1447:(1495) al-Fudail ibn Suleiman ('Alfudail', nephew of Ibrahim, thus of royal blood) installed by Emir Muhammad, after his own abdication. This is 1495 AD (901 AH). Immediately after ascension, exiled ex-ruler Hassan ibn Suleiman returned with a mixed army of Bantus and Kilwan exiles to reclaim the throne. The sheikh of Zanzibar offered to mediate, and, through his good offices, al-Fudail even contemplated ceding the throne to Hassan and ending the quarrel. But Emir Muhammad refused to allow it. Instead, he promised al-Hassan an amnesty, but only if he returned to private life in Kilwa. While awaiting Hassan's reply to this offer, the great Emir Muhammad Kiwabi died rather suddenly. In the confusion, pretender Hassan infiltrated troops into Kilwa city, under the command of his own son Sa'id. Caught by city authorities, Sa'id invented a story about just 'preparing the house' for his father's peaceful return to Kilwa as a private citizen. To allay suspicions, Sa'id finally proposed to lead a Kilwan embassy, escorted by a squad of city troops, to his father's encampment to confirm his story. Thinking the crisis had been defused, at least until the embassy returned from its investigation, Kilwa let its guard down. But the embassy did not return. Rather, Sa'id led it to at trap, and it was massacred. The army of al-Hassan attacked that very same night. The surprised city rallied frantically to its defenses, and a great and bloody battle ensued outside the gates of the city. The Kilwans defeated al-Hassan and put an end to the perennial pretender. The victorious Sultan al-Fudail appointed a certain Ibrahim ibn Suleiman as emir, to replace the late Emir Muhammad. But this state of affairs only lasted a few years.
1053:, and claimed to be exercising rule in the name of a son of an earlier sultan Suleiman (ibn Muhammad?) of the old royal dynasty. That no one had seen or heard of this absent prince for years was quite convenient for Emir Ibrahim. Emir Ibrahim's usurpation was met with shock not only in Kilwa, but in the vassal cities as well. Emir Muhammad had (belatedly) recognized the importance of constitutional propriety for peace in the Kilwa Sultanate. Emir Ibrahim's murderous coup had run roughshod over it. Most of the local governors of the Kilwa vassal cities, many who were either relatives or had owed their positions to Emir Muhammad and the royal dynasty, refused to acknowledge the usurpation of Emir Ibrahim, and began charting an independent course for their own city-states. The writ of Emir Ibrahim probably only covered the city of
56:
1441:(1490) Ibrahim ibn Muhammad (brother of Sabhat, another son of al-Adil) installed by Emir Muhammad to replace his nephew al-Hassan. But the deposed al-Hassan ibn Suleiman launched a coup attempt to depose Ibrahim, that resulted in quite some bloodshed. In the end, al-Hassan's ambitions were foiled by his uncle Emir Muhammad, who, seeking to restore order, declared unambiguously that Ibrahim, a descendant of kings, had precedence over al-Hassan, who was only of a family of viziers. Al-Hassan driven into exile on the mainland. Ibrahim ruled for two years, until Emir Muhammad decided to depose him himself.
287:
1405:(1442) Ismail ibn Hussein (uncle of previous) – ruled 14 years. Challenged by pretender Sa'id ibn Hassan, who secured the support of Hassan ibn Abu Bakr, ruler of Zanzibar. The Zanzibaris assembled a coalition to seize Kilwa by force. But Ismail's ministers, vizier Suleiman and Emir Muhammad managed to bribe the key organizer of the expedition, who withdrew the Zanzibari troops and left pretender Sa'id stranded on the beach of Kilwa with only a small body of attendants. Although pardoned by Ismail, Sa'id went into hiding.
70:
1033:
Emir
Muhammad decided that, in the interests of constitutional propriety and civic peace, Kilwa sultans should always come from the royal dynasty, not families of viziers. Muhammad held that line more or less down to the end, thwarting Hassan's ambitions. The last sultan installed by Emir Muhammad before his death was the royal prince al-Fudail ibn Suleiman in 1495. The man who succeeded to Muhammad's post, Emir Ibrahim (known as
374:
704:
771:), Kilwa was originally owned by a mainland Bantu king 'Almuli' and connected by a small land bridge to the mainland that appeared in low tide. The king agreed to sell it to Ali ibn al-Hassan for as much colored cloth as could cover the circumference of the island. But when the king later changed his mind, and tried to take it back, the Persians had dug up the land bridge, and Kilwa was now an island.
604:
1462:(1499) Ibrahim ibn Suleiman ('Emir Ibrahim', 'Mir Habraemo' in Portuguese) minister of Sultan al-Fudail; deposed and murdered the sultan and took power himself not as sultan, but in the name of an absent son of an earlier sultan Suleiman. Incensed, the regional vassals of the Kilwan Sultanate refuse to recognize the usurpation. Emir Ibrahim will be driven out and deposed by the Portuguese captain
301:
1444:(1495) Muhammad ibn Kiwab ('Emir Muhammad Kiwabi', the powerful emir) declared himself sultan, only very briefly, probably just to show he can or to satisfy his curiosity or perhaps just to forestall a renewed bid by his exiled nephew al-Hassan while he sorted through other candidates. In any case, Muhammad abdicated soon after, and installed another royal family member, al-Fudail.
1408:(1454) vizier Suleiman (vizier of previous) At death of sultan Ismail, in the first known usurpation by ministers, the vizier Suleiman and Emir Muhammad al-Mazlum launched a coup and seized power together, with Suleiman declaring himself Sultan. However, popular opinion was strongly against the vizier, so he decided to pass the throne over to the more popular Emir Muhammad.
1469:(1505) Muhammad ibn Rukn ad Din (Muhammad 'Arcone' to the Portuguese, Kilwan noble, not of royal lineage) installed by Francisco de Almeida as Portuguese vassal sultan of Kilwa. But remembering the importance of constitutional propriety, Muhammad immediately appointed royal prince Muntari, the son of late al-Fudail, as his successor. He was assassinated after a year.
1411:(1454) Muhammad ibn al-Hussein ibn Muhammad ibn Suleiman al-Mazlum ('Emir Muhammad', noble co-conspirator with previous) According to Zanzibar chronicle, after the death of vizier Suleiman, Muhammad appointed the old pretender Sa'id ibn Hassan to the post as his own vizier. Muhammad died shortly after. Reigned for less than a year (deposed, according to Barros).
958:. The Kilwan mode of living was as middlemen traders, importing manufactured goods (cloth, etc.) from Arabia and India, which were then swapped in the highland market towns for Bantu-produced agricultural commodities (grain, meats) for their own subsistence and precious raw materials (gold, ivory, etc.) which they would export back to Asia.
1986:, pp. 227–28) more precise dating, assuming 996 to be correct for Ali ibn Bashat, then the dates of his successors are 1001 (Dawud ibn Ali), 1005 (Khalid ibn Bakr), 1007 (al-Hassan ibn Suleiman), 1023 (Ali ibn Dawud I), 1083 (Ali ibn Dawud II), 1089 (al-Hassan ibn Dawud), 1113 (Suleiman) after which Barros becomes unclear again.
1129:
nobleman, a certain
Muhammad ibn Rukn ad Din (known to the Portuguese as Muhammad Arcone), certainly advised Emir Ibrahim to strike up an alliance with the Portuguese (and for his pains, was given up as a hostage to the Portuguese by the Emir, who then refused ransom him back – allowing him to be subjected to da Gama's wrath).
1207:. The Barros and Zanzibar chronicle are not always in concordance with each other. The following follows Barros in its outlines, but fills in details from the Zanzibar chronicle. Alternative spellings and nicknames, mainly given in Barros's chronicle, are in italics. Dates are approximate years of ascension.
1435:(1485) Sabhat ibn Muhammad ibn Suleiman ('Xumbo', a scion of royal lineage, son of 31st sultan, al-Adil) installed by Emir Muhammad, after popular opposition to his first choice al-Hassan. Ruled one year, then died. According to Zanzibar chronicle, Emir Muhammad tried to install his nephew al-Hassan again.
2175:
Zanzibar chronicle reports it was his nephew Hajj Rush (son of earlier sultan
Hussein) that rebuilt the mosque of Kilwa, adamant about doing so with his own money and resources. Nonetheless, his uncle sultan Suleiman insisted on donating one thousand pieces of gold to the effort; Hajj Rush accepted
1179:
The Kilwan refugees returned and a modicum of peace resumed, but only briefly. For
Hussein put it in his head to lead the Kilwan army against Tirendicunde, to avenge his father's murder. The town was brutally sacked, and numerous prisoners taken. Hussein then dispatched emissaries to all the vassal
1171:
Chaos broke out in the city of Kilwa. Partisans of
Micante (and Emir Ibrahim) seized control of much of the city, driving sultan Hussein (and the partisans of Arcone) to seek refuge by the Portuguese Fort Santiago. Street fighting and soon fires broke out. In the chaos, streams of Kilwan residents
1156:
brought his fleet into the harbor of Kilwa, and landed some 500 Portuguese soldiers to drive Emir
Ibrahim out of the city. Almeida installed the aforementioned Muhammad Arcone on the throne, as a Portuguese vassal. Remembering constitutional proprieties, Arcone insisted that Micante, the son of the
896:
Despite its origin as a
Persian colony, extensive inter-marriage and conversion of local Bantu inhabitants and later Arab immigration turned the Kilwa Sultanate into a veritable melting pot, ethnically indifferentiable from the mainland. Recent ancient DNA studies have confirmed that Asian ancestry
1167:
The
Portuguese did not stay very long. In May, 1506, Muhammad Arcone was lured and assassinated by the sheikh of Tirendicunde (a relative of Emir Ibrahim). As per the pre-arranged succession rule, Micante ascended to the throne. But Fogaça, seeing that Micante's ascension was supported by the old
1071:, disguised as an Arab merchant, had travelled the length of the Kilwa Sultanate in 1489–90, and visited the ports of Malindi, Kilwa and Sofala, and delivered his scouting report back to Lisbon, describing the condition of the Kilwa Sultanate in quite some detail. The first Portuguese ships, under
1032:
Throughout his long 'reign', Emir
Muhammad fought an on-again and off-again battle with his nephew, Hassan ibn Suleiman (son of an earlier vizier). Muhammad had, in fact, tried to install Hassan as sultan a couple of times, but it met tremendous resistance from the population of Kilwa. Eventually,
1175:
Hearing of the Kilwan chaos all the way in India, the
Portuguese viceroy Almeida dispatched a magistrate Nuno Vaz Pereira to inquire into the matter. Arriving in late 1506, Pereira convened the competing sultans Micante and Hussein, and asked them present their cases. Pereira ruled in favor of
887:
While a single figure, the Sultan of Kilwa, stood at the top of the hierarchy, the Kilwa Sultanate was not a centralized state. It was more a confederation of commercial cities, each with its own internal elite, merchant communities and trade connections. The Sultan might appoint a governor or
1128:
Some have speculated whether Emir Ibrahim missed a golden opportunity to restore his fortunes, that had a treaty with Cabral been reached back in 1500, he might have secured the assistance of the Portuguese navy in bringing the half-independent vassals back under his sway. At least one Kilwan
888:
overseer, but even his authority was not consistent – in some places (e.g. outposts like Mozambique Island) he was a true governor in the Sultan's name, whereas in more established cities like Sofala, his powers were much more limited, more akin to an ambassador to the city than its governor.
1049:), helped al-Fudail crush the ambitious Hassan once and for all in a great battle outside Kilwa. But it was not long after this battle that Emir Ibrahim is said to have betrayed and murdered sultan al-Fudail. Rather than declare himself sultan, Ibrahim took power merely with the title of
1028:
rulers, and occasionally tried to foist themselves (or one of their family members) on the throne, in competition with the royal dynasty. The most successful was probably Emir Muhammad Kiwabi, who ruled Kilwa for nearly two decades through several sultans, including himself at one point.
1738:
Brielle, Esther S.; Fleisher, Jeffrey; Wynne-Jones, Stephanie; Sirak, Kendra; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Callan, Kim; Curtis, Elizabeth; Iliev, Lora; Lawson, Ann Marie; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Qiu, Lijun; Stewardson, Kristin; Workman, J. Noah; Zalzala, Fatma; Ayodo, George (March 2023).
996:
winds to sail across to India in the summer, and back to Africa in the winter. Kilwan pilots had a reputation for extraordinary sailing accuracy. The Portuguese marveled at their navigational instruments, particularly their latitude staves, which they considered superior to their own.
2051:, p. 389) claims al-Hassan fled to Zanzibar following a second invasion by the Changa, who installed a usurping emir Muhammad ibn al-Hussein al-Mundhiri. But the usurper was quickly toppled in a popular rising, and the exiled sultan al-Hassan was restored. Dates are problematic.
1353:(1294) Suleiman ibn Hassan (son of previous) – ruled 14 years; murdered by conspirators upon leaving a mosque. Partisans proclaimed his son Hassan ibn Suleiman ruler, but as he was on pilgrimage in Mecca at the time, the throne was temporarily passed to Hassan's brother Dawud.
2165:
Known as Muhammad Ladil to Barros; Zanzibar chronicle names him as 'al-Malik al-Adil', and gives his real name as Muhammad ibn Suleiman ibn al-Hussein, claiming he had served as vizier, and was elevated to the throne by the nobles and people. Also claims he ruled 22, rather 9
1423:(1476) Suleiman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn ('Vizier Suleiman') vizier seized throne after death of Sa'id, declared himself sultan and elevated his own brother, Muhammad Kiwabi, to the dignity of emir. But vizier-turned-sultan Suleiman's rule lasted little over a year.
1502:
dating from 1690 to the 1780s, five with Arabic inscriptions were identified as being from the Kilwa Sultanate. The coins are now held by the Powerhouse Museum, Sydney, Australia. In 2018 another coin, also thought to be from Kilwa, was found on a beach on
1420:(1466) Sa'id ibn al-Hassan/Hussein (son of previous, according to Barros; same old pretender (cf. 32nd) according to Zanzibar chronicle) – ruled 10 years. Upon his death, the Kilwa Sultanate fell into disarray. There was another ministerial coup d'état.
774:
A genetic study, published on March 29, 2023, confirmed the presence of significant Iranian-origin ancestry in the Y-chromosomal DNA of medieval inhabitants of the Swahili Coast, strongly supporting elements of the Persian-admixture narrative.
1438:(1486) al-Hassan ibn Suleiman (second time) installed by uncle Emir Muhammad once again, but popular opposition proved too strong. Emir Muhammad decided to depose al-Hassan once again and look for a suitable sultan from the royal dynasty.
925:
The Kilwa Sultanate was almost wholly dependent on external commerce. Effectively, it was a confederation of urban settlements, and there was little or no agriculture carried on within the boundaries of the sultanate. Grains (principally
2185:
Barros suggests Ibrahim was the son of Emir Muhammad, and thus of the vizier family. The Zanzibar chronicle insists he was a brother of Sabhat, and thus of royal lineage (son of 31st sultan Muhammad al-Adil). This list opts for the
1982:, who gives simply the range 999–1003 as possible ascension date for Dawud ibn Ali, gives a wide-open ascension date for Ali ibn Dawud (btw 1042–1111); Bosworth also omits Khalid ibn Bakr and Ali ibn Dawud II in his list. Following
1149:; he was apparently a nephew of the late Emir Muhammad) to break away. He signed a treaty with the Portuguese in 1502, and followed it up by allowing the construction of a Portuguese factory and fort in Sofala in 1505.
965:. Grown all along the coast, the coconut palm was the mainstay of Kilwan life in every way – not only for the fruit, but also for timber, thatching and weaving. Kilwan merchant ships – from the large lateen-rigged
1305:
and portions of the mainland under Kilwa's rule; responsible for erecting many buildings in Kilwa itself, including its stone fortress and palaces, transforming the city into a veritable metropolis. Ruled 18
1157:
late sultan al-Fudail be his designated successor. The Portuguese erected a fortress (Fort Santiago) on Kilwa and left a garrison behind, under the command of Pedro Ferreira Fogaça, to keep an eye on things.
2116:, p. 227) identifies Suleiman ibn al-Hassan as the son of Dawud ibn Suleiman, inheriting his enterprises in Sofala, which he used as a launchpad to become lord of Sofala and master of the Swahili coast.
2010:
confederacy. The Changamire is not known to have existed at the time the chronicles suggest, but they were beginning to emerge at the time the chronicle was written down, and so may be a reference to their
1242:, nephew or cousin of previous) – elected by Kilwa colonists. He was the son of Bashat ibn al-Hassan, the brother of sultan Ali ibn al-Hassan; Bashat had been appointed by his brother as the first ruler of
817:
in the interior. The acquisition of Sofala brought a windfall of gold revenues to the Kilwa Sultans, which allowed them to finance their expansion and extend their powers all along the East African coast.
1136:
was the first to embrace the Portuguese, forging an alliance in 1497 (largely to be directed against Mombassa). After Emir Ibrahim's coup, it was certainly not hard to persuade the ruling sheikh Isuf of
782:. It quickly began to attract many merchants and immigrants from further north, including Persia and Arabia. In just a few years, the city was big enough to establish a satellite settlement at nearby
1432:(1479) al-Hassan ibn Suleiman (son of vizier Suleiman), first time, installed by his uncle, Emir Muhammad. But al-Hassan proved an unpopular sultan and was deposed by his own uncle after 6 years.
1429:(1478) Ali ibn Hassan (brother of previous). Ruled 1.5 years. Upon his death, Emir Muhammad Kiwabi (brother of the late vizier Suleiman) seized power, and installed his nephew al-Hassan as sultan.
2002:
kingdom that repeatedly harassed the early Kilwa colony. It is a possible reference to the local 'Changamire' dynasty that, in the 15th century, began to challenge the overlordship of the
744:, but rather a slave from the Land of Abyssinia (most likely of Bantu origin) slave. Upon his father's death, Ali was driven out of his inheritance by his brothers. Setting sail out of
2468:
1414:(1455) Ahmad ibn Suleiman (son of the late vizier?), deposed within a year by partisans of the old royal family. (Barros omits Ahmad, says the partisans deposed Muhammad directly.)
1168:
faction of Emir Ibrahim, concluded he would not do as a Portuguese puppet. Consequently, he deposed Micante and installed Hussein ibn Muhammad, a son of Arcone, as the new sultan.
1183:
Fearing that Hussein's spate of tyranny might jeopardize Portuguese interests in East Africa, viceroy Almeida reversed Pereira's decision, deposed Hussein and reinstated Micante.
2246:
55:
1164:
laws on the sultanate, forbidding all but Portuguese ships to carry trade to the principal coastal towns – essentially putting many leading Kilwan merchants out of business.
973:
used for local transit – were usually built from the split trunks of coconut palm wood, their sails made from coconut leaf matting and the ships held together by coconut
1199:. There is another surviving chronicle (Zanzibar chronicle) by an unknown author, written in the early 16th century, and compiled in 1862 by (or for) sheikh Moheddin (
2409:
Brielle, E.S., Fleisher, J., Wynne-Jones, S. et al. Entwined African and Asian genetic roots of medieval peoples of the Swahili coast. Nature 615, 866–873 (2023).
2473:
1176:
Hussein, confirming him as sultan, but softened the blow by relieving the unpopular commander Fogaça and lifting the mercantilist restrictions on Kilwa shipping.
1282:(1131) Dawud ibn Suleiman (son of previous) made his original career and fortune in Sofala, before being recalled to Kilwa to replace his father. Ruled 40 years.
632:
1805:
1249:(c. 1001) Dawud ibn Ali (son of previous) – deposed after four years by Matata Mandalima, king of the Changa/Xanga. Dawud fled to Mafia island, where he died.
1651:
1106:, visited Kilwa itself, and attempted to negotiate a commercial and alliance treaty with Emir Ibrahim. But emir prevaricated and no agreement was reached.
793:
over the East African coast. Suleiman Hassan, the ninth successor of Ali (and 12th ruler of Kilwa, c. 1178–1195), wrested control of the southerly city of
2156:, suggesting he was a son rather than nephew of previous. Also says he died while on pilgrimage to Mecca, and was succeeded by either his son or brother.
1099:
1269:(1083?) Ali ibn Dawud II (grandson of Ali ibn Dawud) – ruled 6 years, a deranged tyrant, deposed by the people of Kilwa, and condemned to die in a well.
1606:
1426:(1477) Abdullah ibn al-Hassan (brother of 37th sultan Sa'id) elevated by people of Kilwa against usurping vizier Suleiman. Ruled one and half years.
1256:; said to be nephew of Matata Mandalima), installed as ruler of Kilwa by the Changa. Ruled only two years, deposed in uprising by Persian colonists.
1110:
1640:, there were six sons, and all six plus their father fled the kingdom in different directions, after the father distilled a poor omen from a dream.
1113:
of 1502, under Vasco da Gama again, came in a more mean-spirited mood, indisposed to take no for an answer. Having secured separate treaties with
1356:(1308) Daud ibn Suleiman (son of previous) – ruled 2 years in name of his brother Hassan. Stepped down voluntarily on Hassan's return from Mecca.
2100:
2081:
2061:
2026:
1977:
1933:
1379:(1362) Talut ibn Dawud (nephew of previous, brother of earlier Suleiman) - ruled only one year. Deposed by his brother, the ex-king Suleiman.
2368:
1350:(1277) al-Hassan ibn Talut (grandson of Ali ibn Dawud) – seized power by force, ruled 18 years; had a reputation as "an excellent knight".
1000:
Nonetheless, the coir sewn Kilwan ships were not seaworthy enough to brave the treacherous waters and unpredictable violent gusts around
904:(literally, 'coast-dwellers'). Nonetheless, the Muslims of Kilwa (whatever their ethnicity) would often refer to themselves generally as
707:
Principal cities of East Africa, c. 1500. The Kilwa Sultanate held overlordship from Cape Correntes in the south to Malindi in the north.
582:
531:
1857:
1722:
1691:
1366:(1333) Dawud ibn Suleiman (same as 21st, brother of previous) – second time on the throne, this time in his own right. Ruled 24 years.
900:
The mixture of Perso-Arab and Bantu cultures is credited for creating a distinctive East African culture and language known today as
2309:
625:
2140:, p. 390) claims Dawud ruled for only a few days and was deposed by his uncle. Probably confusing this with his son, Suleiman.
1172:
fled the city, leaving it practically deserted, save for a handful of roving partisan gangs and the terrified Portuguese garrison.
2176:
the donation reluctantly, but secretly put the money aside, and returned the donation to Suleiman's heirs after the sultan's died.
2483:
1495:
1132:
As it turns out, the vassals used the Portuguese, one by one, to secure their permanent break from the Sultanate. The ruler of
1402:(1421) Suleiman ibn Muhammad (son of previous) – ruled 22 years. Died without heirs. Said to have rebuilt the mosque of Kilwa.
897:
in the medieval period originally came from Iran, and that Asian and African ancestors began mixing at least 1,000 years ago.
821:
At the zenith of its power in the 15th century, the Kilwa Sultanate owned or claimed overlordship over the mainland cities of
521:
262:
69:
2463:
1279:(1129) Suleiman (patronym unclear, "of royal lineage") – deposed and beheaded by the people of Kilwa after only two years.
1125:, the Portuguese brought their menacing fleet to bear on Kilwa itself, and extorted a sizeable tribute from Emir Ibrahim.
715:
592:
381:
2055:, p. 226) claims al-Hassan ruled sixteen years and was succeeded by his nephew Ali ibn Dawud, who ruled sixty. But
1535:
1360:
934:), meats (cattle, poultry) and other necessary supplies to feed the large city populations had to be purchased from the
618:
353:
2197:
1369:(1356) Suleiman ibn Dawud (son of previous) – first time, ruled only 20 days. Deposed by his uncle, Hussein al-Ma'tun.
2288:
Décadas da Ásia: Dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento, e conquista, dos mares, e terras do Oriente
557:
2458:
1200:
415:
1263:, nephew of the late Dawud) – installed by Persian colonists after uprising against Changa puppet, ruled 16 years.
1276:, brother of Ali ibn Dawud II) – elevated by the people of Kilwa to replace his despised brother. Ruled 24 years.
1221:
729:
678:
373:
171:
1382:(1364) Suleiman ibn Dawud (brother of previous, 2nd reign) – 2 years and 4 months. Deposed by his uncle Suleiman
1372:(1356) Hussein ibn Suleiman al-Mat'un (uncle of previous) ruled 6 years. Died in battle against the "Almuli", a
2453:
2295:
1092:
536:
496:
1885:
1289:, son of ninth sultan given above), one of the greatest of Kilwa sultans, credited for conquering much of the
577:
2478:
2425:"N21359-5 Coin, Kilwa Sultanate (East Africa), Al Hasan ibn Sulaimam (c. AD 1482-1493), Falus, copper alloy"
2329:
The Medieval History of the Coast of Tanganyika, with special reference to recent archaeological discoveries
1103:
2359:
1540:
587:
541:
2383:
Records of South-Eastern Africa: collected in various libraries and archive departments in Europe, vol.6
501:
280:
1068:
752:, the main commercial city of the East African coast. However, Ali failed to get along with the city's
2347:
Rossini, C.C. (1899) "Vasco da Gama, Pedralvarez Cabral e Giovanni da Nova, nella cronica di Kilwah"
1752:
1463:
1153:
506:
1363:(brother of previous) – acclaimed earlier while absent in Mecca; ruled 24 years. Died without heirs.
1016:
In its later years, the Sultans of Kilwa began falling into the hands of their ambitious ministers (
2387:
2377:
2224:"Coin, Kilwa Sultanate (East Africa), Falus, copper alloy, Sulaiman ibn al-Hasan (c. AD 1294-1308)"
1192:
719:
562:
526:
511:
440:
362:
2424:
1180:
cities of the Kilwa Sultanate, ordering them to return to obedience, or else meet the same fate.
938:
of the interior. Kilwan traders from the coast encouraged the development of market towns in the
861:
516:
435:
405:
2363:
2352:
2318:
2305:
2283:
2254:
1914:
1910:
1853:
1786:
1768:
1718:
1687:
1483:
1196:
1146:
1142:
1118:
1058:
1046:
1038:
850:
2349:
Atti del Terzo Congresso Geografico Italiano, tenuto in Firenze, Società geografica italiana
2247:"'It could change everything': coin found off northern Australia may be from pre-1400 Africa"
2198:"Life and Death on the Wessel Islands: The Case of Australia's Mysterious African Coin Cache"
1849:
1843:
1714:
1708:
1683:
1677:
880:(the once-dominant city, Kilwa's main rival). To the south, Kilwa's reach extended as far as
1776:
1760:
1417:(1456) al-Hassan ibn Ismail (son of 32nd sultan Ismail), installed by coup. Ruled ten years.
1160:
Portuguese rule was not very welcome. Particularly grating was the imposition of Portuguese
1008:
was the most southerly settlement that can be considered part of the Kilwan trading empire.
120:
103:
1806:"Ancient DNA is restoring the origin story of the Swahili people of the East African coast"
1191:
The chronology of rulers of the Kilwa Sultanate is reported in a chronicle translated into
2402:
2340:
2066:
identifies Ali as only ascending around 1042, leaving the intervening gap unaccounted for.
1530:
1452:
End of Mahdali dynasty c. 1495, beginning of a series of usurpers and Portuguese puppets.
901:
748:, Ali ibn al-Hassan, his household and a small group of followers first made their way to
741:
714:
was an important trading port from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, and was mentioned in the
698:
608:
460:
430:
425:
267:
2396:
2381:
1781:
1756:
1740:
1315:(1191) Hussein ibn Suleiman (brother of previous) – ruled 25 years. Died without heirs.
1064:
This was more or less the condition of the Kilwa Sultanate when the Portuguese arrived.
2432:
1525:
1520:
1508:
1491:
1054:
1001:
985:
881:
810:
760:
737:
658:
654:
567:
93:
2447:
1999:
1290:
1072:
939:
935:
854:
846:
764:
753:
670:
486:
400:
83:
1336:
End of Persian Shirazi dynasty c. 1277, beginning of Mahdali dynasty of Yemeni Arab
872:). To the north, Kilwa's power was checked by the independent Somali city-states of
1893:
International Boundary Study No. 112 - August 13, 1971 Malawi – Mozambique Boundary
1741:"Entwined African and Asian genetic roots of medieval peoples of the Swahili coast"
1504:
1373:
1298:
1243:
1161:
981:
853:(plus numerous smaller places) – essentially what is now often referred to as the "
842:
834:
783:
728:
The history of the Kilwa Sultanate begins around 960–1000 AD. According to legend,
703:
662:
491:
294:
1004:, so the entire region south of that point was rarely sailed by Kilwan merchants.
980:
The Kilwa Sultanate conducted extensive trade with Arabia, Persia, and across the
17:
2299:
778:
Kilwa's fortuitous position made it a much better East African trade center than
1079:, reached the sultanate in 1497. Da Gama made contact with the Kilwa vassals of
984:, to India itself. Coins from the Kilwa Sultanate have been found as far as the
806:
205:
1764:
789:
Kilwa's emergence as a commercial center challenged the dominance once held by
2003:
1217:
1080:
951:
865:
814:
445:
410:
337:
332:
2410:
2258:
1772:
1385:(1366) Suleiman ibn Suleiman ibn Hussein (uncle of previous) – ruled 24 years
759:
Steering down the African coast, Ali is said to have purchased the island of
2436:
1266:(1023?) Ali ibn Dawud I (son of Dawud, nephew of al-Hassan), ruled 60 years.
1005:
877:
826:
798:
790:
779:
749:
650:
145:
1790:
669:), whose authority, at its height, stretched over the entire length of the
1302:
1204:
1084:
955:
947:
838:
830:
682:
666:
470:
420:
327:
2304:. New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
1652:"Genetic study details complex ancestry of East Africa's Swahili people"
1340:, or what the Zanzibar chronicle calls the "family of Abu al-Mawahib".
1133:
1114:
1088:
993:
962:
822:
395:
1487:
1337:
1294:
1138:
1122:
1017:
989:
927:
873:
802:
794:
733:
686:
674:
572:
450:
152:
111:
1942:, whose own dating is recorded below in the "ruled x years" format.
2301:
The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual
2007:
1913:). An English translation of Barros can be found in Theal (1900:
1332:(1263–1267) Ali ibn Dawud (uncertain connection) – ruled 14 years.
1076:
966:
943:
918:
745:
711:
702:
455:
322:
135:
864:
over the myriad of small trading posts scattered on the coast of
1499:
1021:
974:
931:
1091:, seeking to secure their cooperation as staging posts for the
1605:
Ichumbaki, Elgidius; Munisi, Neema. "Kilwa and its Environs".
1388:(1389) Hussein ibn Suleiman (son of previous) – ruled 24 years
2020:
Dating unclear. Not being Shirazi, Khalid ibn Bakr is not in
1312:(1190) Talut ibn Suleiman (brother of previous) ruled 1 year
1309:(1189) Dawud ibn Suleiman (son of previous), ruled 2 years.
1246:. Bashat's son Ali ruled Kilwa for four and a half years.
912:, and to the unconverted Bantu peoples of the mainland as
2437:"A History of the World in 100 Objects, Kilwa pot sherds"
2337:
The Swahili: the social landscape of a mercantile society
1235:, son of previous) – ruled forty years. Had no children.
884:, below which merchant ships did not usually dare sail.
756:
elite and he was soon driven out of that city as well.
2223:
2427:. Powerhouse Museum, Sydney, Australia. 23 March 2024.
1329:, nephew of previous, son of ?) – ruled 40 years
2128:, p. 228): "que foi mui excellente Cavalleiro".
1195:
in the 16th century, and recorded by the chronicler
992:
at that time. Kilwan ships made use of the seasonal
1998:is the name given by the chronicles for a mainland
1804:Kusimba, Chapurukha; Reich, David (29 March 2023).
315:
225:
215:
201:
187:
177:
165:
151:
141:
131:
99:
89:
79:
34:
2226:. Museum of Applied Arts & Sciences, Australia
2006:and would go on to overthrow it and establish the
2364:"The History of Kilwa, edited from an Arabic MS"
2094:Given 1113 by Barros's calculation, but 1129 in
2075:Given 1089 by Barros's calculation, but 1106 in
1580:موسوعة دوال العالم الأسلامي ورجالها الجزء الثالث
1976:harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFBosworth1996 (
1938:. Bosworth's dates are often inconsistent with
1932:harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFBosworth1996 (
1829:
2469:States and territories established in the 950s
2290:. esp. Dec. I, Lib. 8, Cap. 6 (p. 225ff).
2152:, p. 390) cites Talut ibn Dawud as Talut
1608:Oxford Research Encyclopedias: African History
2099:harvp error: no target: CITEREFBosworth1996 (
2080:harvp error: no target: CITEREFBosworth1996 (
2060:harvp error: no target: CITEREFBosworth1996 (
2025:harvp error: no target: CITEREFBosworth1996 (
626:
8:
1498:. While four coins were identified as Dutch
805:was the principal entrepot for the gold and
1593:Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 24
1024:), who played the roles of kingmakers, and
2411:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05754-w
1636:. But according to the chronicle cited in
1259:(1005/07) al-Hassan ibn Suleiman ibn Ali (
876:(a self-ruling aristocratic republic) and
633:
619:
347:
68:
31:
1780:
1285:(1170) Suleiman ibn al-Hassan ibn Dawud (
767:inhabitants. According to one chronicle (
2095:
2076:
2056:
2021:
1971:
1927:
1559:The Zanzibar chronicle is translated in
988:in Australia which was inhabited by the
969:that plied the open oceans to the small
677:, it was founded in the 10th century by
2222:Museum of Applied Arts & Sciences.
1966:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1571:
1552:
860:Kilwa also claimed lordship across the
549:
478:
387:
380:
361:
350:
2398:The Beginning of South African History
2149:
2137:
2125:
2113:
2052:
2048:
2036:
2032:
1983:
1951:
1939:
1637:
1621:
1560:
1399:, brother of previous) – ruled 9 years
1391:(1412) Muhammad ibn Suleiman al-Adil (
768:
487:Vasco da Gama and Portuguese expansion
2474:10th-century establishments in Africa
1872:
1633:
1595:, (Kessinger Publishing: 2003), p.847
1322:brother of previous) – ruled 10 years
942:-dominated highlands of what are now
224:
214:
210:
186:
176:
164:
160:
150:
7:
2369:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
2323:Crónica do Felicíssimo Rei D. Manuel
1582:, (دار العلم للملايين: 1993), p.1360
1361:Abu al-Mawahib al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman
829:and Sofala and the island-states of
732:was one of seven sons of a ruler of
1926:Dates utilize the list compiled in
583:1998 United States embassy bombings
74:The Sphere of the Sultanate in 1310
2335:Horton, M.; Middleton, J. (2000).
1482:In 1944, nine coins were found on
868:(then known by its Arabic name of
25:
2327:Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P. (1962)
2245:Stevenson, Kylie (11 May 2019).
602:
372:
299:
285:
260:
54:
1848:. St. Martin's press. pp.
1713:. St. Martin's press. pp.
1682:. St. Martin's press. pp.
1496:Northern Territory of Australia
1376:on the mainland, without heirs.
1650:Dunham, Will (29 March 2023).
740:His mother was not ethnically
1:
2395:Theal, George McCall (1902).
1830:Horton & Middleton (2000)
716:Periplus of the Erythrean Sea
593:COVID-19 pandemic in Tanzania
1536:Sultan al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman
1325:(1225) ? ibn Suleiman (
1318:(1215) Khalid ibn Suleiman (
1272:(1106) al-Hassan ibn Dawud (
27:Swahili sultanate (957–1513)
1252:(c. 1005) Khalid ibn Bakr (
1100:2nd Portuguese India Armada
657:(an island off modern-day,
411:Mumba Cave hunter-gatherers
2500:
2351:, Firenze: Ricci, vol. 2,
1842:Kevin Shillington (1995).
1765:10.1038/s41586-023-05754-w
1707:Kevin Shillington (1995).
1676:Kevin Shillington (1995).
1478:Possible link to Australia
696:
522:Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty
396:Oldowan stone tool culture
2296:Bosworth, Clifford Edmund
2196:McIntosh, Ian S. (2012).
2031:list. But he is given in
1222:Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi
730:Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi
679:Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi
239:
235:
211:
197:
172:Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi
161:
67:
51:
46:
1460:
1348:
1093:Portuguese India Armadas
736:, Persia, his mother an
497:East African slave trade
1970:Unclear dates given by
2484:1505 disestablishments
1905:João de Barros (1552)
1541:Shirazi (ethnic group)
1238:(996) Ali ibn Bashat (
1231:(?) Muhammad ibn Ali (
961:The exception was the
708:
588:East African Community
227:• Disestablished
1909:(Decade I, Volume 8,
1886:"library.law.fsu.edu"
706:
697:Further information:
532:East African Campaign
502:Sultanate of Zanzibar
281:Portuguese Mozambique
100:Common languages
2464:Precolonial Tanzania
2378:Theal, George McCall
1464:Francisco de Almeida
1228:) – founder of Kilwa
1154:Francisco de Almeida
1152:It was in 1505 that
1104:Pedro Álvares Cabral
1057:itself and possibly
542:Tanganyika Territory
507:Zanzibar slave trade
193:Ibrahim ibn Suleiman
2205:Australian Folklore
2035:, p. 389) and
1757:2023Natur.615..866B
892:Society and economy
673:. According to the
609:Tanzania portal
578:Uganda–Tanzania War
563:Zanzibar Revolution
537:British East Africa
527:Maji Maji Rebellion
512:Scramble for Africa
441:History of Zanzibar
388:Pre-colonial period
217:• Established
183:al-Hassan ibn Talut
1121:and all-important
1075:, on their way to
870:Island of the Moon
709:
517:German East Africa
436:Indian Ocean trade
416:Cushitic expansion
406:Laetoli footprints
18:Sultanate of Kilwa
2459:Former sultanates
2360:Strong, S. Arthur
1845:History of Africa
1751:(7954): 866–873.
1710:History of Africa
1679:History of Africa
1507:, another of the
1484:Marchinbar Island
1067:Portuguese scout
1059:Mozambique Island
963:coconut palm tree
643:
642:
431:Nilotic expansion
346:
345:
311:
310:
307:
306:
273:
272:
16:(Redirected from
2491:
2440:
2435:(26 June 2010).
2428:
2406:
2391:
2373:
2362:(January 1895).
2344:
2315:
2291:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2202:
2193:
2187:
2183:
2177:
2173:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2147:
2141:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2073:
2067:
2065:
2046:
2040:
2030:
2018:
2012:
1993:
1987:
1981:
1968:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1924:
1918:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1890:
1882:
1876:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1839:
1833:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1810:The Conversation
1801:
1795:
1794:
1784:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1647:
1641:
1631:
1625:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1602:
1596:
1591:James Hastings,
1589:
1583:
1576:
1564:
1557:
1393:al-Malik al-Adil
1012:Decline and fall
635:
628:
621:
607:
606:
605:
376:
366:
348:
303:
302:
289:
288:
277:
276:
264:
263:
257:
256:
241:
240:
72:
58:
32:
21:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2454:Kilwa Sultanate
2444:
2443:
2433:MacGregor, Neil
2431:
2423:
2420:
2394:
2376:
2358:
2334:
2312:
2294:
2282:
2279:
2274:
2273:
2263:
2261:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2229:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2200:
2195:
2194:
2190:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2160:
2148:
2144:
2136:
2132:
2124:
2120:
2112:
2108:
2098:
2096:Bosworth (1996)
2093:
2089:
2079:
2077:Bosworth (1996)
2074:
2070:
2059:
2057:Bosworth (1996)
2047:
2043:
2039:, p. 226).
2024:
2022:Bosworth (1996)
2019:
2015:
1994:
1990:
1975:
1969:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1931:
1925:
1921:
1907:Decadas da Asia
1904:
1900:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1871:
1867:
1860:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1828:
1824:
1814:
1812:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1737:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1706:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1675:
1674:
1670:
1660:
1658:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1632:
1628:
1620:
1616:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1590:
1586:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1567:
1558:
1554:
1549:
1531:Swahili culture
1517:
1480:
1475:
1458:
1450:
1346:
1254:Hale Bonebaquer
1240:Ali Busoloquete
1213:
1189:
1109:The well-armed
1069:Pêro da Covilhã
1014:
894:
763:from the local
701:
699:Kilwa Chronicle
695:
647:Kilwa Sultanate
639:
603:
601:
479:Colonial period
466:Kilwa Sultanate
461:Swahili culture
426:Bantu expansion
364:
357:
342:
300:
286:
268:Swahili culture
261:
228:
218:
190:
180:
168:
119:
116:Religious texts
75:
63:
60:
59:
42:
41:
37:
36:Kilwa Sultanate
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2497:
2495:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2479:Shirazi people
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2446:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2439:. BBC Radio 4.
2429:
2419:
2418:External links
2416:
2415:
2414:
2407:
2392:
2374:
2356:
2345:
2332:
2325:
2319:Damião de Goes
2316:
2310:
2292:
2284:João de Barros
2278:
2275:
2272:
2271:
2237:
2214:
2188:
2178:
2168:
2158:
2142:
2130:
2118:
2106:
2087:
2068:
2041:
2013:
1988:
1974:, p. 132)
1972:Bosworth (1996
1956:
1954:, p. 388.
1944:
1930:, p. 132)
1928:Bosworth (1996
1919:
1898:
1877:
1875:, p. 110.
1865:
1859:978-0312125981
1858:
1834:
1822:
1796:
1730:
1724:978-0312125981
1723:
1699:
1693:978-0312125981
1692:
1668:
1642:
1626:
1624:, p. 399.
1614:
1597:
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1570:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1526:Swahili people
1523:
1521:Kilwa Kisiwani
1516:
1513:
1509:Wessel Islands
1492:Wessel Islands
1486:, the largest
1479:
1476:
1474:
1473:
1472:(1506) Micante
1470:
1467:
1459:
1457:
1456:Portuguese era
1454:
1449:
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1313:
1310:
1307:
1287:Soleiman Hacen
1283:
1280:
1277:
1274:Hacen ben Daut
1270:
1267:
1264:
1261:Hocen Soleiman
1257:
1250:
1247:
1236:
1229:
1212:
1209:
1197:João de Barros
1188:
1185:
1013:
1010:
1002:Cape Correntes
986:Wessel Islands
922:('infidels').
893:
890:
882:Cape Correntes
811:Great Zimbabwe
694:
691:
659:Kilwa District
653:, centered at
641:
640:
638:
637:
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623:
615:
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568:Julius Nyerere
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550:Modern history
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97:
96:
94:Kilwa Kisiwani
91:
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86:
81:
77:
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73:
65:
64:
61:
53:
52:
49:
48:
44:
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26:
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14:
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10:
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6:
4:
3:
2:
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2320:
2317:
2313:
2311:0-7486-2137-7
2307:
2303:
2302:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2286:(1552–1559).
2285:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2241:
2238:
2225:
2218:
2215:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2192:
2189:
2182:
2179:
2172:
2169:
2162:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2072:
2069:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2028:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1952:Strong (1895)
1948:
1945:
1941:
1940:Barros (1552)
1935:
1929:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1902:
1899:
1895:. 5 May 2024.
1894:
1887:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1869:
1866:
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1846:
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1712:
1711:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1680:
1672:
1669:
1657:
1653:
1646:
1643:
1639:
1638:Strong (1895)
1635:
1630:
1627:
1623:
1622:Strong (1895)
1618:
1615:
1610:
1609:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1575:
1572:
1562:
1561:Strong (1895)
1556:
1553:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1477:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1455:
1453:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1397:Mahamed Ladil
1394:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1331:
1328:
1327:Bone Soleiman
1324:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1291:Swahili Coast
1288:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1163:
1158:
1155:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1111:Fourth Armada
1107:
1105:
1101:
1098:In 1500, the
1096:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1073:Vasco da Gama
1070:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1035:Mir Habrahemo
1030:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1003:
998:
995:
991:
987:
983:
978:
976:
972:
968:
964:
959:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
936:Bantu peoples
933:
929:
923:
921:
920:
915:
911:
907:
903:
898:
891:
889:
885:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
858:
856:
855:Swahili Coast
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
819:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
787:
785:
781:
776:
772:
770:
769:Strong (1895)
766:
762:
757:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
726:
724:
723:
717:
713:
705:
700:
692:
690:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
671:Swahili Coast
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
636:
631:
629:
624:
622:
617:
616:
614:
613:
610:
600:
599:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
555:
554:
553:
548:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
484:
483:
482:
477:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
456:Urewe culture
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
401:Olduvai Gorge
399:
397:
394:
393:
392:
391:
386:
383:
379:
375:
371:
370:
367:
360:
355:
349:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
320:
318:
316:Today part of
314:
298:
296:
293:
292:
284:
282:
279:
278:
275:
269:
266:
259:
258:
255:
254:
251:
248:
246:
243:
242:
238:
234:
230:
220:
207:
204:
200:
196:
192:
182:
173:
170:
156:
154:
147:
144:
140:
137:
134:
130:
126:
122:
117:
113:
109:
105:
102:
98:
95:
92:
88:
85:
84:Swahili coast
82:
78:
71:
66:
57:
50:
45:
33:
30:
19:
2397:
2382:
2367:
2348:
2336:
2328:
2322:
2300:
2287:
2262:. Retrieved
2251:The Guardian
2250:
2240:
2228:. Retrieved
2217:
2208:
2204:
2191:
2181:
2171:
2161:
2153:
2150:Strong (1895
2145:
2138:Strong (1895
2133:
2126:Barros (1552
2121:
2114:Barros (1552
2109:
2090:
2071:
2053:Barros (1552
2049:Strong (1895
2044:
2037:Barros (1552
2033:Strong (1895
2016:
1995:
1991:
1984:Barros (1552
1947:
1922:
1906:
1901:
1892:
1880:
1873:Theal (1902)
1868:
1844:
1837:
1825:
1813:. Retrieved
1809:
1799:
1748:
1744:
1733:
1709:
1702:
1678:
1671:
1659:. Retrieved
1655:
1645:
1634:Theal (1902)
1629:
1617:
1607:
1600:
1592:
1587:
1579:
1578:شاكر مصطفى,
1574:
1555:
1505:Elcho Island
1481:
1451:
1396:
1392:
1374:Bantu people
1335:
1326:
1319:
1286:
1273:
1260:
1253:
1244:Mafia Island
1239:
1232:
1225:
1190:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:mercantilist
1159:
1151:
1131:
1127:
1108:
1097:
1066:
1063:
1050:
1042:
1034:
1031:
1025:
1015:
999:
982:Indian Ocean
979:
970:
960:
924:
917:
913:
909:
905:
899:
895:
886:
869:
859:
820:
788:
784:Mafia Island
777:
773:
758:
727:
721:
710:
663:Lindi Region
646:
644:
492:Omani Empire
465:
295:Omani Empire
250:Succeeded by
249:
244:
189:• 1499
179:• 1277
124:
115:
107:
29:
2403:T. F. Unwin
2230:4 September
2154:ibn Hussein
1832:, p. .
1661:15 December
1344:Mahdali era
1293:, bringing
1211:Shirazi era
807:ivory trade
799:Mogadishans
363:History of
245:Preceded by
206:Shirazi era
167:• 957
2448:Categories
2401:. London:
2386:. London:
2372:: 385–431.
2339:. Oxford:
2321:(1566–67)
2011:ancestors.
2004:Monomatapa
1320:Hale Bonij
1233:Ali Bumale
1193:Portuguese
1145:, Çufe in
1119:Mozambique
1081:Mozambique
952:Mozambique
866:Madagascar
851:Mozambique
815:Monomatapa
801:. Wealthy
738:Abyssinian
720:Ptolemy's
685:prince of
558:Tanganyika
446:Menouthias
338:Madagascar
333:Mozambique
142:Government
2353:p.491-500
2341:Blackwell
2259:0261-3077
1773:1476-4687
1226:Ighawumij
1141:(Yçuf in
1006:Inhambane
878:Mogadishu
827:Inhambane
797:from the
791:Mogadishu
780:Mogadishu
750:Mogadishu
722:Geography
651:sultanate
146:Sultanate
132:Religion
2380:(1900).
2298:(1996).
1815:31 March
1791:36991187
1782:10060156
1515:See also
1466:in 1505.
1303:Zanzibar
1205:Zanzibar
1102:, under
1085:Mombassa
1026:de facto
956:Zimbabwe
948:Tanzania
919:Khaffirs
839:Zanzibar
831:Mombassa
667:Tanzania
471:Engaruka
421:Luxmanda
382:Timeline
365:Tanzania
354:a series
352:Part of
328:Tanzania
125:de facto
80:Location
47:957–1513
2331:London.
2277:Sources
2211:: 9–26.
2186:latter.
1753:Bibcode
1656:Reuters
1494:of the
1490:in the
1359:(1310)
1338:sayyids
1134:Malindi
1115:Malindi
1089:Malindi
1043:Abraemo
1018:viziers
994:monsoon
971:zambucs
906:Shirazi
902:Swahili
862:channel
823:Malindi
742:Habesha
693:History
683:Persian
121:Swahili
108:Traders
104:Persian
90:Capital
2388:Clowes
2308:
2264:11 May
2257:
2166:years.
1996:Changa
1856:
1789:
1779:
1771:
1745:Nature
1721:
1690:
1488:island
1306:years.
1295:Sofala
1203:?) of
1187:Rulers
1143:Barros
1139:Sofala
1123:Sofala
1039:Barros
990:Yolngu
928:millet
874:Barawa
847:Comoro
803:Sofala
795:Sofala
754:Somali
746:Hormuz
734:Shiraz
687:Shiraz
675:legend
649:was a
573:Ujamaa
451:Rhapta
356:on the
157:
153:Sultan
112:Arabic
2201:(PDF)
2008:Rozwi
2000:Bantu
1915:p.239
1911:Ch. 6
1889:(PDF)
1547:Notes
1500:duits
1299:Pemba
1216:(957
1201:Majid
1077:India
1055:Kilwa
1022:emirs
967:dhows
944:Kenya
940:Bantu
910:Arabs
849:and
843:Mafia
835:Pemba
809:with
765:Bantu
761:Kilwa
712:Kilwa
655:Kilwa
323:Kenya
136:Islam
40:Kilwa
2306:ISBN
2266:2019
2255:ISSN
2232:2020
2101:help
2082:help
2062:help
2027:help
1978:help
1934:help
1854:ISBN
1817:2023
1787:PMID
1769:ISSN
1719:ISBN
1688:ISBN
1663:2023
1147:Goes
1087:and
1051:emir
1047:Goes
1020:and
975:coir
954:and
932:rice
930:and
914:Zanj
813:and
718:and
681:, a
645:The
231:1513
110:)
62:Flag
1850:134
1777:PMC
1761:doi
1749:615
1715:128
1684:126
1045:in
1037:in
916:or
908:or
857:".
665:of
661:in
221:957
2450::
2366:.
2253:.
2249:.
2209:27
2207:.
2203:.
1959:^
1891:.
1852:.
1808:.
1785:.
1775:.
1767:.
1759:.
1747:.
1743:.
1717:.
1686:.
1654:.
1511:.
1395:,
1301:,
1297:,
1220:)
1218:CE
1117:,
1095:.
1083:,
1061:.
1041:,
977:.
950:,
946:,
845:,
841:,
837:,
833:,
825:,
786:.
725:.
689:.
2413:.
2405:.
2390:.
2355:.
2343:.
2314:.
2268:.
2234:.
2103:)
2084:)
2064:)
2029:)
1980:)
1936:)
1917:)
1862:.
1819:.
1793:.
1763::
1755::
1727:.
1696:.
1665:.
1611:.
1563:.
1224:(
634:e
627:t
620:v
127:)
123:(
118:)
114:(
106:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
