practice was supposedly created by the government of Henry V, and was supposedly the precursor of Standard English. However, this assertion attracted strong objections, such as those made by Norman Davis, T. Haskett, R. J. Watts, and Reiko Takeda. Takeda points out that "the language of the documents displays much variation and it is not clear from the collection what exactly 'Chancery English' is, linguistically" (for a critique of Fisher's assertions, see Takeda.) For a critique of Fisher's philological work, see Michael Benskin 2004, who calls his scholarship "uninformed not only philologically but historically".

735:, it is no longer felt necessary to posit unevidenced migrations of peoples to account for movement of words, morphemes and spelling conventions from the provinces into Standard English. Such multiregionalisms in Standard English are explained by the fifteenth-century countrywide expansion of business, trade and commerce, with linguistic elements passed around communities of practice and along weak-tie trade networks, both orally and in writing. 784:

London. He thought that upper-class speech would have been influential, although he also suggested influence from the Danelaw in general. Thus his dataset was very limited, by 'standard' he meant a few spellings and morphemes rather than a dialect per se, his data did not support migration from the East Midlands, and he made unsupported assumptions about the influence of the speech of the upper classes (details in Laura Wright 2020).

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audience: if the text was aimed at professionals, then the text was written in Latin; if it was aimed at non-professionals, then the text was written in Anglo-Norman until the mid-fifteenth century and either Latin or English thereafter. More oral, less predictable texts were aimed at non-professionals as correspondence, ordinances, oaths, conditions of obligation, and occasional leases and sales.

991: 224:(monographs, academic papers, internet). This diversity in registers also exists between the spoken and the written forms of SE, which are characterised by degrees of formality; therefore, Standard English is distinct from formal English, because it features stylistic variations, ranging from casual to formal. Furthermore, the usage codes of 589:, remarks that, against the practice of other nations, English children learn Latin grammar in French. Ingham analysed how Anglo-Norman syntax and morphology written in Britain began to differ from Anglo-Norman syntax and morphology written on the Continent from the 1370s onwards until the language fell out of use in Britain in the 1430s. 864:

French before the first third of the fifteenth century, and after that date in English. As with mixed-language writing, there followed decades of switching back and forth before the Crown committed to writing in monolingual English so that the first English royal letter of 1417 did not signal a wholesale switchover.

614:

features "urban-hopped" in texts from Cheshire and Staffordshire ("urban-hopping" refers to texts copied in cities being more standardised than those copied in smaller towns and villages, which contained more local dialect features); a lower frequency of regionally-marked spellings were found in wills from urban

609:

When monolingual English replaced Anglo-Norman French, it took over its pragmatic functions too. A survey of the Middle English Local Documents corpus, containing 2,017 texts from 766 different locations around England written 1399–1525, found that language choice was conditioned by the readership or

592:

After the last quarter of the fourteenth century Anglo-Norman written in England displayed the kind of grammatical levelling which occurs as the result of language acquired in adulthood, and deduces that the use of Anglo-Norman in England as a spoken vehicle for teaching in childhood must have ceased

658:

This shows that the reduction of variation in supralocal varieties of English was due to the influence of Anglo-Norman and mixed-language: when English took over their pragmatic roles, it also took on their quality of spelling uniformity. Members of the gentry and professionals, in contradistinction

867:

Latin was still the dominant language in the second half of the fifteenth century. As Merja Stenroos put it, "the main change was the reduction in the use of French, and the long-term development was towards more Latin, not less. On the whole, the output of government documents in English continued

852:

John H. Fisher and his collaborators asserted that the orthography of a selection of documents including Signet Letters of Henry V, copies of petitions sent to the Court of Chancery, and indentures now kept in The National Archives, constituted what he called "Chancery English". This orthographical

795:

He shifted Ekwall's hypothesis from the East to the Central Midlands, he classified late medieval London and other texts into Types I-IV, and he introduced the label '"Chancery Standard'" to describe writing from the King's Office of Chancery, which he claimed was the precursor of Standard English.

415:

In the past, different scholars have meant different things by the phrase 'Standard English', when describing its emergence in medieval and early modern England. In the nineteenth century, it tended to be used in relation to the wordstock. Nineteenth-century scholars Earle and Kington-Oliphant

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to monolingual English around the middle of the century. Scribes working for the Crown wrote in Latin, but scribes working for individuals petitioning the king – it is likely that individuals engaged professionals to write on their behalf, but who these scribes were is not usually known – wrote in

832:

These divisions have subsequently proved problematical, partly because Samuels did not specify exactly which manuscripts fall into which class, and partly because other scholars do not see inherent cohesiveness within each Type. Matti Peikola examining Type 1, ('Central Midland Standard') spelling

783:

of 1066 and 1360. By this method, he found that most Londoners who bore surnames from elsewhere indicated an origin in London's hinterland, not from East Anglia or the East Midlands. Nevertheless, he hypothesised that East Midlands upper-class speakers did affect the speech of the upper classes in

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such as accountants auditing income and outgoings, merchants keeping track of wares and payments, and lawyers writing letters on behalf of clients, led to the development of specific writing conventions for specific spheres of activity. English letter-writers 1424–1474 in one community of practice

637:

However, these late fifteenth- and sixteenth-century supralocal varieties of English were not yet standardised. Medieval Latin, Anglo-Norman and mixed-language set a precedent model, as Latin and French had long been conventionalised on the page and their range of variation was limited. Supralocal

613:

The supralocal varieties of English which replaced Anglo-Norman in the late fifteenth century were still regional, but less so than fourteenth-century Middle English had been, particularly with regard to morphemes, closed-class words and spelling sequences. As some examples: less regionally-marked

600:

The pragmatic function for which Anglo-Norman had been used – largely administering money – became replaced by monolingual English or Latin. Anglo-Norman was abandoned towards the end of the fourteenth century, though the consequent absorption of many of its written features into written

779:, which he thought could not be East Saxon and so must be from eastern Anglian territory. He, therefore, examined locative surnames in order to discover whether people bearing names originating from settlements in the East Midlands (in which he included East Anglia) migrated to London between the 649:

As people in cities and towns increasingly did business with each other, words, morphemes and spelling-sequences were transferred around the country by means of speaker-contact, writer-contact and the repeat back-and-forth encounters inherent in trading activity, from places of greater density to

406:

among the varieties. In American and Australian English, for example, "sunk" and "shrunk" as past-tense forms of "sink" and "shrink" are acceptable as standard forms, whereas standard British English retains only the past-tense forms of "sank" and "shrank". In Afrikaner South African English, the

528:

The mixed-language system was abandoned over the fifteenth century, and at different times in different places, it became replaced by monolingual supralocal English, although it was not always a straightforward exchange. For example, Alcolado-Carnicero surveyed the London Mercers' Livery Company

496:

However, Lucia Kornexl defines the classification of Late West Saxon Standard as rather constituting a set of orthographic norms than a standardised dialect, as there was no such thing as standardisation of Old English in the modern sense: Old English did not standardise in terms of reduction of

566:

The rise of written monolingual English was due to the abandonment of Anglo-Norman French between 1375 and 1425, with subsequent absorption into supralocal varieties of English of much of its wordstock and many of its written conventions. Some of these conventions were to last, such as minimal

532:

Individual scribes spent whole careers in the mixed-language stage, with no knowledge that monolingual English would be the eventual outcome and that it was in fact a stage of transition. For much of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, writing in mixed-language was the professional norm in

545:

was used increasingly, mainly for local communication. Up until the later fifteenth century, it was characterised by great regional and spelling variation. After the middle of the fifteenth century, supralocal monolingual varieties of English began to evolve for numerous pragmatic functions.

464:

In the twenty-first century, scholars consider all of the above and more, including the rate of standardisation across different text-types such as administrative documents; the role of the individual in spreading standardisation; the influence of multilingual and mixed-language writing; the

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This finding that the middling classes uptook French elements into English first is in keeping with estate administrators' reduction of spelling variation in words of French origin: in both cases, the literate professional classes ported Anglo-Norman writing conventions into their English.

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which aims to describe dialectal variation in Middle English between 1350 and 1450. The final date was chosen to reflect the increasing standardisation of written English. Although as they note, "The dialects of the spoken language did not die out, but those of the written language did".

820:

did not support the possibility of an East Anglian or East Midland migration, and he replaced it by hypothesising a migration of people from the Central Midlands, although without historical evidence. Like Ekwall, Samuels was not dogmatic and presented his work as preliminary.

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Subsequently, attention shifted to the regional distribution of phonemes. Morsbach, Heuser and Ekwall conceived of standardisation largely as relating to sound-change, especially as indicated by spellings for vowels in stressed syllables, with a lesser emphasis on morphology.

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Jacob Thaisen analysing the orthography of texts forming Type 2 found no consistent similarities between different scribes' spelling choices and no obvious overlap of selection signalling incipient standardisation, concluding "it is time to lay the types to rest".

840:

Simon Horobin examining spelling in Type 3 texts reported "such variation warns us against viewing these types of London English as discrete … we must view Samuels' typology as a linguistic continuum rather than as a series of discrete linguistic varieties".

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Mid-twentieth-century scholars McIntosh and Samuels continued to focus on the distribution of spelling practice but as primary artefacts, which are not necessarily evidence of underlying articulatory reality. Their work led to the publication of the

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deletion of verbal complements is becoming common. This phenomenon sees the objects of transitive verbs being omitted: "Did you get?", "You can put in the box". This kind of construction is infrequent in most other standardised varieties of English.

516:

more than they wrote in monolingual English. In addition, a widely used system developed which mixed several languages together, typically with Medieval Latin as the grammatical basis, adding in nouns, noun-modifiers, compound-nouns, verb-stems and

655:(estate administrators) reduced spelling variation in words of Romance origin but not in words of English origin, reflecting the pragmatics of law and administration, which had previously been the domain of Anglo-Norman and mixed-language. 743:

Although the following hypotheses have now been superseded, they still prevail in literature aimed at students. However more recent handbook accounts such as those of Ursula Schaeffer and Joan C. Beal explain that they are insufficient.

344:), English has also become the most widely used second language. Countries in which English is neither indigenous nor widely spoken as an additional language may import a variety of English via instructional materials (typically 578:

Anglo-Norman was the variety of French that was widely used by the educated classes in late medieval England. It was used, for example, as the teaching language in grammar schools. For example, the Benedictine monk

833:

ratios in the orthography of 68 hands who wrote manuscripts of the Later Version of the Wycliffite Bible, concluded: "it is difficult to sustain a 'grand unifying theory' about Central Midland Standard".

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Standard English was not to settle into its present form until the early nineteenth century. It contains elements from different geographical regions, "an urban amalgam drawing on non-adjacent dialects".

232:

of Standard English, and thus more readily accept and integrate new vocabulary and grammatical forms. Functionally, the national varieties of SE are characterised by generally accepted rules, often

134:, Standard English is a social dialect pre-eminently used in writing that is distinguishable from other English dialects largely by a small group of grammatical "idiosyncrasies", such as irregular 185:. By virtue of a phenomenon sociolinguists call "elaboration of function", specific linguistic features attributed to a standardised dialect become associated with nonlinguistic social markers of 849:

Samuels's Type IV, dating after 1435, was labelled by Samuels 'Chancery Standard' because it was supposedly the dialect in which letters from the King's Office of Chancery supposedly emanated.

558:

Thus, the early stage of standardisation can be identified by the reduction of grammatical and orthographical variants and loss of geographically marked variants in the writing of individuals.

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Gwilym Dodd has shown that most letters written by scribes from the Office of Chancery were in Medieval Latin and that petitions to the Crown shifted from Anglo-Norman French before

493:

began to influence writing practices in other parts of England. The first variety of English to be called a "standard literary language" was the West Saxon variety of Old English.

1571:

The relationship of borrowing from French and Latin in the Middle English period with the development of the lexicon of standard English: some observations and a lot of questions

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variation, reduction of regional variation, selection of word-stock, standardisation of morphology or syntax, or use of one dialect for all written purposes everywhere.

469:; standardisation of the wordstock; evolution of technical registers; standardisation of morphemes; standardisation of letter-graphs, and the partial standardisation of 189:(like wealth or education). The standardised dialect itself, in other words, is not linguistically superior to other dialects of English used by an Anglophone society. 1184: 752:

Bror Eilert Ekwall hypothesised that Standard English developed from the language of upper-class East Midland merchants who influenced speakers in the City of London.

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The term "Standard" refers to the regularisation of the grammar, spelling, usages of the language and not to minimal desirability or interchangeability (e.g., a

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Wardens' Accounts and found that they switched back and forth for over seventy years between 1390 and 1464 before finally committing to monolingual English.

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However, each scribe made individual selections so that the pool of possible variants per feature still remained wide at the turn of the sixteenth century.

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to the nobility and lower commoners, were the main users of French suffixes in a survey of the Parsed Corpus of Early English Correspondence, 1410–1681.

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Dodd, Gwilym (2012). "Trilingualism in the Medieval English Bureaucracy: The Use—and Disuse—of Languages in the Fifteenth-Century Privy Seal Office".

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and historical migrations of English-speaking populations, and the predominant use of English as the international language of trade and commerce (a

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pronouns, and single negation, multiple negations being common in Old and Middle English and remaining so in spoken regional varieties of English.

796:

Samuels did not question Ekwall's original assumption that there must have been a migration from somewhere north of London to account for certain

682:

from northern ones. An example of multiregional spelling is provided by the reflex of Old English /y(:)/ – Old English /y(:)/ was written as

1794:

Social Networks and Mixed-Language Business Writing: Latin/French/English in the Wardens' Accounts of the Mercers' Company of London, 1390–1464

3726: 3665: 3450: 2268: 1213: 1141: 521:

forms from Anglo-Norman French and Middle English. This mixing of the three in a grammatically regular system is known to modern scholars as

2242:

Burridge, Kate and Bernd Kortmann (eds). 2008. "Varieties of English: vol 3, The Pacific and Australasia" (Berlin and NY: Mouton de Gruyter)

500:

The Norman Conquest of 1066 decreased the usage of Old English, but it was still used in parts of the country for at least another century.

416:

conceived of the standardisation of English in terms of ratios of Romance to Germanic vocabulary. Earle claimed that the works of the poets

3685: 2758: 2643: 1875:

Cuesta, Julia Fernández (2014). "The Voice of the Dead: Analyzing Sociolinguistic Variation in Early Modern English Wills and Testaments".

549:

Supralocalisation is where "dialect features with a limited geographical distribution are replaced by features with a wider distribution".

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varieties of English took on this uniformity by reducing more regionally-marked features and permitting only one or two minor variants.

1718: 3271: 1015:, etc., mixed in with manually written citations that are inconsistent and which cannot be targeted by short-footnote templates like 2542: 2489: 2456: 2437: 2418: 2392: 2364: 2329: 2308: 2289: 2224: 1168: 1049: 597:

administrative (episcopal, municipal, manorial) documents written 1399–1525 showed that Anglo-Norman ceased to be used after 1425.

508:

Following the changes brought about by the Norman Conquest of 1066, England became a trilingual society. Literate people wrote in

3070: 2499:

Schneider, Edgar W. (ed). 2008. "Varieties of English: vol 2, The Americas and the Caribbean" (Berlin and NY: Mouton de Gruyter)

2466:

Kortmann, Bernd and Clive Upton (eds). 2008. "Varieties of English: vol 1, The British Isles" (Berlin and NY: Mouton de Gruyter)

3318: 3114: 2471:

Mesthrie, Rajend (ed). 2008. "Varieties of English: vol 4, Africa, South and Southeast Asia" (Berlin and NY: Mouton de Gruyter)

933:

With rare exceptions, Standard Englishes use either American or British spelling systems, or a mixture of the two (such as in

3635: 3075: 2581: 2526: 1092: 525:, and it became the later fourteenth and fifteenth-century norm for accounts, inventories, testaments and personal journals. 259:

in many countries of the world, many of which have developed one or more "national standards" (though this does not refer to

352:) and consider it "standard" for teaching and assessment purposes. Typically, British English is taught as standard across 3675: 3368: 3330: 424:, for instance, were written in what he called 'standard language' because of their amounts of French-derived vocabulary. 601:

English paralled the socio-economic improvement of the poorer, monolingually English-speaking classes over that century.

3670: 3323: 3143: 2960: 2781: 256: 59: 3731: 3046: 3036: 2634: 2601: 2597: 213: 197: 186: 127: 87: 2344: 2163:

Dodd, Gwilym (2011). "The rise of English, the decline of French: supplications to the English Crown, c. 1420-1450".

1237: 1070:

Carter, Ronald. "Standard Grammars, Spoken Grammars: Some Educational Implications". T. Bex & R. J. Watts, eds.

3630: 3345: 3203: 2614: 2252: 1205: 229: 51: 331:; each country has a standard English with a grammar, spelling and pronunciation particular to the local culture. 3721: 3716: 3610: 3136: 3094: 3065: 2997: 2965: 2574: 1998:

Peikola, Matti (2003). "The Wycliffite Bible and 'Central Midland Standard': Assessing the Manuscript Evidence".

552:

Over the later fifteenth century, individuals began to restrict their spelling ratios, selecting fewer variants.

107: 2249:

Standardising English Spelling: The Role of Printing on Sixteenth and Seventeenth-Century Graphemic Developments

130:, and it has very little of the variation found in spoken or earlier written varieties of English. According to 3335: 3289: 3188: 3161: 3126: 3021: 2892: 1495:

The 'vernacularisation' and 'standardisation' of local administrative writing in late and post-medieval England

1027: 1001: 204:

consensus. The codification is therefore not exhaustive or unanimous, but it is extensive and well-documented.

139: 71: 31: 263:, but to the frequency of consistent usage). English is the first language of the majority of the population 3547: 3380: 3198: 3173: 2234: 942: 237: 212:

Although standard English is usually associated with official communications and settings, it is diverse in

201: 2049:

Fisher, John H. (1977). "Chancery and the emergence of standard written English in the fifteenth Century".

1808:

Nevalainen, Terttu (2000). Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, David Denison, Richard M. Hogg and Chris McCully (ed.).

3462: 3440: 3244: 2941: 2910: 2788: 166: 1443:

English medieval documents of the Northwest Midlands: A study in the language of a real-space text corpus

533:

money-related text types, providing a conduit for the borrowing of Anglo-Norman vocabulary into English.

3660: 3580: 3445: 3340: 3053: 2987: 2741: 2731: 2726: 2558: 964: 651: 466: 43: 3653: 2566: 646:

Later fifteenth- and sixteenth-century supralocalisation was facilitated by increased trade networks.

440:

A number of late-twentieth-century scholars tracked morphemes as they standardised, such as auxiliary

3082: 2975: 2915: 2793: 2766: 2683: 482: 149:). For example, there are substantial differences among the language varieties that countries of the 63: 2504:

Smith, Jeremy. 1996. "An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change" (London: Routledge)

1847:

Rising Living Standards, the Demise of Anglo-Norman and Mixed Language Writing, and Standard English

1608:

A Comparison of Some French and English Nominal Suffixes in Early English Correspondence (1420-1681)

3680: 3510: 3502: 3400: 3363: 3249: 3234: 3109: 3099: 3026: 2865: 922: 513: 296: 280: 225: 221: 103: 99: 67: 1682:

Gneuss, Helmut (1972). "The origin of Standard Old English and Æthelwold's school at Winchester".

1414:

Sociolinguistics and language history: Studies based on the Corpus of Early English Correspondence

58:, associated with formal schooling, language assessment, and official print publications, such as 3570: 3537: 3472: 3455: 3310: 3131: 2678: 2668: 1588:

The role of multilingualism in the emergence of a technical register in the Middle English period

1178: 1008: 934: 361: 260: 182: 119: 1760:

Code-switching in early English: Historical background and methodological and theoretical issues

200:

with ultimate authority to codify Standard English; its codification is thus only by widespread

1894:

Changes in London's Economic Hinterland as Indicated by Debt Cases in the Court of Common Pleas

3575: 3560: 3532: 3492: 3284: 3266: 3221: 2970: 2746: 2710: 2538: 2522: 2485: 2452: 2433: 2414: 2388: 2360: 2325: 2304: 2285: 2264: 2220: 1219: 1209: 1164: 1137: 1088: 1012: 954: 193: 154: 135: 75: 55: 2339:

Crystal, David. 1997. "A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics" 4th ed. (Oxford: Blackwell)

3648: 3600: 3527: 3435: 3425: 3420: 3410: 3256: 3229: 3087: 3007: 2952: 2850: 2832: 2819: 2656: 2651: 2256: 1554:

Early mass communication as a standardizing influence? The case of the Book of Common Prayer

938: 486: 421: 349: 178: 174: 91: 47: 2102:

The Life of the Law: Proceedings of the Tenth British Legal History Conference, Oxford 1991

3565: 3467: 3405: 3375: 3358: 3183: 3058: 2879: 2855: 2827: 2798: 2771: 2736: 2623: 1810:

Processes of supralocalisation and the rise of Standard English in the Early Modern Period

1517:

Communities of practice, proto-standardisation and spelling focusing in the Stonor Letters

974: 780: 393: 381: 345: 162: 146: 115: 1831:

Akten des I. Kongresses der Internationalen Gesellschaft fur Dialektologie des Deutschen

3640: 3555: 3515: 3415: 3239: 2992: 2897: 2887: 2803: 2605: 1459:

A Study of Multilingualism in the Late Medieval Material of the Hampshire Record Office

1031: 1020: 969: 542: 509: 268: 252: 131: 2357:

From Old English to Standard English: A Course Book in Language Variations Across Time

2115:

The social construction of Standard English: grammar writers as a 'discourse community

886: 3710: 3690: 3605: 3261: 3178: 3119: 3031: 2982: 2860: 2842: 2381: 2319: 2279: 1016: 585: 580: 369: 340: 272: 169:

accent, and the grammar and vocabulary of United Kingdom Standard English (UKSE); in

2374:

Gorlach, Manfred. 1997. "The Linguistic History of English" (Basingstoke: Macmillan)

376:. This does, however, vary between regions and individual teachers. In some areas a 3193: 3041: 2920: 2535:

The Development of Standard English, 1300 - 1800: Theories, descriptions, conflicts

2509:

Thorne, Sarah. 1997. "Mastering Advanced English Language" (Basingstoke: Macmillan)

1369:

Samuels, Michael Louis (1963). "Some Applications of Middle English Dialectology".

335: 324: 248: 111: 2146:

Benskin, Michael (2004). Christian Kay, Carole Hough and Irené Wotherspoon (ed.).

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in the south-east and south-east Midlands. Standard English retains multiregional

2478: 2135:

The Question of the 'Standardisation' of Written English in the Fifteenth Century

1158: 1758:

Schendl, Herbert; Wright, Laura (2011). Herbert Schendl and Laura Wright (ed.).

1537:

Spelling practices in late middle English medical prose: a quantitative analysis

1475:

Yeuen at Cavmbrigg': A Study of the Late Medieval English Documents of Cambridge

1026:

The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of

631: 490: 470: 399: 320: 288: 150: 17: 3104: 1825:

Vandekerckhove, Reinhild (2005). Jurgen Schmidt and Dieter Stellmacher (ed.).

1223: 417: 403: 365: 217: 123: 95: 1741:

Wright, Laura (2012). Merja Stenroos, Martti Mäkinen and Inge Særheim (ed.).

2661: 2405:, American Speech, Vol. 52, No. 1/2 (Spring - Summer, 1977), pp. 65–75. 1777:

William Worcester's Itineraria: mixed-language notes of a medieval traveller

1743:

On variation and change in London medieval mixed-language business documents

623: 619: 594: 373: 357: 284: 1904:. London: Centre for Metropolitan History Working Papers Series. pp. 59–82. 1199: 2260: 1241: 181:

variety is the spoken standard; and in Australia, the standard English is

2688: 1934:. Heidelberg: Winter. Although see Kitson (2004) for critical discussion. 627: 316: 304: 170: 1401:

The Auxiliary Do: The Establishment and Regulation of Its Use in English

402:

are similar, there are minor grammatical differences and divergences of

3625: 3620: 3430: 2776: 2703: 2698: 328: 300: 292: 244: 233: 83: 1943:

Schaefer, Ursula (2012). Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton (ed.).

2693: 2673: 2182:

The spread of English in the records of central government, 1400-1430

2085:

Five Hundred years of Words and Sounds: a Festschrift for Eric Dobson

377: 353: 276: 79: 792:

Michael Louis Samuels criticised Ekwall's East Midlands hypothesis.

1629:: Latin-based influences and social awareness in the Paston letters 829:

Samuels classified fifteenth century manuscripts into four Types.

593:

around the end of the fourteenth century. An examination of 7,070

312: 2237:

1996. "A History of the English Language" (Basingstoke: Palgrave)

1827:

Patterns of variation and convergence n the West-Flemish dialects

2032:

Horobin, Simon (2003). "The Language of the Chaucer Tradition".

723: 713: 703: 615: 2570: 2321:

The Fight for English: How language pundits ate, shot and left

2066:

Fisher, John H.; Richardson, Malcolm; Fisher, Jane L. (1984).

1087:. Tony Bex and Richard J. Watts, eds. London: Routledge, 125. 1083:

Trudgill, Peter (1999). "Standard English: What It Isn't". In

984: 881: 731:

Unlike earlier twentieth-century histories of standardisation

126:, although many of them originated in different, non-adjacent 1915:

On margins of error in placing Old English literary dialects

626:

were less regionally marked than those from the surrounding

1913:

Kitson, Peter (2004). Marina Dossena and Roger Lass (ed.).

1898:

Trade, Urban Hinterlands and Market Integration c.1300-1600

1623:

Hernández Campoy, Juan Manuel (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.).

804:

letter-graphs in stressed syllables, present plural suffix

767:

letter-graphs in stressed syllables, present plural suffix

674:

from south-western dialects and third-person present tense

2403:

Thomas Sheridan: A Chapter in the Saga of Standard English

1515:

Conde Silvestre, Juan Camilo (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.).

2430:

Standards of English. Codified Varieties around the World

2017:

Standardisation, exemplars, and the Auchinleck manuscript

70:

are subject to the effects of standardisation, including

2098:

Country lawyers? The composers of English Chancery bills

1970:

The Cambridge Handbook of English Historical Linguistics

1964:

Beal, Joan C. (2016). Merja Kytö and Päivi Pahta (ed.).

816:

in fifteenth-century London texts, but his work for the

2451:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2079:

Davis, Norman (1983). E. G. Stanley and D. Gray (ed.).

1983:

A Critical Look at Accounts of How English Standardised

1796:. University of Castilla-La Mancha: PhD thesis. p. 217. 1337:

Alt-London mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Dialekts

1204:. Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds (2nd ed.). : 897: 567:

spelling variation, and some were not, such as digraph

1951:. Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science. 1667:

Textual standardisation of legal Scots vis a vis Latin

1412:

Nevalainen, Terttu; Raumolin-Brunberg, Helena (1996).

2081:

The language of two brothers in the fifteenth century

1972:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 301–317. 1747:

Language Contact and Development around the North Sea

1429:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 117–130. 1134:

Authority in Language: Investigating Standard English

2180:

Dodd, Gwilym (2011). E. Salter and H. Wicker (ed.).

1606:

Romero Barranco, Jesús (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.).

368:, and American English is taught as standard across 3593: 3546: 3501: 3481: 3393: 3309: 3302: 3220: 3152: 3006: 2951: 2940: 2933: 2878: 2841: 2818: 2757: 2719: 2642: 2633: 2622: 2613: 2113:Watts, R. J. (1999). T. Bex and R. J. Watts (ed.). 1919:

Methods and data in English historical dialectology

583:, who wrote the widely copied historical chronicle 228:(vernacular language) are less stabilised than the 2477: 2380: 2152:New Perspectives on English Historical Linguistics 1705:Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science 1535:Moreno Olalla, David (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.). 1427:Standardisation and the language of early statutes 1324:Über den Ursprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache 670:Examples of multiregional morphemes are auxiliary 384:blends English with one or more native languages. 929:American and British English spelling differences 54:to the point of being socially perceived as the 2413:. Essen University: Cambridge University Press. 2281:Sociolinguistics: The study of speaker's choices 2186:Vernacularity in England and Wales, c. 1300-1550 1749:. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. pp. 99–115. 1707:. 1 34/1. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 373–385 1552:Nevalainen, Terttu (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.). 2513:Trudgill, Peter (1999). Bex & Watts (ed.). 2379:Gramley, Stephan; Kurt-Michael Pätzold (2004). 2070:. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press. 1892:Keene, Derek (2000). Galloway, James A. (ed.). 1586:Sylvester, Louise (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.). 1136:(4th ed.). London: Routledge. p. 22. 2137:. University of Leeds: unpublished PhD thesis. 1775:Schendl, Herbert (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.). 1665:Kopaczyk, Joanna (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.). 489:and his successors, the West Saxon variety of 2582: 2301:Standard English and the Politics of Language 1654:: the North-South divide revisited, 1400-1700 1493:Stenroos, Merja (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.). 1425:Rissanen, Matti (2000). Wright, Laura (ed.). 1106:Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society 8: 2021:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 2015:Thaisen, Jacob (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.). 1987:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1851:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1781:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1671:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1633:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1612:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1592:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1575:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1569:Durkin, Philip (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.). 1558:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1541:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1521:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1499:The Multilingual Origins of Standard English 1388:A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English 1353:Studies on the Population of Medieval London 1183:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1116: 1114: 27:Substantially regularised variety of English 2278:Coulmas, Florian; Richard J. Watts (2006). 1981:Wright, Laura (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.). 1845:Wright, Laura (2020). Wright, Laura (ed.). 1201:A student's introduction to English grammar 434:Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English, 3616:Comparison of American and British English 3485: 3306: 3014: 2948: 2937: 2639: 2630: 2619: 2589: 2575: 2567: 1833:. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 548. 1309:Kington-Oliphant, Thomas Laurence (1873). 960:Comparison of American and British English 878:Comparison of American and British English 818:Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English 690:in the south and south-west Midlands, and 2537:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2432:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2284:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2023:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 165–190. 1955:. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 519–533. 1853:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 515–532. 1816:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 329–371. 1783:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 317–342. 1673:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 487–514. 1656:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 191–214. 1635:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 215–238. 1614:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 467–486. 1594:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 365–380. 1577:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 343–364. 1560:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 239–268. 1543:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 141–164. 1523:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 443–466. 1050:Learn how and when to remove this message 941:). British spellings usually dominate in 198:national academy or international academy 1792:Alcolado Carnicero, José Miguel (2013). 1157:Sidney Greenbaum; Gerald Nelson (2009). 2521:. London: Routledge. pp. 117–128. 1989:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 17–38. 1932:Handbuch der mittelenglischen Grammatik 1766:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 15–45. 1719:"Old English after the Norman Conquest" 1501:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 39–86. 1063: 398:Although the standard Englishes of the 2129: 2127: 1841: 1839: 1804: 1802: 1477:. University of Stavanger, PhD thesis. 1461:. University of Stavanger, PhD thesis. 1445:. University of Stavanger, PhD thesis. 1390:. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press. 1176: 1132:Milroy, James; Milroy, Leslie (2012). 1108:2nd Ed. (1983) Oxford UP, pp. 296–299. 1072:Standard English: The Widening Debate. 686:in the north and north-east Midlands, 220:(print, television, internet) and for 216:(stylistic levels), such as those for 98:, as well as written features such as 2519:Standard English: the Widening Debate 2217:Standard English: The widening debate 2119:Standard English: the Widening Debate 2096:Haskett, T. (1993). Birks, P. (ed.). 2087:. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer. pp. 23–28. 1602: 1600: 1531: 1529: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1489: 1487: 1485: 1483: 1469: 1467: 1453: 1451: 1437: 1435: 1365: 1363: 1361: 1347: 1345: 1085:Standard English: the Widening Debate 7: 3686:Non-native pronunciations of English 2359:(3rd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. 2303:(2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. 2215:Bex, Tony; Richard J. Watts (1999). 2104:. London: Hambledon Press. pp. 9–23. 1921:. Bern: Peter Lang. pp. 219–239. 71. 1814:Generative Theory and Corpus Studies 138:and an "unusual" present-tense verb 122:components are no longer regionally 2559:The Development of Standard English 2484:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2324:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1866:. Woodbridge: Boydell. pp. 164–182. 1386:McIntosh, Angus; Samuels; Benskin. 1298:The Philology of the English Tongue 153:identify as "standard English": in 1403:. Stockholm: Almquist and Wiksell. 1355:. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell. 1160:An Introduction to English Grammar 25: 2000:Nordic Journal of English Studies 759:, Ekwall stipulated just certain 2188:. Turnhout: Brepols. pp. 225–66. 2068:An Anthology of Chancery English 1864:The Transmission of Anglo-Norman 989: 885: 868:to be small compared to Latin." 1945:Middle English: Standardization 1764:Code-switching in Early English 1311:The Sources of Standard English 1285: 1274: 1240:. Askoxford.com. Archived from 1104:Williams, Raymond "Standards", 307:and is an official language in 114:. SE is local to nowhere: its 3636:English-based creole languages 2121:. London: Routledge. pp. 40–68 1949:English Historical Linguistics 1877:Journal of English Linguistics 1339:. Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner. 1198:Huddleston, Rodney D. (2022). 1163:. Pearson Longman. p. 3. 1120: 642:Transition to Standard English 1: 3676:List of English-based pidgins 2480:The Oxford History of English 2428:Hickey, Raymond, ed. (2012). 2154:. Amsterdam: Benjamins. p. 5. 857: 481:After the unification of the 444:, third-person present-tense 261:published standards documents 3727:English as a global language 3671:Linguistic purism in English 2411:Legacies of Colonial English 2351:, 2007. Accessed 2007-11-07. 1701:Old English: Standardization 1351:Ekwall, Bror Eilert (1956). 1238:"Oxford Dictionaries Online" 808:, present participle suffix 771:, present participle suffix 541:From the 1370s, monolingual 177:; in the United States, the 60:public service announcements 2772:London & Thames Estuary 2476:Mugglestone, Lynda (2006). 2447:Hudson, Richard A. (1996). 732: 3748: 3631:English as a lingua franca 2562:Cambridge University Press 2383:A survey of Modern English 2253:Cambridge University Press 2247:Condorelli, Marco (2022). 2199:Journal of British Studies 1441:Thengs, Kjetil V. (2013). 1300:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1275:Burridge and Kortmann 2008 1206:Cambridge University Press 1007:This is a mishmash of CS1 926: 920: 875: 460:Present-day investigations 391: 3611:Broad and general accents 3521:regional and occupational 3488: 3354: 3280: 3017: 2906: 2355:Freeborn, Dennis (2006). 2349:Oxford English Dictionary 1322:Morsbach, Lorenz (1888). 1074:Routledge, 1999: 149-166. 251:, and is now spoken as a 2409:Hickey, Raymond (2004). 1862:Ingham, Richard (2010). 1473:Bergstrøm, Geir (2017). 1399:Ellegård, Alvar (1953). 1335:Heuser, Wilhelm (1914). 618:versus those from rural 265:in a number of countries 32:English-speaking country 2318:Crystal, David (2006). 1699:Kornexl, Lucia (2012). 1644:Gordon, Moragh (2020). 1457:Schipor, Delia (2018). 1326:. Heilbronn: Henninger. 1005:. The reason given is: 739:Superseded explanations 724: 714: 704: 696:⟨i, u, e⟩ 652:Communities of practice 238:linguistic prescription 192:Unlike with some other 2789:Received Pronunciation 2533:Wright, Laura (2000). 2299:Crowley, Tony (2003). 2133:Takeda, Reiko (2001). 894:This section is empty. 562:Demise of Anglo-Norman 243:English originated in 167:Received Pronunciation 112:abbreviation practices 2983:Multicultural Toronto 2387:. London: Routledge. 2261:10.1017/9781009099912 1313:. Macmillan & Co. 1263:International English 1261:Trudgill and Hannah, 965:International English 927:Further information: 876:Further information: 467:Book of Common Prayer 240:in the 18th century. 3144:Western Pennsylvania 1416:. Amsterdam: Rodopi. 1296:Earle, John (1879). 845:D. Chancery Standard 605:Supralocal varieties 483:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 400:anglophone countries 226:nonstandard dialects 100:spelling conventions 64:newspapers of record 3681:Mid-Atlantic accent 3272:Trinidad and Tobago 1930:Jordan, R. (1925). 1684:Anglo-Saxon England 923:English orthography 788:B. Central Midlands 573:⟨aun⟩ 514:Anglo-Norman French 297:Trinidad and Tobago 281:Republic of Ireland 222:academic publishing 68:linguistic features 50:that has undergone 3732:Standard languages 3204:Pennsylvania Dutch 2401:Harder, Jayne C., 2201:. 51 (2): 253–283. 1009:Template:cite book 935:Australian English 698:spellings such as 569:⟨lx⟩ 362:sub-Saharan Africa 249:Anglo-Saxon period 194:standard languages 183:General Australian 136:reflexive pronouns 3704: 3703: 3589: 3588: 3389: 3388: 3298: 3297: 3216: 3215: 3212: 3211: 3137:Pacific Northwest 2998:Standard Canadian 2929: 2928: 2874: 2873: 2814: 2813: 2270:978-1-009-09991-2 2148:Chancery Standard 1717:Cockburn, Calum. 1652:⟨y⟩ 1648:⟨þ⟩ 1627:⟨þ⟩ 1215:978-1-009-08574-8 1143:978-0-415-69683-8 1060: 1059: 1052: 1013:Template:cite web 955:Standard language 914: 913: 802:⟨e⟩ 798:⟨a⟩ 765:⟨e⟩ 761:⟨a⟩ 692:⟨e⟩ 688:⟨u⟩ 684:⟨i⟩ 622:; and texts from 465:influence of the 334:As the result of 173:, the variety is 155:England and Wales 92:discourse markers 56:standard language 16:(Redirected from 3739: 3722:English language 3717:Standard English 3601:English language 3486: 3307: 3290:Falkland Islands 3189:General American 3162:African-American 3015: 2949: 2938: 2640: 2631: 2620: 2591: 2584: 2577: 2568: 2548: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2483: 2472: 2467: 2462: 2449:Sociolinguistics 2443: 2424: 2398: 2386: 2375: 2370: 2345:"Global English" 2343:Durkin, Philip. 2340: 2335: 2314: 2295: 2274: 2243: 2238: 2230: 2202: 2195: 2189: 2178: 2172: 2161: 2155: 2144: 2138: 2131: 2122: 2111: 2105: 2094: 2088: 2077: 2071: 2064: 2058: 2047: 2041: 2030: 2024: 2013: 2007: 2006:: 29-51. 32, 40. 1996: 1990: 1979: 1973: 1962: 1956: 1941: 1935: 1928: 1922: 1911: 1905: 1890: 1884: 1873: 1867: 1860: 1854: 1843: 1834: 1823: 1817: 1806: 1797: 1790: 1784: 1773: 1767: 1756: 1750: 1739: 1733: 1732: 1730: 1729: 1714: 1708: 1697: 1691: 1680: 1674: 1663: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1642: 1636: 1628: 1621: 1615: 1604: 1595: 1584: 1578: 1567: 1561: 1550: 1544: 1533: 1524: 1513: 1502: 1491: 1478: 1471: 1462: 1455: 1446: 1439: 1430: 1423: 1417: 1410: 1404: 1397: 1391: 1384: 1378: 1367: 1356: 1349: 1340: 1333: 1327: 1320: 1314: 1307: 1301: 1294: 1288: 1283: 1277: 1272: 1266: 1259: 1253: 1252: 1250: 1249: 1244:on June 29, 2001 1234: 1228: 1227: 1195: 1189: 1188: 1182: 1174: 1154: 1148: 1147: 1129: 1123: 1118: 1109: 1102: 1096: 1081: 1075: 1068: 1055: 1048: 1044: 1041: 1035: 993: 992: 985: 939:Canadian English 909: 906: 896:You can help by 889: 882: 862: 859: 803: 799: 766: 762: 748:A. East Midlands 734: 727: 717: 707: 697: 693: 689: 685: 650:those of lower. 574: 570: 487:Alfred the Great 350:American English 267:, including the 179:General American 175:Scottish English 159:Standard English 147:standard measure 36:Standard English 21: 18:Standard english 3747: 3746: 3742: 3741: 3740: 3738: 3737: 3736: 3707: 3706: 3705: 3700: 3585: 3542: 3497: 3477: 3385: 3381:Solomon Islands 3350: 3294: 3276: 3208: 3199:New York Latino 3174:American Indian 3154: 3148: 3009: 3002: 2943: 2925: 2911:Channel Islands 2902: 2870: 2837: 2810: 2753: 2715: 2625: 2609: 2595: 2555: 2545: 2532: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2492: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2459: 2446: 2440: 2427: 2421: 2408: 2395: 2378: 2373: 2367: 2354: 2338: 2332: 2317: 2311: 2298: 2292: 2277: 2271: 2246: 2241: 2233: 2227: 2214: 2211: 2206: 2205: 2196: 2192: 2179: 2175: 2162: 2158: 2145: 2141: 2132: 2125: 2112: 2108: 2095: 2091: 2078: 2074: 2065: 2061: 2048: 2044: 2034:Chaucer Studies 2031: 2027: 2014: 2010: 1997: 1993: 1980: 1976: 1966:Standardization 1963: 1959: 1942: 1938: 1929: 1925: 1912: 1908: 1891: 1887: 1874: 1870: 1861: 1857: 1844: 1837: 1824: 1820: 1807: 1800: 1791: 1787: 1774: 1770: 1757: 1753: 1740: 1736: 1727: 1725: 1723:British Library 1716: 1715: 1711: 1698: 1694: 1681: 1677: 1664: 1660: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1605: 1598: 1585: 1581: 1568: 1564: 1551: 1547: 1534: 1527: 1514: 1505: 1492: 1481: 1472: 1465: 1456: 1449: 1440: 1433: 1424: 1420: 1411: 1407: 1398: 1394: 1385: 1381: 1371:English Studies 1368: 1359: 1350: 1343: 1334: 1330: 1321: 1317: 1308: 1304: 1295: 1291: 1284: 1280: 1273: 1269: 1260: 1256: 1247: 1245: 1236: 1235: 1231: 1216: 1197: 1196: 1192: 1175: 1171: 1156: 1155: 1151: 1144: 1131: 1130: 1126: 1119: 1112: 1103: 1099: 1082: 1078: 1069: 1065: 1056: 1045: 1039: 1036: 1025: 1000:has an unclear 994: 990: 983: 975:World Englishes 951: 931: 925: 919: 910: 904: 901: 880: 874: 860: 847: 827: 801: 797: 790: 781:Norman Conquest 764: 760: 750: 741: 695: 691: 687: 683: 644: 607: 572: 568: 564: 539: 506: 479: 477:Late West Saxon 462: 413: 396: 394:English grammar 390: 382:creole language 346:British English 257:second language 236:established by 210: 163:British English 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3745: 3743: 3735: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3709: 3708: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3657: 3656: 3651: 3643: 3641:Englishisation 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3597: 3595: 3591: 3590: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3552: 3550: 3548:Southeast Asia 3544: 3543: 3541: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3524: 3523: 3513: 3507: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3496: 3495: 3489: 3483: 3479: 3478: 3476: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3463:South Atlantic 3460: 3459: 3458: 3453: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3397: 3395: 3391: 3390: 3387: 3386: 3384: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3372: 3371: 3361: 3355: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3327: 3326: 3315: 3313: 3304: 3300: 3299: 3296: 3295: 3293: 3292: 3287: 3281: 3278: 3277: 3275: 3274: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3254: 3253: 3252: 3245:Cayman Islands 3242: 3237: 3232: 3226: 3224: 3218: 3217: 3214: 3213: 3210: 3209: 3207: 3206: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3170: 3169: 3158: 3156: 3155:ethno-cultural 3150: 3149: 3147: 3146: 3141: 3140: 3139: 3134: 3124: 3123: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3107: 3102: 3092: 3091: 3090: 3080: 3079: 3078: 3073: 3063: 3062: 3061: 3051: 3050: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3024: 3018: 3012: 3004: 3003: 3001: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2979: 2978: 2973: 2963: 2957: 2955: 2946: 2935: 2931: 2930: 2927: 2926: 2924: 2923: 2918: 2913: 2907: 2904: 2903: 2901: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2884: 2882: 2876: 2875: 2872: 2871: 2869: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2847: 2845: 2839: 2838: 2836: 2835: 2830: 2824: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2812: 2811: 2809: 2808: 2807: 2806: 2801: 2791: 2786: 2785: 2784: 2779: 2769: 2763: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2752: 2751: 2750: 2749: 2747:Stoke-on-Trent 2744: 2739: 2729: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2716: 2714: 2713: 2708: 2707: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2691: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2665: 2664: 2654: 2648: 2646: 2637: 2628: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2606:Modern English 2596: 2594: 2593: 2586: 2579: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2554: 2553:External links 2551: 2550: 2549: 2543: 2530: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2496: 2490: 2473: 2468: 2463: 2457: 2444: 2438: 2425: 2419: 2406: 2399: 2393: 2376: 2371: 2365: 2352: 2341: 2336: 2330: 2315: 2309: 2296: 2290: 2275: 2269: 2244: 2239: 2231: 2225: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2190: 2173: 2156: 2139: 2123: 2106: 2089: 2072: 2059: 2042: 2025: 2008: 1991: 1974: 1957: 1936: 1923: 1906: 1885: 1868: 1855: 1835: 1818: 1798: 1785: 1768: 1751: 1734: 1709: 1692: 1675: 1658: 1637: 1616: 1596: 1579: 1562: 1545: 1525: 1503: 1479: 1463: 1447: 1431: 1418: 1405: 1392: 1379: 1357: 1341: 1328: 1315: 1302: 1289: 1278: 1267: 1254: 1229: 1214: 1190: 1169: 1149: 1142: 1124: 1110: 1097: 1076: 1062: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1021:Template:harvp 1002:citation style 997: 995: 988: 982: 979: 978: 977: 972: 970:Modern English 967: 962: 957: 950: 947: 921:Main article: 918: 915: 912: 911: 892: 890: 873: 870: 846: 843: 826: 823: 812:, and pronoun 789: 786: 775:, and pronoun 749: 746: 740: 737: 643: 640: 606: 603: 581:Ranulph Higden 563: 560: 543:Middle English 538: 537:Middle English 535: 523:mixed-language 510:Medieval Latin 505: 504:Mixed language 502: 478: 475: 461: 458: 412: 409: 392:Main article: 389: 386: 269:United Kingdom 209: 206: 196:, there is no 132:Peter Trudgill 108:capitalisation 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3744: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3661:International 3659: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3598: 3596: 3592: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3574: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3522: 3519: 3518: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3509: 3508: 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