1844:
dislocation motion. This high APB energy makes it so that a second dislocation has to undo the APB energy created by the first. In doing so, this significantly reduces the mobility of dislocations in the material which should inhibit dislocation activated creep. These dislocation pairs (also called superdislocations) have been described as being either weakly or strongly coupled, the spacing between the dislocations compared to the size of the particle diameter being the determining factor between weak and strong. A weakly coupled dislocation has a relatively large spacing between the dislocations compared to the particle diameter while a strongly coupled dislocation has a relatively comparable spacing compared to the particle diameter. This is determined not by the dislocation spacing, but by the size of the 𝛾’ particles. A weakly coupled dislocation occurs when the particle size is relatively small while a strongly coupled dislocation occurs when the particle size is relatively large (such as when a superalloy has been aged for too long). Weakly coupled dislocations exhibit pinning and bowing of the dislocation line on the 𝛾’-particles. Strongly coupled dislocation behavior depends greatly on the dislocation line lengths and the resistances benefits they offer disappear once the particle size becomes large enough.
2059:, and nickel-chromium. For aluminide bond coatings, the coating's final composition and structure depends on the substrate composition. Aluminides lack ductility below 750 °C, and exhibit limited thermomechanical fatigue strength. Pt-aluminides are similar to the aluminide bond coats except for a layer of Pt (5—10 μm) deposited on the blade. The Pt aids in oxide adhesion and contributes to hot corrosion, increasing blade lifespan. MCrAlY does not strongly interact with the substrate. Normally applied by plasma spraying, MCrAlY coatings from secondary aluminum oxides. This means that the coatings form an outer chromia layer and a secondary alumina layer underneath. These oxide formations occur at high temperatures in the range of those that superalloys usually encounter. The chromia provides oxidation and hot-corrosion resistance. The alumina controls oxidation mechanisms by limiting oxide growth by self-passivating. The yttrium enhances oxide adherence to the substrate, and limits the growth of grain boundaries (which can lead to coat flaking). Addition of rhenium and tantalum increases oxidation resistance.
362:
dispersion between these known as secondary γ'. In order to improve the oxidation resistance of these alloys, Al, Cr, B, and Y are added. The Al and Cr form oxide layers that passivate the surface and protect the superalloy from further oxidation while B and Y are used to improve the adhesion of this oxide scale to the substrate. Cr, Fe, Co, Mo and Re all preferentially partition to the γ matrix while Al, Ti, Nb, Ta, and V preferentially partition to the γ' precipitates and solid solution strengthen the matrix and precipitates respectively. In addition to solid solution strengthening, if grain boundaries are present, certain elements are chosen for grain boundary strengthening. B and Zr tend to segregate to the grain boundaries which reduces the grain boundary energy and results in better grain boundary cohesion and ductility. Another form of grain boundary strengthening is achieved through the addition of C and a carbide former, such as Cr, Mo, W, Nb, Ta, Ti, or Hf, which drives precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries and thereby reduces grain boundary sliding.
1710:
temperature (~750 °C), SX alloys exhibits mostly primary creep behavior. Matan et al. concluded that the extent of primary creep deformation depends strongly on the angle between the tensile axis and the <001>/<011> symmetry boundary. At temperatures above 850 °C, tertiary creep dominates and promotes strain softening behavior. When temperature exceeds 1000 °C, the rafting effect is prevalent where cubic particles transform into flat shapes under tensile stress. The rafts form perpendicular to the tensile axis, since γ phase is transported out of the vertical channels and into the horizontal ones. Reed et al. studied unaxial creep deformation of <001> oriented CMSX-4 single crystal superalloy at 1105 °C and 100 MPa. They reported that rafting is beneficial to creep life since it delays evolution of creep strain. In addition, rafting occurs quickly and suppresses the accumulation of creep strain until a critical strain is reached.
2038:(TBCs) are used extensively in gas turbine engines to increase component life and engine performance. A coating of about 1-200 μm can reduce the temperature at the superalloy surface by up to 200 K. TBCs are a system of coatings consisting of a bond coat, a thermally grown oxide (TGO), and a thermally insulating ceramic top coat. In most applications, the bond coat is either a MCrAlY (where M=Ni or NiCo) or a Pt modified aluminide coating. A dense bond coat is required to provide protection of the superalloy substrate from oxidation and hot corrosion attack and to form an adherent, slow-growing surface TGO. The TGO is formed by oxidation of the aluminum that is contained in the bond coat. The current (first generation) thermal insulation layer is composed of 7wt %
2042:(7YSZ) with a typical thickness of 100–300 μm. Yttria-stabilized zirconia is used due to its low thermal conductivity (2.6W/mK for fully dense material), relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion, and high temperature stability. The electron beam-directed vapor deposition (EB-DVD) process used to apply the TBC to turbine airfoils produces a columnar microstructure with multiple porosity levels. Inter-column porosity is critical to providing strain tolerance (via a low in-plane modulus), as it would otherwise spall on thermal cycling due to thermal expansion mismatch with the superalloy substrate. This porosity reduces the thermal coating's conductivity.
1658:, a budget material with compromised temperature range and chemical resistance. It does not contain rhenium or ruthenium and its nickel content is limited. To reduce fabrication costs, it was chemically designed to melt in a ladle (though with improved properties in a vacuum crucible). Conventional welding and casting is possible before heat-treatment. The original purpose was to produce high-performance, inexpensive bomb casings, but the material has proven widely applicable to structural applications, including armor.
2067:/cobalt can be used due to excellent resistance to abrasion, corrosion, erosion, and heat. These cermet coatings perform well in situations where temperature and oxidation damage are significant concerns, such as boilers. One of cobalt cermet's unique advantages is minimal loss of coating mass over time, due to the strength of carbides. Overall, cermet coatings are useful in situations where mechanical demands are equal to chemical demands. Nickel-chromium coatings are used most frequently in boilers fed by
2298:). They comprise over 50% of the weight of advanced aircraft engines. The widespread use of superalloys in turbine engines coupled with the fact that the thermodynamic efficiency of turbine engines is a function of increasing turbine inlet temperatures has provided part of the motivation for increasing the maximum-use temperature of superalloys. From 1990-2020, turbine airfoil temperature capability increased on average by about 2.2 °C/year. Two major factors have made this increase possible:
911:(Ti,Al) are ordered systems with Ni atoms at the cube faces and either Al or Ti atoms at the cube edges. As particles of γ' precipitates aggregate, they decrease their energy states by aligning along the <100> directions forming cuboidal structures. This phase has a window of instability between 600 °C and 850 °C, inside of which γ' will transform into the HCP η phase. For applications at temperatures below 650 °C, the γ" phase can be utilized for strengthening.
1176:
916:
2075:, and waste incineration furnaces, where the danger of oxidizing agents and corrosive compounds in the vapor must be addressed. The specific method of spray-coating depends on the coating composition. Nickel-chromium coatings that also contain iron or aluminum provide better corrosion resistance when they are sprayed and laser glazed, while pure nickel-chromium coatings perform better when thermally sprayed exclusively.
135:
1917:
530:, or carbides. GCP phases usually benefit mechanical properties, but TCP phases are often deleterious. Because TCP phases are not truly close packed, they have few slip systems and are brittle. Also they "scavenge" elements from GCP phases. Many elements that are good for forming γ' or have great solid solution strengthening may precipitate TCPs. The proper balance promotes GCPs while avoiding TCPs.
2358:
2232:
38:
1978:" into a solid object with physically merged grains. Sintering occurs below the melting point, and causes adjacent particles to merge at their boundaries, creating a strong bond between them. In hot isostatic pressing, a sintered material is placed in a pressure vessel and compressed from all directions (isostatically) in an inert atmosphere to affect densification.
1796:, effectively halting further oxidation beneath this layer. In the ideal case, oxidation proceeds through two stages. First, transient oxidation involves the conversion of various elements, especially the majority elements (e.g. nickel or cobalt). Transient oxidation proceeds until the selective oxidation of the sacrificial element forms a complete barrier layer.
2002:
and a new batch of metal powder is rolled over the top. This layer is then sintered with the laser, and the process is repeated until all slices have been processed. Additive manufacturing can leave pores behind. Many products undergo a heat treatment or hot isostatic pressing procedure to densify the product and reduce porosity.
2330:. Because Carnot efficiency is limited by the temperature difference between the hot and cold reservoirs, higher operating temperatures increase energy conversion efficiency. Operating temperatures are limited by superalloys, limiting applications to around 1000 °C-1400 °C. Energy applications include:
2027:(EB-PVD). Thermal barrier coatings provide by far the best enhancement in working temperature and coating life. It is estimated that modern TBC of thickness 300 μm, if used in conjunction with a hollow component and cooling air, has the potential to lower metal surface temperatures by a few hundred degrees.
1626:) and improving high temperature performance and increasing service temperatures by 30 °C and 60 °C in second and third generation superalloys, respectively. Re promotes the formation of rafts of the γ' phase (as opposed to cuboidal precipitates). The presence of rafts can decrease creep rate in the
1651:
studies noted an opposite effect. Chen, et al., found that in two alloys differing significantly only in Ru content (USTB-F3 and USTB-F6) that the addition of Ru increased both the partitioning ratio as well as supersaturation in the γ matrix of Cr and Re, and thereby promoted the formation of TCP phases.
2309:
About 60% of the temperature increases related to advanced cooling, while 40% have resulted from material improvements. State-of-the-art turbine blade surface temperatures approach 1,150 C. The most severe stress and temperature combinations correspond to an average bulk metal temperature approaching
2170:
Thermal spraying involves heating a feedstock of precursor material and spraying it on a surface. Specific techniques depend on desired particle size, coat thickness, spray speed, desired area, etc. Thermal spraying relies on adhesion to the surface. As a result, the surface of the superalloy must be
1087:
The two major types of austenitic stainless steels are characterized by the oxide layer that forms on the steel surface: either chromia-forming or alumina-forming. Cr-forming stainless steel is the most common type. However, Cr-forming steels do not exhibit high creep resistance at high temperatures,
2442:
Stainless steel alloys remain a research target because of lower production costs, as well as the need for an austenitic stainless steel with high-temperature corrosion resistance in environments with water vapor. Research focuses on increasing high-temperature tensile strength, toughness, and creep
2197:
Failure of thermal barrier coating usually manifests as delamination, which arises from the temperature gradient during thermal cycling between ambient temperature and working conditions coupled with the difference in thermal expansion coefficient of substrate and coating. It is rare for the coating
2022:
or platinum-aluminide, is the most common. MCrAlX-based overlay coatings (M=Ni or Co, X=Y, Hf, Si) enhance resistance to corrosion and oxidation. Compared to diffusion coatings, overlay coatings are more expensive, but less dependent on substrate composition, since they must be carried out by air or
1843:
One of the main strengths of superalloys are their superior creep resistant properties when compared to most conventional alloys. To start, 𝛾’-strengthened superalloys have the benefit of requiring dislocations to move in pairs due to the phase creating a high antiphase boundary (APB) energy during
1075:
Gamma (γ): Fe-based alloys feature a matrix phase of austenite iron (FCC). Alloying elements include: Al, B, C, Co, Cr, Mo, Ni, Nb, Si, Ti, W, and Y. Al (oxidation benefits) must be kept at low weight fractions (wt.%) because Al stabilizes a ferritic (BCC) primary phase matrix, which is undesirable,
2001:
file. A shape is designed and then converted into slices. These slices are sent to a laser writer to print the final product. In brief, a bed of metal powder is prepared, and a slice is formed in the powder bed by a high energy laser sintering the particles together. The powder bed moves downwards,
1907:
is a metallurgical processing technique in which a wax form is fabricated and used as a template for a ceramic mold. A ceramic mold is poured around the wax form and solidifies, the wax form is melted out of the ceramic mold, and molten metal is poured into the void left by the wax. This leads to a
1895:
Jet turbine engines employ both crystalline component types to take advantage of their individual strengths. The disks of the high-pressure turbine, which are near the central hub of the engine are polycrystalline. The turbine blades, which extend radially into the engine housing, experience a much
996:
Co-based superalloys depend on carbide precipitation and solid solution strengthening for mechanical properties. While these strengthening mechanisms are inferior to gamma prime (γ') precipitation strengthening, cobalt has a higher melting point than nickel and has superior hot corrosion resistance
1859:
Diffusion is also a method of creep, and there are a few ways to limit diffusional creep. One primary way that superalloys can limit diffusional creep is by manipulating grain structure to reduce grain boundaries which tend to be pathways for easy diffusion. Typically this is done by manufacturing
1697:
Single crystal (SX) superalloys have wide application in the high-pressure turbine section of aero- and industrial gas turbine engines due to the unique combination of properties and performance. Since introduction of single crystal casting technology, SX alloy development has focused on increased
891:
Gamma (γ): This phase composes the matrix of Ni-based superalloy. It is a solid solution fcc austenitic phase of the alloying elements. The alloying elements most found in commercial Ni-based alloys are, C, Cr, Mo, W, Nb, Fe, Ti, Al, V, and Ta. During the formation of these materials, as they cool
855:
The United States became interested in gas turbine development around 1905. From 1910-1915, austenitic ( γ phase) stainless steels were developed to survive high temperatures in gas turbines. By 1929, 80Ni-20Cr alloy was the norm, with small additions of Ti and Al. Although early metallurgists did
2470:
reported a 3D-printed superalloy composed of 42% aluminum, 25% titanium, 13% niobium, 8% zirconium, 8% molybdenum and 4% tantalum. Most alloys are made chiefly of one primary element, combined with low amounts of other elements. In contrast MPES have substantial amounts of three or more elements.
1552:
At elevated temperature, the free energy associated with the anti-phase boundary (APB) is considerably reduced if it lies on a particular plane, which by coincidence is not a permitted slip plane. One set of partial dislocations bounding the APB cross-slips so that the APB lies on the low-energy
1091:
Al-forming austenitic stainless steels feature a single-phase matrix of austenite iron (FCC) with an Al-oxide at the surface of the steel. Al is more thermodynamically stable in oxygen than Cr. More commonly, however, precipitate phases are introduced to increase strength and creep resistance. In
2188:
Gas phase coating is carried out at higher temperatures, about 1080 °C. The coating material is usually loaded onto trays without physical contact with the parts to be coated. The coating mixture contains active coating material and activator, but usually not thermal ballast. As in the pack
1855:
For Ni-based single-crystal superalloys, upwards of ten different kinds of alloying additions can be seen to improve creep-resistance and overall mechanical properties. Alloying elements include Cr, Co, Al, Mo, W, Ti, Ta, Re, and Ru. Elements such as Co, Re, and Ru have been described to improve
2179:
Plasma spraying offers versatility of usable coatings, and high-temperature performance. Plasma spraying can accommodate a wide range of materials, versus other techniques. As long as the difference between melting and decomposition temperatures is greater than 300 K, plasma spraying is viable.
1847:
Additionally, superalloys exhibit comparatively superior high temperature creep resistance due to thermally activated cross-slip of dislocations. When one of the dislocations in the pair cross-slips into another plane, the dislocations become pinned since they can no longer move as a pair. This
2474:
Such alloys promise improvements on high-temperature applications, strength-to-weight, fracture toughness, corrosion and radiation resistance, wear resistance, and others. They reported ratio of hardness and density of 1.8–2.6 GPa-cm/g, which surpasses all known alloys, including intermetallic
1650:
additions, making them more expensive than prior Re-containing alloys. The effect of Ru on the promotion of TCP phases is not well-determined. Early reports claimed that Ru decreased the supersaturation of Re in the matrix and thereby diminished the susceptibility to TCP phase formation. Later
1160:. An excess of vacancies in one of the sublattices may exist, which leads to deviations from stoichiometry. Sublattices A and B of the γ' phase can solute a considerable proportion of other elements. The alloying elements are dissolved in the γ phase. The γ' phase hardens the alloy through the
1032:
Gamma (γ): This is the matrix phase. While Co-based superalloys are less-used commercially, alloying elements include C, Cr, W, Ni, Ti, Al, Ir, and Ta. As in stainless steels, Chromium is used (occasionally up to 20 wt.%) to improve resistance to oxidation and corrosion via the formation of a
361:
promote the creation of the γ' phase. The γ' phase size can be precisely controlled by careful precipitation strengthening heat treatments. Many superalloys are produced using a two-phase heat treatment that creates a dispersion of cuboidal γ' particles known as the primary phase, with a fine
1927:
uses a thermal gradient to promote nucleation of metal grains on a low temperature surface, as well as to promote their growth along the temperature gradient. This leads to grains elongated along the temperature gradient, and significantly greater creep resistance parallel to the long grain
1908:
metal form in the same shape as the original wax form. Investment casting leads to a polycrystalline final product, as nucleation and growth of crystal grains occurs at numerous locations throughout the solid matrix. Generally, the polycrystalline product has no preferred grain orientation.
1709:
The creep deformation behavior of superalloy single crystal is strongly temperature-, stress-, orientation- and alloy-dependent. For a single-crystal superalloy, three modes of creep deformation occur under regimes of different temperature and stress: rafting, tertiary, and primary. At low
859:
Although Cr was great for protecting the alloys from oxidation and corrosion up to 700 °C, metallurgists began decreasing Cr in favor of Al, which had oxidation resistance at much higher temperatures. The lack of Cr caused issues with hot corrosion, so coatings needed to be developed.
2198:
to fail completely – some pieces remain intact, and significant scatter is observed in the time to failure if testing is repeated under identical conditions. Various degradation mechanisms affect thermal barrier coating, and some or all of these must operate before failure finally occurs:
1950:
is a class of modern processing techniques in which metals are first powdered, and then formed into the desired shape by heating below the melting point. This is in contrast to casting, which occurs with molten metal. Superalloy manufacturing often employs powder metallurgy because of its
1856:
creep resistance by facilitating the formation of stacking faults by reducing the stacking fault energy. Increasing number of stacking faults leading to the inhibition of dislocation motion. Other elements (Al, Ti, Ta) can favorably partition into and improve the nucleation of 𝛾’-phase.
2289:
Nickel-based superalloys are used in load-bearing structures requiring the highest homologous temperature of any common alloy system (Tm = 0.9, or 90% of their melting point). Among the most demanding applications for a structural material are those in the hot sections of
258:(Ni)-based superalloys are the material of choice for these applications because of their unique γ' precipitates. The properties of these superalloys can be tailored to a certain extent through the addition of various other elements, common or exotic, including not only
1891:
Casting and forging are traditional metallurgical processing techniques that can be used to generate both polycrystalline and monocrystalline products. Polycrystalline casts offer higher fracture resistance, while monocrystalline casts offer higher creep resistance.
1807:(e.g. if oxygen diffuses too quickly). If the layer is not continuous, its effectiveness as a diffusion barrier to oxygen is compromised. The stability of the oxide layer is strongly influenced by the presence of other minority elements. For example, the addition of
2050:
The bond coat adheres the thermal barrier to the substrate. Additionally, the bond coat provides oxidation protection and functions as a diffusion barrier against the motion of substrate atoms towards the environment. The five major types of bond coats are: the
967:
Carbide phases: Carbide formation is usually deleterious although in Ni-based superalloys they are used to stabilize the structure of the material against deformation at high temperatures. Carbides form at the grain boundaries, inhibiting grain boundary
1851:
Increasing the lattice misfit between 𝛾/𝛾' has also been shown to be beneficial for creep resistance. This is primarily since a high lattice misfit between the two phases results in a higher barrier to dislocation motion than a low lattice misfit.
1389:
between identical dislocations along the same plane is repulsive, which makes this a less favorable configuration. One possible mechanism involved one of the dislocations being pinned against the γ' phase while the other dislocation in the γ phase
2313:
Although Ni-based superalloys retain significant strength to 980 C, they tend to be susceptible to environmental attack because of the presence of reactive alloying elements. Surface attack includes oxidation, hot corrosion, and thermal fatigue.
1088:
especially in environments with water vapor. Exposure to water vapor at high temperatures can increase internal oxidation in Cr-forming alloys and rapid formation of volatile Cr (oxy)hydroxides, both of which can reduce durability and lifetime.
1606:
Modern superalloys were developed in the 1980s. First generation superalloys incorporated increased Al, Ti, Ta, and Nb content in order to increase the γ' volume fraction. Examples include: PWA1480, René N4 and SRR99. Additionally, the
1179:
Viewed from a <111> direction, this is the effect of a dislocation along <110> passing through the respective structures. Note how the APB swaps the order of the supercell of alternating nickel and aluminum atoms above the
1092:
Al-forming steels, NiAl precipitates are introduced to act as Al reservoirs to maintain the protective alumina layer. In addition, Nb and Cr additions help form and stabilize Al by increasing precipitate volume fractions of NiAl.
1759:
Selective oxidation is the primary strategy used to limit these deleterious processes. The ratio of alloying elements promotes formation of a specific oxide phase that then acts as a barrier to further oxidation. Most commonly,
1634:
phases, which has led to the strategy of reducing Co, W, Mo, and particularly Cr. Later generations of Ni-based superalloys significantly reduced Cr content for this reason, however with the reduction in Cr comes a reduction in
2475:
compounds, titanium aluminides, refractory MPEAs, and conventional Ni-based superalloys. This represents a 300% improvement over
Inconel 718 based on measured peak hardness of 4.5 GPa and density of 8.2 g/cm, (0.55 GPa-cm/g).
754:
The main issue with this phase is that it's not coherent with γ, but it is not inherently weak. It typically forms from decomposing γ'', but sometimes it's intentionally added in small amounts for grain boundary refinement.
554:(pronounced L-one-two), which means it has a certain atom on the face of the unit cell, and a certain atom on the corners of the unit cell. Ni-based superalloys usually present Ni on the faces and Ti or Al on the corners.
3251:
Brady, M. P.; Yamamoto, Y.; Santella, M. L.; Maziasz, P. J.; Pint, B. A.; Liu, C. T.; Lu, Z. P.; Bei, H. (July 2008). "The development of alumina-forming austenitic stainless steels for high-temperature structural use".
1041:
passive layer, which is critical for use in gas turbines, but also provides solid-solution strengthening due to the mismatch in the atomic radii of Co and Cr, and precipitation hardening due to the formation of MC-type
1834:
processes are common when operating environments include salts and sulfur compounds, or under chemical conditions that change dramatically over time. These issues are also often addressed through comparable coatings.
2189:
cementation process, gaseous aluminium chloride (or fluoride) is transferred to the surface of the part. However, in this case the diffusion is outwards. This kind of coating also requires diffusion heat treatment.
2161:
Pack cementation has reemerged when combined with other chemical processes to lower the temperatures of metal combinations and give intermetallic properties to different alloy combinations for surface treatments.
856:
not know it yet, they were forming small γ' precipitates in Ni-based superalloys. These alloys quickly surpassed Fe- and Co-based superalloys, which were strengthened by carbides and solid solution strengthening.
2111:
between the two metals. The surface alloy that is formed due to thermal-diffused ion migration has a metallurgical bond to the substrate and an intermetallic layer found in the gamma layer of the surface alloys.
2481:
The researchers acknowledged that the 3D printing process produces microscopic cracks when forming large parts, and that the feedstock includes metals that limit applicability in cost-sensitive applications.
1014:
The most recently discovered family of superalloys was computationally predicted by
Nyshadham et al. in 2017, and demonstrated by Reyes Tirado et al. in 2018. This γ' phase is W free and has the composition
1479:
1433:
2107:. The entire apparatus is placed inside a furnace and heated in a protective atmosphere to a lower than normal temperature that allows diffusion, due to the halide salts chemical reaction that causes a
2302:
Processing techniques that improved alloy cleanliness (thus improving reliability) and/or enabled the production of tailored microstructures such as directionally solidified or single-crystal material.
2759:
Rae, C.M.F.; Karunaratne, M.S.A.; Small, C.J.; Broomfield, R.W.; Jones, C.N.; Reed, R.C. (2000). "Topologically Close Packed Phases in an
Experimental Rhenium-Containing Single Crystal Superalloy".
1140:
Operating temperatures with oxidation in air and no water vapor are expected to be higher. In addition, an AFA superalloy grade exhibits creep strength approaching that of nickel alloy UNS N06617.
2446:
Oak Ridge
National Laboratory is researching austenitic alloys, achieving similar creep and corrosion resistance at 800 °C to that of other austenitic alloys, including Ni-based superalloys.
1547:
1615:
that enable grain boundaries to be entirely eliminated. Because the material contains no grain boundaries, carbides are unnecessary as grain boundary strengthers and were thus eliminated.
526:
Adding elements is usually helpful because of solid solution strengthening, but can result in unwanted precipitation. Precipitates can be classified as geometrically close-packed (GCP),
1489:
between these partial dislocations can further provide another obstacle to the movement of other dislocations, further contributing to the strength of the material. There are also more
4838:
Gell, M.; Vaidyanathan, K.; Barber, B.; Cheng, J.; Jordan, E. (1999). "Mechanism of spallation in platinum aluminide/electron beam physical vapor-deposited thermal barrier coatings".
1928:
direction. In polycrystalline turbine blades, directional solidification is used to orient the grains parallel to the centripetal force. It is also known as dendritic solidification.
2103:
Pack cementation is a widely used CVD technique that consists of immersing the components to be coated in a metal powder mixture and ammonium halide activators and sealing them in a
4217:
Graybill, Benjamin; Li, Ming; Malawey, David; Ma, Chao; Alvarado-Orozco, Juan-Manuel; Martinez-Franco, Enrique (18 June 2018). "Additive
Manufacturing of Nickel-Based Superalloys".
1079:
Gamma-prime (γ'): This phase is introduced as precipitates to strengthen the alloy. γ'-Ni3Al precipitates can be introduced with the proper balance of Al, Ni, Nb, and Ti additions.
987:
refractory elements (including Cr, Co, W, and Mo). These phases form as a result of kinetics after long periods of time (thousands of hours) at high temperatures (>750 °C).
1328:
1241:
1630:(controlled by dislocation climb), but can also potentially increase the creep rate if the dominant mechanism is particle shearing. Re tends to promote the formation of brittle
1519:
1269:
997:
and thermal fatigue. As a result, carbide-strengthened Co-based superalloys are used in lower stress, higher temperature applications such as stationary vanes in gas turbines.
353:
phase, when present in high volume fractions, increases the strength of these alloys due to its ordered nature and high coherency with the γ matrix. The chemical additions of
1939:
starts with a seed crystal that is used to template growth of a larger crystal. The overall process is lengthy, and machining is necessary after the single crystal is grown.
1553:
plane, and, since this low-energy plane is not a permitted slip plane, the dissociated dislocation is effectively locked. By this mechanism, the yield strength of γ' phase Ni
4776:
Mumm, D. R.; Evans, A. G.; Spitsberg, I. T. (2001). "Characterisation of a cyclic displacement instability for a thermally grown oxide in a thermal barrier coating system".
2647:
Shinagawa, K.; Omori, Toshihiro; Oikawa, Katsunari; Kainuma, Ryosuke; Ishida, Kiyohito (2009). "Ductility
Enhancement by Boron Addition in Co–Al–W High-temperature Alloys".
2344:
Alumina-forming stainless steel is weldable and has potential for use in automotive applications, such as for high temperature exhaust piping and in heat capture and reuse.
3786:
Matan, N.; Cox, D. C.; Carter, P.; Rist, M. A.; Rae, C. M. F.; Reed, R. C. (1999). "Creep of CMSX-4 superalloy single crystals: effects of misorientation and temperature".
2612:
Klein, L.; Shen, Y.; Killian, M. S.; Virtanen, S. (2011). "Effect of B and Cr on the high temperature oxidation behaviour of novel γ/γ'-strengthened Co-base superalloys".
2434:, it might be possible to expand research into other aspects of superalloys. Radiolysis produces polycrystalline alloys, which suffer from an unacceptable level of creep.
1275:
instead of FCC due to the substitution of aluminum into the vertices of the unit cell, the perfect burgers vector along that direction in γ' is twice that of γ. For the
4726:
Baufeld, B.; Bartsch, M.; Broz, P.; Schmucker, M. (2004). "Microstructural changes as postmortem temperature indicator in Ni-Co-Cr-Al-Y oxidation protection coatings".
1007:
The next family of Co-based superalloys was discovered in 2015 by
Makineni et al. This family has a similar γ/γ' microstructure, but is W-free and has a γ' phase of Co
2865:
Doi, M.; Miki, D.; Moritani, T.; Kozakai, T. (2004). "Gamma/Gamma-Prime
Microstructure Formed by Phased Separation of Gamma-Prime Precipitates in a Ni-Al-Ti Alloy".
1380:
4991:
Mumm, D. R.; Watanabe, M.; Evans, A. G.; Pfaendtner, J. A. (2004). "The influence of test method on failure mechanisms and durability of a thermal barrier system".
1876:
allowed for fine control of the chemical composition of superalloys and reduction in contamination and in turn led to a revolution in processing techniques such as
1622:, for increased temperature capability. Re is a slow diffuser and typically partitions the γ matrix, decreasing the rate of diffusion (and thereby high temperature
1603:
technologies were introduced in the 1950s. This process significantly improved cleanliness, reduced defects, and increased the strength and temperature capability.
4908:
Schulz, U; Menzebach, M; Leyens, C; Yang, Y.Q (September 2001). "Influence of substrate material on oxidation behavior and cyclic lifetime of EB-PVD TBC systems".
4459:
Kawahara, Yuuzou (January 1997). "Development and application of high-temperature corrosion-resistant materials and coatings for advanced waste-to-energy plants".
1385:
It is thus rather energy prohibitive for the dislocation to enter the γ' phase unless there are two of them in close proximity along the same plane. However, the
1156:
are placed at the vertices of the cubic cell and form sublattice A. Ni atoms are located at centers of the faces and form sublattice B. The phase is not strictly
4931:
Chen, X; Wang, R; Yao, N; Evans, A.G; Hutchinson, J.W; Bruce, R.W (July 2003). "Foreign object damage in a thermal barrier system: mechanisms and simulations".
2010:
In modern gas turbines, the turbine entry temperature (~1750K) exceeds superalloy incipient melting temperature (~1600K), with the help of surface engineering.
1095:
At least 5 grades of alumina-forming austenitic (AFA) alloys, with different operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor have been realized:
3864:
Reed, R. C.; Matan, N.; Cox, D. C.; Rist, M. A.; Rae, C. M. F. (1999). "Creep of CMSX-4 superalloy single crystals: effects of rafting at high temperature".
515:
Refractory metals, added in small amounts for solid solution strengthening (and carbide formation). They are heavy, but have extremely high melting points.
1057:
Ta, though both W and Al integrate into these cuboidal precipitates. Ta, Nb, and Ti integrate into the γ' phase and are stabilize it at high temperatures.
1011:(Al,Mo,Nb). Since W is heavy, its elimination makes Co-based alloys increasingly viable in turbines for aircraft, where low density is especially valued.
4401:
Tawancy, H.M.; Abbas, N.M.; Bennett, A. (December 1994). "Role of Y during high temperature oxidation of an M-Cr-Al-Y coating on an Ni-base superalloy".
493:
Boron and zirconium provide strength to grain boundaries. This is not essential in single-crystal turbine blades, because there are no grain boundaries.
2091:, and physical vapor deposition. In most cases, after the coating process, near-surface regions of parts are enriched with aluminium in a matrix of the
4614:
Evans, A. G.; Mumm, D. R.; Hutchinson, J. W.; Meier, G. H.; Pettit, F. S. (2001). "Mechanisms controlling the durability of thermal barrier coatings".
4174:
Gu, D D; Meiners, W; Wissenbach, K; Poprawe, R (May 2012). "Laser additive manufacturing of metallic components: materials, processes and mechanisms".
1896:
greater centripetal force, necessitating creep resistance, typically adopting monocrystalline or polycrystalline with a preferred crystal orientation.
1848:
pinning reduces the ability for the dislocations to move in dislocation activated creep and improving the creep resistant properties of the material.
2904:
Dunand, David C. "Materials
Science & Engineering 435: High Temperature Materials". Northwestern University, Evanston. 25 February 2016. Lecture.
1799:
The protective effect of selective oxidation can be undermined. The continuity of the oxide layer can be compromised by mechanical disruption due to
2218:
Additionally, TBC life is sensitive to the combination of materials (substrate, bond coat, ceramic) and processes (EB-PVD, plasma spraying) used.
2018:
The three types of coatings are: diffusion coatings, overlay coatings, and thermal barrier coatings. Diffusion coatings, mainly constituted with
2675:
4803:
Mumm, D. R.; Evans, A. G. (2000). "On the role of imperfections in the failure of a thermal barrier coating made by electron beam deposition".
5128:
4234:
3693:
Chen, J. Y.; Feng, Q.; Sun, Z. Q. (October 2010). "Topologically close-packed phase promotion in a Ru-containing single crystal superalloy".
3373:
2305:
Alloy development resulting in higher temperature materials primarily through the additions of refractory elements such as Re, W, Ta, and Mo.
3938:
Klein, L.; Bauer, S.; Neumeier, S.; Göken, M.; Virtanan, S. (2011). "High temperature oxidation of γ/γ'-strengthened Co-based superalloys".
3578:"Analysis of dislocation structures after double shear creep deformation of CMSX6-superalloy single crystals at temperatures above 1000 °C"
1674:. The mechanical properties of most other alloys depend on the presence of grain boundaries, but at high temperatures, they participate in
5138:
Shahsavari, H. A.; Kokabi, A. H.; Nategh, S. (2007). "Effect of preweld microstructure on HAZ liquation cracking of Rene 80 superalloy".
1072:
Steel superalloys are of interest because some present creep and oxidation resistance similar to Ni-based superalloys, at far less cost.
964:
which, together with order hardening, are the primary strengthening mechanisms. The γ" phase is unstable above approximately 650 °C.
940:(BCT), and the phase precipitates as 60 nm by 10 nm discs with the (001) planes in γ" parallel to the {001} family in γ. These
2491:
936:
V and is used to strengthen Ni-based superalloys at lower temperatures (<650 °C) relative to γ'. The crystal structure of γ" is
875:
4881:
Evans, A.G.; He, M.Y.; Hutchinson, J.W. (January 2001). "Mechanics-based scaling laws for the durability of thermal barrier coatings".
4566:
Niranatlumpong, P.; Ponton, C. B.; Evans, H. E. (2000). "The
Failure of Protective Oxides on Plasma-Sprayed NiCrAlY Overlay Coatings".
4535:
4378:
Warnes, Bruce Michael (January 2003). "Improved aluminide/MCrAlX coating systems for super alloys using CVD low activity aluminizing".
4352:
2454:
Development of AFA superalloys with a 35 wt.% Ni-base have shown potential for use in operating temperatures upwards to 1,100 °C.
1334:, which will need another such dislocation along the plane to restore order (as the sum of the two dislocations would have the perfect
2208:
Thermal stresses from mismatch in thermal expansion coefficient and growth stress due to the formation of thermally grown oxide layer;
4975:
4550:
3770:
3655:
2882:
2776:
2596:
2397:
2271:
121:
1959:
is a process by which reinforcing particles are incorporated into the superalloy matrix material by repeated fracture and welding.
1730:
phases, generally at the alloy surface. If unmitigated, oxidation can degrade the alloy over time in a variety of ways, including:
1955:- typically much less waste metal must be machined away from the final product—and its ability to facilitate mechanical alloying.
1446:
1400:
1063:
Topologically Close-Packed (TCP) phases may appear in some Co-based superalloys, but embrittle the alloy and are thus undesirable.
5038:"Long-Term Oxidation of Candidate Cast Iron and Stainless Steel Exhaust System Alloys from 650 to 800 °C in Air with Water Vapor"
1394:
into close proximity of the pinned dislocation from another plane, allowing the pair of dislocations to push into the γ' phase.
1612:
3448:"On the formation of 〈010〉-dislocations in the γ′-phase of superalloy single crystals during high temperature low stress creep"
907:
structure. The γ' phase is coherent with the matrix of the superalloy having a lattice parameter that varies by around 0.5%. Ni
4424:
D. Chuanxian; H. Bingtang; L. Huiling (24 August 1984). "Plasma-sprayed wear-resistant ceramic and cermet coating materials".
3023:
Nyshadham, Chandramouli; Oses, Corey; Hansen, Jacob E.; Takeuchi, Ichiro; Curtarolo, Stefano; Hart, Gus L.W. (January 2017).
2379:
2253:
59:
702:
This precipitate is coherent with γ'. It is the main strengthening phase in IN-718, but γ'' dissolves at high temperatures.
396:
Fe and Co have higher melting points than Ni and offer solid solution strengthening. Fe is also much cheaper than Ni or Co.
4753:
Nychka, J.A; Clarke, D.R (September 2001). "Damage quantification in TBCs by photo-stimulated luminescence spectroscopy".
4319:
Clarke, David R. (January 2003). "Materials selection guidelines for low thermal conductivity thermal barrier coatings".
3537:
Dodaran, M.; Ettefagh, A. Hemmasian; Guo, S. M.; Khonsari, M. M.; Meng, W. J.; Shamsaei, N.; Shao, S. (1 February 2020).
3186:
Suzuki, A.; Pollock, Tresa M. (2008). "High-temperature strength and deformation of γ/γ' two-phase Co–Al–W-base alloys".
775:
This TCP is usually considered to have the worst mechanical properties. It is never desirable for mechanical properties.
208:
Superalloy development relies on chemical and process innovations. Superalloys develop high temperature strength through
102:
5210:
2415:
2323:
1643:
accompanying the decreased Cr contents. Examples of second generation superalloys include PWA1484, CMSX-4 and René N5.
984:
229:
209:
3159:
Coutsouradis, D.; Davin, A.; Lamberigts, M. (April 1987). "Cobalt-based superalloys for applications in gas turbines".
74:
2996:
Makineni, S. K.; Nithin, B.; Chattopadhyay, K. (March 2015). "A new tungsten-free γ–γ' Co–Al–Mo–Nb-based superalloy".
2375:
2249:
334:
are some examples of the alloying additions used. Each addition serves a particular purpose in optimizing properties.
213:
55:
1060:
Carbide Phases: Carbides strengthen the alloy through precipitation hardening but decrease low-temperature ductility.
1524:
1271:
slip plane initially in the γ phase, where it is a perfect dislocation in that FCC structure. Since the γ' phase is
4703:
Pint, B.A. (November 2004). "The role of chemical composition on the oxidation performance of aluminide coatings".
2039:
1924:
1877:
871:
2368:
2242:
1646:
Third generation alloys include CMSX-10, and René N6. Fourth, fifth, and sixth generation superalloys incorporate
81:
48:
2802:
2084:
2024:
1573:
867:
became commercialized, which allowed metallurgists to create higher purity alloys with more precise composition.
158:
with the ability to operate at a high fraction of its melting point. Key characteristics of a superalloy include
4494:
Longa, Y.; Takemoto, M. (July 1992). "High-Temperature Corrosion of Laser-Glazed Alloys in Na 2 SO 4 -V 2 O 5".
4109:
3928:. DMIC report 214. 1 March 1965. Defense Metals Information Center, Batelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio.
3391:"Dislocation network with pair-coupling structure in {111} γ/γ′ interface of Ni-based single crystal superalloy"
2083:
Several kinds of coating process are available: pack cementation process, gas phase coating (both are a type of
1045:
Gamma Prime (γ'): Constitutes the precipitate used to strengthen the alloy. It is usually close-packed with a L1
3302:
Muralidharan, G.; Yamamoto, Y.; Brady, M. P.; Walker, L. R.; Meyer III, H. M.; Leonard, D. N. (November 2016).
2463:
1873:
1597:
1490:
949:
937:
864:
5036:
Brady, M. P.; Muralidharan, G.; Leonard, D. N.; Haynes, J. A.; Weldon, R. G.; England, R. D. (December 2014).
527:
3674:
381: Materials for Energy-Efficient Technology. Northwestern University, Evanston. 3 February 2015. Lecture.
2072:
2035:
1986:
1331:
1169:
961:
88:
4131:
Atkinson, H. V.; Davies, S. (December 2000). "Fundamental aspects of hot isostatic pressing: An overview".
730:
The phase is not the worst, but it is not as good as γ'. It can be useful in controlling grain boundaries.
390:
These elements form the base matrix γ phase of the superalloy. Ni is necessary because it also forms γ' (Ni
5008:
4324:
2322:
High temperature materials are valuable for energy conversion and energy production applications. Maximum
1994:
1971:
1161:
1076:
as it is inferior to the high temperature strength exhibited by an austenitic (FCC) primary phase matrix.
1004:(Al, W). Mo, Ti, Nb, V, and Ta partition to the γ' phase, while Fe, Mn, and Cr partition to the matrix γ.
980:
1386:
1278:
1191:
674:
There are many carbides, but they all provide dispersion strengthening and grain boundary stabilization.
4641:
Wright, P. K.; Evans, A. G. (1999). "Mechanisms governing the performance of thermal barrier coatings".
2467:
1998:
1496:
1440:
1246:
550:
The main GCP phase is γ'. Almost all superalloys are Ni-based because of this phase. γ' is an ordered L1
3221:
70:
3538:
3447:
3389:
Ru, Yi; Li, Shusuo; Zhou, Jian; Pei, Yanling; Wang, Hui; Gong, Shengkai; Xu, Huibin (11 August 2016).
1115:
High Performance AFA Grade: (45-55)Fe-(25-30)Ni-(14-15)Cr(3.5-4.5)Al-(1-3)Nb-(0.02-0.1)Hf/Y wt.% base
5205:
5147:
5000:
4847:
4812:
4650:
4468:
4433:
4293:
4183:
4140:
3947:
3873:
3830:
3795:
3498:
3315:
3261:
3195:
3095:
3046:
2954:
2839:
2621:
1126:
750-1100 °C operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor, depending upon Ni wt.%
975:
refers to any member of a family of phases (including the σ phase, the χ phase, the μ phase, and the
267:
5013:
4329:
2478:
The material is stable at 800 °C, hotter than the 570+ °C found in typical coal-based power plants.
557:
Another "good" GCP phase is γ''. It is also coherent with γ, but it dissolves at high temperatures.
5200:
1956:
1952:
1804:
1781:
1675:
1631:
1623:
1482:
1436:
1000:
Co's γ/γ' microstructure was rediscovered and published in 2006 by Sato et al. That γ' phase was Co
972:
953:
251:
178:
163:
159:
1830:
Oxidation is the most basic form of chemical degradation superalloys may experience. More complex
1175:
915:
5163:
5065:
4863:
4583:
4240:
4199:
4156:
4040:"Microstructural evolution and creep mechanisms in Ni-based single crystal superalloys: A review"
4039:
3998:
Tian, Sugui; Zhang, Jinghua; Xu, Yongbo; Hu, Zhuangqi; Yang, Hongcai; Wu, Xin (1 December 2001).
3846:
3743:
3487:"Nucleation of superlattice intrinsic stacking faults via cross-slip in nickel-based superalloys"
3339:
3277:
3064:
3036:
2978:
2496:
1904:
1869:
1800:
1746:
2426:
synthesis to create alloys and superalloys. This process holds promise as a universal method of
895:
Gamma prime (γ'): This phase constitutes the precipitate used to strengthen the alloy. It is an
4071:
1755:
of key alloying elements, affecting mechanical properties and possibly compromising performance
232:, which decrease creep resistance (even though they may provide strength at low temperatures).
5124:
5057:
4971:
4546:
4230:
4019:
3766:
3651:
3597:
3558:
3516:
3467:
3428:
3410:
3369:
3331:
2970:
2878:
2772:
2592:
1947:
1627:
2694:
1860:
the superalloys as single crystals oriented parallel to the direction of the applied force.
5155:
5049:
5018:
4967:
4963:
4940:
4913:
4890:
4855:
4820:
4785:
4758:
4735:
4708:
4685:
4658:
4623:
4575:
4503:
4476:
4441:
4406:
4383:
4356:
4334:
4301:
4222:
4191:
4148:
4052:
4011:
3955:
3911:
3907:
3881:
3838:
3803:
3733:
3702:
3589:
3550:
3506:
3459:
3418:
3402:
3323:
3269:
3203:
3168:
3139:
3103:
3054:
3005:
2962:
2874:
2870:
2847:
2768:
2764:
2738:
2706:
2656:
2629:
2558:
2535:
2531:
2431:
2108:
2092:
2088:
2064:
1916:
1872:
of cobalt base alloys significantly raised operating temperatures. The 1950s development of
1793:
1337:
957:
945:
1691:
1683:
1608:
1272:
983:
stacking. TCP phases tend to be highly brittle and deplete the γ matrix of strengthening,
892:
from the melt, carbides precipitate, and at even lower temperatures γ' phase precipitates.
879:
870:
In the 60s and 70s, metallurgists changed focus from alloy chemistry to alloy processing.
5182:
5151:
5004:
4851:
4816:
4654:
4472:
4437:
4297:
4187:
4144:
3973:
3951:
3877:
3834:
3799:
3539:"Effect of alloying elements on the γ' antiphase boundary energy in Ni-base superalloys"
3502:
3485:
León-Cázares, F.D.; Schlütter, R.; Monni, F.; Hardy, M.C.; Rae, C.M.F. (December 2022).
3319:
3265:
3199:
3099:
3050:
2958:
2843:
2625:
1768:
are used in this role, because they form relatively thin and continuous oxide layers of
1698:
temperature capability, and major improvements in alloy performance are associated with
95:
5091:
3423:
3390:
2291:
2115:
The traditional pack consists of four components at temperatures below (750 °C):
1936:
1752:
1679:
1667:
1589:
1486:
1185:
1157:
134:
4944:
4917:
4894:
4824:
4789:
4762:
4689:
4662:
4627:
4387:
4338:
3925:
3885:
3807:
3463:
2562:
2526:
Sims, C.T. (1984). "A History of Superalloy Metallurgy for Superalloy Metallurgists".
407:
Cr is necessary for oxidation and corrosion resistance; it forms a protective oxide Cr
5194:
5167:
5069:
4867:
4587:
4445:
4410:
4244:
4203:
4160:
3850:
3706:
3616:
3593:
3343:
3281:
3172:
3009:
2660:
2295:
1742:
896:
350:
346:
242:
Superalloys have made much of very-high-temperature engineering technology possible.
3747:
3738:
3721:
3068:
2982:
1654:
The current trend is to avoid very expensive and very heavy elements. An example is
834:
This phase has typical TCP issues. It is never desirable for mechanical properties.
807:
This phase has typical TCP issues. It is never desirable for mechanical properties.
4712:
4480:
4195:
3554:
2915:
2427:
2423:
2327:
2068:
979:), which are not atomically close-packed but possess some close-packed planes with
5022:
4056:
3511:
3207:
3108:
3083:
3059:
3024:
2124:
Ferrous and non-ferrous powdered alloy: (Ti and/or Al, Si and/or Zn, B and/ or Cr)
1883:
Processing methods vary widely depending on the required properties of each item.
504:
Nb can form γ'', a strengthening phase at lower (below 700 °C) temperatures.
3959:
3082:
Reyes Tirado, Fernando L.; Perrin Toinin, Jacques; Dunand, David C. (June 2018).
2830:
Sabol, G. P.; Stickler, R. (1969). "Microstructure of Nickel-Based Superalloys".
2633:
2205:
Depletion of aluminum in bond coat due to oxidation and diffusion with substrate;
1670:
using a modified version of the directional solidification technique, leaving no
629:
The main strengthening phase. γ' is coherent with γ, which allows for ductility.
4545:. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Pub.; Norwich, NY: William Andrew Pub. pp. 77–107.
4000:"Features and effect factors of creep of single-crystal nickel-base superalloys"
3902:
Pettit, F.S.; Meier, G.H. (1984). "Oxidation and Hot Corrosion of Superalloys".
3683:
O'Hara, K. S., Walston, W. S., Ross, E. W., Darolia, R. US Patent 5482789, 1996.
3486:
2742:
2729:
Belan, Juraj (2016). "GCP and TCP Phases Presented in Nickel-base Superalloys".
2357:
2231:
1868:
Superalloys were originally iron-based and cold wrought prior to the 1940s when
1687:
1671:
1655:
1561:
1165:
976:
338:
236:
37:
4958:
Walston, W.S. (2004). "Coating and Surface Technologies for Turbine Airfoils".
4739:
4543:
Handbook of Hard Coatings: Deposition Technologies, Properties and Applications
3577:
3144:
3127:
2202:
Oxidation at the interface of thermal barrier coating and underlying bond coat;
1618:
Second and third generation superalloys introduce about 3 and 6 weight percent
5053:
4859:
4579:
4152:
4015:
3617:"Microstructure development of Nimonic 80A superalloys during hot deformation"
3327:
3273:
2419:
1975:
1391:
941:
283:
182:
5159:
4305:
4097:
Superalloys II: High Temperature Materials for Aerospace and Industrial Power
4023:
3601:
3562:
3520:
3471:
3414:
2851:
1726:
involves chemical reactions of the alloying elements with oxygen to form new
3999:
2966:
2052:
2019:
1967:
1831:
1723:
1719:
1703:
1647:
1640:
1636:
1134:
750-850 °C operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor
1118:
850-900 °C operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor
1102:
750-800 °C operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor
626:
cubes, rounded cubes, spheres, or platelets (depending on lattice mismatch)
341:
motion within a crystal structure. In modern Ni-based superalloys, the γ'-Ni
303:
295:
263:
221:
186:
171:
167:
4070:
Cambridge, Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy - University of.
3432:
2974:
1974:
are processing techniques used to densify materials from a loosely packed "
17:
4226:
546:
usually form sharp plate or needle-like morphologies which nucleate cracks
250:
Because these alloys are intended for high temperature applications their
4676:
Wright, P. K. (1998). "Influence of cyclic strain on life of a PVD TBC".
4221:. College Station, Texas, USA: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
2711:
2334:
Solar thermal power plants (stainless steel rods containing heated water)
1824:
1820:
1765:
1761:
1735:
1678:
and require other mechanisms. In many such alloys, islands of an ordered
358:
354:
319:
299:
291:
287:
271:
239:. Creep is typically the lifetime-limiting factor in gas turbine blades.
225:
217:
194:
1745:
through the introduction of oxide phases, promoting crack formation and
1330:
dislocation to enter the γ' phase, it will have to create a high energy
1110:
650 °C operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor
5092:"Heat-loving lightweight superalloy promises higher turbine efficiency"
3842:
2382: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2256: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1816:
1812:
1769:
1699:
1619:
1600:
1593:
1577:
1568:
series alloys in the 1940s. The early Nimonic series incorporated γ' Ni
1565:
1099:
AFA Grade: (50-60)Fe-(20-25)Ni-(14-15)Cr-(2.5-3.5)Al-(1-3)Nb wt.% base
874:
was developed to allow columnar or even single-crystal turbine blades.
331:
315:
311:
307:
228:. Superalloys are often cast as a single crystal in order to eliminate
202:
198:
190:
5061:
5037:
4507:
3406:
3335:
3303:
1592:
for additional grain boundary strength. Turbine blade components were
601:
The matrix phase, provides ductility and a structure for precipitates
482:= metal) carbides are the strengthening phase in the absence of γ'.
2549:
Carter, Tim J (April 2005). "Common failures in gas turbine blades".
2104:
2060:
2056:
323:
279:
259:
255:
3670:
Dunand, David C. "High-Temperature Materials for Energy Conversion"
3025:"A computational high-throughput search for new ternary superalloys"
1611:
of the γ' precipitates increased to about 50–70% with the advent of
220:. Oxidation or corrosion resistance is provided by elements such as
5121:
High Temperature Strain of Metals and Alloys: Physical Fundamentals
4219:
Volume 1: Additive Manufacturing; Bio and Sustainable Manufacturing
3041:
2695:"A Review on Superalloys and IN718 Nickel-Based INCONEL Superalloy"
434:, which provides oxidation resistance at higher temperature than Cr
235:
The primary application for such alloys is in aerospace and marine
1915:
1808:
1727:
1666:
Single-crystal superalloys (SX or SC superalloys) are formed as a
1174:
1153:
1107:
Low Nickel AFA Grade: 63Fe-12Ni-14Cr-2.5Al-0.6Nb-5Mn3Cu wt.% base
914:
327:
155:
139:
133:
4520:
G. R. Heath, P. Heimgartner, G. Irons, R. Miller, S. Gustafsson,
3304:"Development of Cast Alumina-Forming Austenitic Stainless Steels"
3084:"γ+γ' microstructures in the Co-Ta-V and Co-Nb-V ternary systems"
1123:
Cast AFA Grade: (35-50)Fe-(25-35)Ni-14Cr-(3.5-4)Al-1Nb wt.% base
4037:
Xia, Wanshun; Zhao, Xinbao; Yue, Liang; Zhang, Ze (April 2020).
2171:
cleaned and prepared, and usually polished, before application.
337:
Creep resistance is dependent, in part, on slowing the speed of
275:
1690:-pinning behavior of grain boundaries, without introducing any
2351:
2225:
1718:
For superalloys operating at high temperatures and exposed to
31:
4284:
Boone, D. H. (1986). "Physical vapour deposition processes".
1682:
phase sit in a matrix of disordered phase, all with the same
1131:
AFA superalloy (40-50)Fe-(30-35)Ni-(14-19)Cr-(2.5-3.5)Al-3Nb
426:
Al is the main γ' former. It also forms a protective oxide Al
3763:
The Physics of creep : creep and creep-resistant alloys
2676:"Development of Single Crystal Superalloys: A Brief History"
1474:{\displaystyle {\frac {a}{6}}\left\langle 211\right\rangle }
1428:{\displaystyle {\frac {a}{2}}\left\langle 110\right\rangle }
349:
acts as a barrier to dislocation. For this reason, this γ;'
4072:"Designing for Creep Resistance - Nickel Based Superalloys"
2214:
Various other complicating factors during engine operation.
1997:
procedure used to create intricately detailed forms from a
1168:
dissociate in the γ' phase, leading to the formation of an
4602:
Modelling of Plasma Spraying of Ceramic Films and Coatings
4274:(Materials Park, OH: The ASM Thermal Spray Society, 2004).
216:
from secondary phase precipitates such as gamma prime and
4604:, Ed. Vinenzini, Pub. Elsevier State Publishers B.V 1991.
3615:
Bombač, D.; Fazarinc, M.; Kugler, G.; Spajić, S. (2008).
543:
are surrounded by a "depletion zone" where there is no γ'
1557:
Al increases with temperature up to about 1000 °C.
3821:
Nabarro, Frank R. N. (1996). "Rafting in Superalloys".
2945:
Sato, J (2006). "Cobalt-Base High-Temperature Alloys".
2430:
formation. By developing an understanding of the basic
2063:-cermet-based coatings consisting of materials such as
3722:"New single crystal superalloys – overview and update"
3650:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 121.
3222:"Review: precipitation in austenitic stainless steels"
1560:
Initial material selection for blade applications in
1527:
1499:
1449:
1403:
1340:
1281:
1249:
1194:
205:, MP98T, TMS alloys, and CMSX single crystal alloys.
4643:
Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science
2326:
is desired in such applications, in accord with the
2134:
Relatively inert filler powder (Al2O3, SiO2, or SiC)
1435:
family of dislocations are likely to decompose into
254:
and oxidation resistance are of primary importance.
3128:"A New Co-Base Superalloy Strengthened by γ' Phase"
928:
Gamma double prime (γ"): This phase typically is Ni
62:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4038:
3926:"Oxidation of Nickel- and Cobalt-Base Superalloys"
2337:Steam turbines (turbine blades and boiler housing)
2023:vacuum plasma spraying (APS/VPS) or electron beam
1541:
1513:
1473:
1443:, such as dislocations with burgers vector of the
1427:
1374:
1322:
1263:
1235:
1184:To give an example, consider a dislocation with a
971:Topologically close-packed (TCP) phases: The term
2443:resistance to compete with Ni-based superalloys.
1639:. Advanced coating techniques offset the loss of
533:TCP phase formation areas are weak because they:
4960:Superalloys 2004 (Tenth International Symposium)
3974:"Nickel based superalloy: dislocation structure"
3904:Superalloys 1984 (Fifth International Symposium)
3576:Mayr, C.; Eggeler, G.; Dlouhy, A. (March 1996).
2867:Superalloys 2004 (Tenth International Symposium)
2761:Superalloys 2000 (Ninth International Symposium)
2528:Superalloys 1984 (Fifth International Symposium)
595:Ni, Co, Fe and other elements in solid solution
4536:"Thermal Spraying and Detonation Gun Processes"
2940:
2938:
2936:
2699:Periodicals of Engineering and Natural Sciences
2211:Imperfections near thermally grown oxide layer;
1722:environments, oxidation behavior is a concern.
1576:in a γ matrix, as well as various metal-carbon
27:Alloy with higher durability than normal metals
4261:(Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2002).
3761:Nabarro, F. R. N.; de Villiers, H. L. (1995).
3648:The Superalloys: Fundamentals and Applications
3121:
3119:
2589:The Superalloys: Fundamentals and Applications
1542:{\displaystyle \left\langle 110\right\rangle }
1803:or may be disrupted as a result of oxidation
8:
2129:Halide salt activator: Ammonium halide salts
1734:sequential surface oxidation, cracking, and
727:may form cellular or Widmanstätten patterns
4110:"PIM International Vol. 7 No. 1 March 2013"
3364:Laughlin, David E.; Hono, Kazuhiro (2014).
2340:Heat exchangers for nuclear reactor systems
671:string-like clumps, like strings of pearls
4840:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
4133:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
4004:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
3823:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
3446:Eggeler, G.; Dlouhy, A. (1 October 1997).
2055:, the platinum-aluminides, MCrAlY, cobalt-
1880:of alloys and single crystal superalloys.
537:have inherently poor mechanical properties
5012:
4328:
4112:. Powder Injection Moulding International
3897:
3895:
3737:
3510:
3422:
3143:
3107:
3058:
3040:
2900:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2788:
2710:
2591:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2458:Multi-principal-element superalloy (MPES)
2398:Learn how and when to remove this message
2272:Learn how and when to remove this message
1526:
1498:
1450:
1448:
1404:
1402:
1353:
1352:
1339:
1301:
1300:
1282:
1280:
1248:
1214:
1213:
1195:
1193:
122:Learn how and when to remove this message
4355:. University of Virginia. Archived from
2825:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2572:
559:
364:
4600:P. Fauchais, A. Vardelle, M. Vardelle,
2507:
1920:Schematic of directional solidification
1792:), respectively. They offer low oxygen
4259:Protective Coatings for Turbine Blades
3720:Wahl, Jacqueline; Harris, Ken (2014).
3359:
3357:
3355:
3353:
2914:Institute, Cobalt (14 February 2018).
598:The background for other precipitates
5085:
5083:
5081:
5079:
4968:10.7449/2004/Superalloys_2004_579_588
3912:10.7449/1984/Superalloys_1984_651_687
3532:
3530:
3368:(5th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
3297:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3246:
3244:
3242:
2875:10.7449/2004/Superalloys_2004_109_114
2769:10.7449/2000/Superalloys_2000_767_776
2682:: 26–30 – via asminternational.
2536:10.7449/1984/Superalloys_1984_399_419
1613:monocrystal solidification techniques
7:
4933:Materials Science and Engineering: A
4272:Handbook of Thermal Spray Technology
3582:Materials Science and Engineering: A
2754:
2752:
2724:
2722:
2521:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2380:adding citations to reliable sources
2254:adding citations to reliable sources
1963:Sintering and hot isostatic pressing
1819:to superalloys promotes oxide layer
903:(Ti,Al) which have an ordered FCC L1
60:adding citations to reliable sources
3672:Materials Science & Engineering
2803:"Superalloys: A Primer and History"
2492:Oxide dispersion strengthened alloy
1323:{\displaystyle {\frac {a}{2}}\left}
1236:{\displaystyle {\frac {a}{2}}\left}
177:The crystal structure is typically
166:resistance, surface stability, and
2680:Advanced Materials & Processes
2674:Giamei, Anthony (September 2013).
1514:{\displaystyle \left\{111\right\}}
1264:{\displaystyle \left\{111\right\}}
878:could obtain very fine grains and
25:
5187:Extensive bibliography and links.
4728:Materials Science and Engineering
4678:Materials Science and Engineering
3161:Materials Science and Engineering
2563:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2004.07.004
1564:engines included alloys like the
366:Ni-based superalloy compositions
5140:Materials Science and Technology
4286:Materials Science and Technology
3707:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2010.06.019
3010:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2014.11.009
2693:Akca, Enes; Gursel, Ali (2015).
2661:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2009.05.037
2422:for making superalloys. It uses
2356:
2230:
1493:that can be involved beyond the
1397:Furthermore, the burgers vector
540:are incoherent with the γ matrix
528:topologically close-packed (TCP)
36:
5090:Blain, Loz (10 February 2023).
4910:Surface and Coatings Technology
4755:Surface and Coatings Technology
4705:Surface and Coatings Technology
4403:Surface and Coatings Technology
4380:Surface and Coatings Technology
4321:Surface and Coatings Technology
4176:International Materials Reviews
4095:C. Sims, N. Stoloff, W. Hagel,
4045:Journal of Alloys and Compounds
3765:. London: Talylor and Francis.
2367:needs additional citations for
2241:needs additional citations for
831:coarse Widmanstätten platelets
47:needs additional citations for
4713:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2004.08.007
4481:10.1080/09603409.1997.11689552
4461:Materials at High Temperatures
4196:10.1179/1743280411Y.0000000014
3555:10.1016/j.intermet.2019.106670
1358:
1306:
1219:
923:Nb) (Body Centered Tetragonal)
876:Oxide dispersion strengthening
185:. Examples of such alloys are
138:Nickel superalloy jet engine (
1:
5023:10.1016/j.actamat.2003.10.045
4945:10.1016/S0921-5093(02)00905-X
4918:10.1016/S0257-8972(01)01481-5
4895:10.1016/S0079-6425(00)00007-4
4883:Progress in Materials Science
4825:10.1016/s1359-6454(99)00473-5
4790:10.1016/s1359-6454(01)00071-4
4763:10.1016/S0257-8972(01)01455-4
4690:10.1016/S0921-5093(97)00850-2
4663:10.1016/s1359-0286(99)00024-8
4628:10.1016/s0079-6425(00)00020-7
4616:Progress in Materials Science
4388:10.1016/S0257-8972(02)00602-3
4339:10.1016/S0257-8972(02)00593-5
4099:, 1987, John Wiley & Sons
4057:10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.152954
3978:www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk
3886:10.1016/S1359-6454(99)00217-7
3808:10.1016/s1359-6454(99)00029-4
3739:10.1051/matecconf/20141417002
3512:10.1016/j.actamat.2022.118372
3464:10.1016/S1359-6454(97)00084-0
3226:www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk
3208:10.1016/j.actamat.2007.11.014
3109:10.1016/j.actamat.2018.03.057
3060:10.1016/j.actamat.2016.09.017
1738:, eroding the alloy over time
1483:Shockley partial dislocations
1439:in this alloy due to its low
4446:10.1016/0040-6090(84)90277-3
4411:10.1016/0257-8972(94)90130-9
3960:10.1016/j.corsci.2011.02.033
3621:Materials and Geoenvironment
3594:10.1016/0921-5093(96)80002-5
3173:10.1016/0025-5416(87)90061-9
2731:Materials Today: Proceedings
2634:10.1016/j.corsci.2011.04.020
2551:Engineering Failure Analysis
2462:Researchers at Sandia Labs,
2416:Sandia National Laboratories
2324:energy conversion efficiency
1827:and maintaining continuity.
919:Crystal structure for γ" (Ni
210:solid solution strengthening
4541:. In Bunshah, R. F. (ed.).
2743:10.1016/j.matpr.2016.03.024
2715:– via pen.ius.edu.ba.
214:precipitation strengthening
5227:
4740:10.1016/j.msea.2004.05.052
3145:10.2320/matertrans.47.2099
2040:yttria-stabilized zirconia
2025:physical vapour deposition
1925:Directional solidification
1912:Directional solidification
1878:directional solidification
1662:Single-crystal superalloys
944:discs form as a result of
872:Directional solidification
5054:10.1007/s11085-014-9496-1
4860:10.1007/s11661-999-0332-1
4353:"Wadley Research Group '"
4153:10.1007/s11661-000-0078-2
4016:10.1007/s11661-001-0169-8
3635:– via ResearchGate.
3328:10.1007/s11837-016-2094-8
3274:10.1007/s11837-008-0083-2
2085:chemical vapor deposition
164:thermal creep deformation
5160:10.1179/174328407x179539
4306:10.1179/mst.1986.2.3.220
3726:MATEC Web of Conferences
2852:10.1002/pssb.19690350102
2464:Ames National Laboratory
2036:Thermal barrier coatings
2031:Thermal barrier coatings
1686:. This approximates the
938:body-centered tetragonal
5185:. Cambridge University.
5119:Levitin, Valim (2006).
4580:10.1023/A:1004549219013
4522:Materials Science Forum
2967:10.1126/science.1121738
2920:www.cobaltinstitute.org
2832:Physica Status Solidi B
2138:This process includes:
1987:Selective laser melting
841:Families of superalloys
751:acicular (needle-like)
3132:Materials Transactions
1995:additive manufacturing
1982:Additive manufacturing
1972:hot isostatic pressing
1921:
1543:
1515:
1475:
1429:
1376:
1375:{\displaystyle a\left}
1324:
1265:
1237:
1181:
1162:yield strength anomaly
924:
804:globules or platelets
152:high-performance alloy
143:
4227:10.1115/MSEC2018-6666
2468:Iowa State University
1937:Single crystal growth
1932:Single crystal growth
1919:
1544:
1516:
1476:
1441:stacking fault energy
1430:
1377:
1325:
1266:
1238:
1178:
918:
137:
4962:. pp. 579–588.
4912:. 146–147: 117–123.
4757:. 146–147: 110–116.
4382:. 163–164: 106–111.
3906:. pp. 651–687.
2869:. pp. 109–114.
2812:– via tms.org.
2763:. pp. 767–776.
2712:10.21533/pen.v3i1.43
2530:. pp. 399–419.
2376:improve this article
2250:improve this article
1694:into the structure.
1641:oxidation resistance
1637:oxidation resistance
1525:
1497:
1447:
1437:partial dislocations
1401:
1338:
1279:
1247:
1192:
952:precipitate and the
246:Chemical development
56:improve this article
5211:Aerospace materials
5152:2007MatST..23..547S
5042:Oxidation of Metals
5005:2004AcMat..52.1123M
4852:1999MMTA...30..427G
4817:2000AcMat..48.1815M
4655:1999COSSM...4..255W
4568:Oxidation of Metals
4534:Knotek, O. (2001).
4473:1997MaHT...14..261K
4438:1984TSF...118..485C
4298:1986MatST...2..220B
4188:2012IMRv...57..133G
4145:2000MMTA...31.2981A
3952:2011Corro..53.2027K
3878:1999AcMat..47.3367R
3835:1996MMTA...27..513N
3800:1999AcMat..47.1549M
3646:Reed, R. C (2006).
3503:2022AcMat.24118372L
3366:Physical metallurgy
3320:2016JOM....68k2803M
3266:2008JOM....60g..12B
3200:2008AcMat..56.1288S
3100:2018AcMat.151..137R
3051:2017AcMat.122..438N
2959:2006Sci...312...90S
2844:1969PSSBR..35...11S
2626:2011Corro..53.2713K
2587:Reed, R. C (2008).
1957:Mechanical alloying
1953:material efficiency
1887:Casting and forging
1387:Peach-Koehler force
1332:anti-phase boundary
1170:anti-phase boundary
772:elongated globules
769:FeCr, FeCrMo, CrCo
562:
367:
179:face-centered cubic
160:mechanical strength
4707:. 188–189: 71–78.
4359:on 7 December 2015
4323:. 163–164: 67–74.
4270:J. R. Davis, ed.,
4076:www.doitpoms.ac.uk
3843:10.1007/BF02648942
3695:Scripta Materialia
3395:Scientific Reports
2998:Scripta Materialia
2649:Scripta Materialia
2497:Titanium aluminide
2193:Failure mechanisms
2119:Substrate or parts
1922:
1905:Investment casting
1900:Investment casting
1870:investment casting
1539:
1511:
1471:
1425:
1372:
1320:
1261:
1243:traveling along a
1233:
1182:
925:
561:Superalloy phases
560:
509:Re, W, Hf, Mo, Ta
365:
144:
5130:978-3-527-31338-9
4784:(12): 2329–2340.
4524:1997, 251–54, 809
4508:10.5006/1.3315978
4236:978-0-7918-5135-7
4139:(12): 2981–3000.
4010:(12): 2947–2957.
3940:Corrosion Science
3924:Lund and Wagner.
3872:(12): 3367–3381.
3458:(10): 4251–4262.
3407:10.1038/srep29941
3375:978-0-444-53770-6
3314:(11): 2803–2810.
2614:Corrosion Science
2408:
2407:
2400:
2318:Energy production
2282:
2281:
2274:
1991:powder bed fusion
1948:Powder metallurgy
1943:Powder metallurgy
1458:
1412:
1382:burgers vector).
1361:
1309:
1290:
1222:
1203:
962:coherency strains
899:phase based on Ni
838:
837:
738:not close-packed
699:very small disks
519:
518:
374:Composition range
132:
131:
124:
106:
16:(Redirected from
5218:
5186:
5171:
5134:
5107:
5106:
5104:
5102:
5087:
5074:
5073:
5048:(5–6): 359–381.
5033:
5027:
5026:
5016:
4999:(5): 1123–1131.
4988:
4982:
4981:
4955:
4949:
4948:
4939:(1–2): 221–231.
4928:
4922:
4921:
4905:
4899:
4898:
4889:(3–4): 249–271.
4878:
4872:
4871:
4835:
4829:
4828:
4811:(8): 1815–1827.
4800:
4794:
4793:
4773:
4767:
4766:
4750:
4744:
4743:
4734:(1–2): 162–171.
4723:
4717:
4716:
4700:
4694:
4693:
4673:
4667:
4666:
4638:
4632:
4631:
4611:
4605:
4598:
4592:
4591:
4574:(3–4): 241–258.
4563:
4557:
4556:
4540:
4531:
4525:
4518:
4512:
4511:
4491:
4485:
4484:
4456:
4450:
4449:
4426:Thin Solid Films
4421:
4415:
4414:
4405:. 68–69: 10–16.
4398:
4392:
4391:
4375:
4369:
4368:
4366:
4364:
4349:
4343:
4342:
4332:
4316:
4310:
4309:
4281:
4275:
4268:
4262:
4255:
4249:
4248:
4214:
4208:
4207:
4171:
4165:
4164:
4128:
4122:
4121:
4119:
4117:
4106:
4100:
4093:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4082:
4067:
4061:
4060:
4042:
4034:
4028:
4027:
3995:
3989:
3988:
3986:
3984:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3946:(5): 2027–2034.
3935:
3929:
3922:
3916:
3915:
3899:
3890:
3889:
3861:
3855:
3854:
3818:
3812:
3811:
3794:(5): 1549–1563.
3783:
3777:
3776:
3758:
3752:
3751:
3741:
3717:
3711:
3710:
3690:
3684:
3681:
3675:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3643:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3632:
3612:
3606:
3605:
3573:
3567:
3566:
3534:
3525:
3524:
3514:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3443:
3437:
3436:
3426:
3386:
3380:
3379:
3361:
3348:
3347:
3299:
3286:
3285:
3248:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3232:
3218:
3212:
3211:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3138:(8): 2099–2102.
3123:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3062:
3044:
3020:
3014:
3013:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2942:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2911:
2905:
2902:
2889:
2888:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2827:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2798:
2783:
2782:
2756:
2747:
2746:
2726:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2644:
2638:
2637:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2584:
2567:
2566:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2523:
2438:Austenitic steel
2432:material science
2403:
2396:
2392:
2389:
2383:
2360:
2352:
2277:
2270:
2266:
2263:
2257:
2234:
2226:
2166:Thermal spraying
2099:Pack cementation
2093:nickel aluminide
2089:thermal spraying
2065:tungsten carbide
1672:grain boundaries
1628:power-law regime
1598:vacuum induction
1590:grain boundaries
1549:slip direction.
1548:
1546:
1545:
1540:
1538:
1520:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1510:
1480:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1470:
1459:
1451:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1424:
1413:
1405:
1381:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1362:
1354:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1310:
1302:
1291:
1283:
1270:
1268:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1242:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1223:
1215:
1204:
1196:
958:lattice mismatch
946:lattice mismatch
563:
376:(weight %)
368:
230:grain boundaries
127:
120:
116:
113:
107:
105:
64:
40:
32:
21:
5226:
5225:
5221:
5220:
5219:
5217:
5216:
5215:
5191:
5190:
5181:
5178:
5137:
5131:
5118:
5115:
5110:
5100:
5098:
5089:
5088:
5077:
5035:
5034:
5030:
5014:10.1.1.514.3611
4993:Acta Materialia
4990:
4989:
4985:
4978:
4957:
4956:
4952:
4930:
4929:
4925:
4907:
4906:
4902:
4880:
4879:
4875:
4837:
4836:
4832:
4805:Acta Materialia
4802:
4801:
4797:
4778:Acta Materialia
4775:
4774:
4770:
4752:
4751:
4747:
4725:
4724:
4720:
4702:
4701:
4697:
4675:
4674:
4670:
4640:
4639:
4635:
4613:
4612:
4608:
4599:
4595:
4565:
4564:
4560:
4553:
4538:
4533:
4532:
4528:
4519:
4515:
4493:
4492:
4488:
4458:
4457:
4453:
4423:
4422:
4418:
4400:
4399:
4395:
4377:
4376:
4372:
4362:
4360:
4351:
4350:
4346:
4330:10.1.1.457.1304
4318:
4317:
4313:
4283:
4282:
4278:
4269:
4265:
4256:
4252:
4237:
4216:
4215:
4211:
4173:
4172:
4168:
4130:
4129:
4125:
4115:
4113:
4108:
4107:
4103:
4094:
4090:
4080:
4078:
4069:
4068:
4064:
4036:
4035:
4031:
3997:
3996:
3992:
3982:
3980:
3972:
3971:
3967:
3937:
3936:
3932:
3923:
3919:
3901:
3900:
3893:
3866:Acta Materialia
3863:
3862:
3858:
3820:
3819:
3815:
3788:Acta Materialia
3785:
3784:
3780:
3773:
3760:
3759:
3755:
3719:
3718:
3714:
3692:
3691:
3687:
3682:
3678:
3669:
3665:
3658:
3645:
3644:
3640:
3630:
3628:
3614:
3613:
3609:
3575:
3574:
3570:
3536:
3535:
3528:
3491:Acta Materialia
3484:
3483:
3479:
3452:Acta Materialia
3445:
3444:
3440:
3388:
3387:
3383:
3376:
3363:
3362:
3351:
3301:
3300:
3289:
3250:
3249:
3240:
3230:
3228:
3220:
3219:
3215:
3188:Acta Materialia
3185:
3184:
3180:
3158:
3157:
3153:
3126:Cui, C (2006).
3125:
3124:
3117:
3088:Acta Materialia
3081:
3080:
3076:
3029:Acta Materialia
3022:
3021:
3017:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2953:(5770): 90–91.
2944:
2943:
2934:
2924:
2922:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2903:
2892:
2885:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2829:
2828:
2817:
2807:
2805:
2800:
2799:
2786:
2779:
2758:
2757:
2750:
2728:
2727:
2720:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2673:
2672:
2668:
2646:
2645:
2641:
2620:(9): 2713–720.
2611:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2586:
2585:
2570:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2525:
2524:
2509:
2505:
2488:
2460:
2452:
2450:AFA superalloys
2440:
2413:
2404:
2393:
2387:
2384:
2373:
2361:
2350:
2320:
2292:turbine engines
2287:
2278:
2267:
2261:
2258:
2247:
2235:
2224:
2195:
2186:
2177:
2175:Plasma spraying
2168:
2101:
2081:
2079:Process methods
2048:
2033:
2016:
2008:
1989:(also known as
1984:
1965:
1945:
1934:
1914:
1902:
1889:
1866:
1841:
1791:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1716:
1692:amorphous solid
1684:crystal lattice
1664:
1609:volume fraction
1587:
1583:
1571:
1556:
1528:
1523:
1522:
1521:slip plane and
1500:
1495:
1494:
1487:stacking faults
1460:
1445:
1444:
1414:
1399:
1398:
1348:
1344:
1336:
1335:
1296:
1292:
1277:
1276:
1273:primitive cubic
1250:
1245:
1244:
1209:
1205:
1190:
1189:
1151:
1146:
1085:
1070:
1056:
1052:
1049:structure of Co
1048:
1040:
1036:
1029:
1022:
1018:
1010:
1003:
994:
935:
931:
922:
910:
906:
902:
888:
880:superplasticity
853:
848:
843:
828:
824:
800:
796:
792:
747:
723:
716:
695:
688:
663:
656:
652:
622:
615:
592:disordered FCC
575:Composition(s)
569:Classification
553:
524:
522:Phase formation
477:
473:
441:
437:
433:
429:
414:
410:
395:
393:
375:
344:
248:
237:turbine engines
142:) turbine blade
128:
117:
111:
108:
65:
63:
53:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5224:
5222:
5214:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5193:
5192:
5189:
5188:
5177:
5176:External links
5174:
5173:
5172:
5146:(5): 547–555.
5135:
5129:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5108:
5075:
5028:
4983:
4976:
4950:
4923:
4900:
4873:
4846:(2): 427–435.
4830:
4795:
4768:
4745:
4718:
4695:
4684:(2): 191–200.
4668:
4649:(3): 255–265.
4633:
4622:(5): 505–553.
4606:
4593:
4558:
4551:
4526:
4513:
4502:(7): 599–607.
4486:
4467:(3): 261–268.
4451:
4432:(4): 485–493.
4416:
4393:
4370:
4344:
4311:
4292:(3): 220–224.
4276:
4263:
4250:
4235:
4209:
4182:(3): 133–164.
4166:
4123:
4101:
4088:
4062:
4029:
3990:
3965:
3930:
3917:
3891:
3856:
3829:(3): 513–530.
3813:
3778:
3771:
3753:
3712:
3701:(8): 795–798.
3685:
3676:
3663:
3656:
3638:
3607:
3568:
3543:Intermetallics
3526:
3477:
3438:
3381:
3374:
3349:
3287:
3238:
3213:
3194:(6): 1288–97.
3178:
3151:
3115:
3074:
3015:
2988:
2932:
2906:
2890:
2883:
2857:
2815:
2801:Randy Bowman.
2784:
2777:
2748:
2737:(4): 936–941.
2718:
2685:
2666:
2639:
2604:
2597:
2568:
2557:(2): 237–247.
2541:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2494:
2487:
2484:
2459:
2456:
2451:
2448:
2439:
2436:
2412:
2409:
2406:
2405:
2364:
2362:
2355:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2319:
2316:
2307:
2306:
2303:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2238:
2236:
2229:
2223:
2220:
2216:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2194:
2191:
2185:
2182:
2176:
2173:
2167:
2164:
2159:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2120:
2100:
2097:
2080:
2077:
2047:
2044:
2032:
2029:
2015:
2012:
2007:
2004:
1983:
1980:
1964:
1961:
1944:
1941:
1933:
1930:
1913:
1910:
1901:
1898:
1888:
1885:
1874:vacuum melting
1865:
1862:
1840:
1837:
1789:
1785:
1777:
1773:
1757:
1756:
1750:
1739:
1715:
1712:
1668:single crystal
1663:
1660:
1585:
1581:
1569:
1554:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1457:
1454:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1411:
1408:
1370:
1366:
1360:
1357:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1305:
1299:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1231:
1227:
1221:
1218:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1199:
1186:burgers vector
1158:stoichiometric
1149:
1145:
1144:Microstructure
1142:
1138:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1121:
1120:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1084:
1083:Microstructure
1081:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1028:
1025:
1020:
1016:
1008:
1001:
993:
990:
989:
988:
985:solid solution
969:
965:
960:leads to high
933:
929:
920:
913:
912:
908:
904:
900:
893:
887:
884:
865:vacuum melting
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
836:
835:
832:
829:
826:
822:
819:
816:
813:
809:
808:
805:
802:
798:
794:
790:
787:
784:
781:
777:
776:
773:
770:
767:
764:
761:
757:
756:
752:
749:
745:
742:
739:
736:
732:
731:
728:
725:
721:
718:
717:(ordered HCP)
714:
711:
708:
704:
703:
700:
697:
693:
690:
689:(ordered BCT)
686:
683:
680:
676:
675:
672:
669:
661:
654:
650:
641:
638:
635:
631:
630:
627:
624:
620:
617:
616:(ordered FCC)
613:
610:
607:
603:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
583:
582:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
551:
548:
547:
544:
541:
538:
523:
520:
517:
516:
513:
510:
506:
505:
502:
499:
495:
494:
491:
488:
484:
483:
475:
471:
462:
459:
455:
454:
451:
448:
444:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
424:
421:
417:
416:
412:
408:
405:
402:
398:
397:
391:
388:
385:
381:
380:
377:
372:
342:
247:
244:
130:
129:
44:
42:
35:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5223:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5198:
5196:
5184:
5183:"Superalloys"
5180:
5179:
5175:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5136:
5132:
5126:
5123:. WILEY-VCH.
5122:
5117:
5116:
5112:
5097:
5093:
5086:
5084:
5082:
5080:
5076:
5071:
5067:
5063:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5032:
5029:
5024:
5020:
5015:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4987:
4984:
4979:
4977:0-87339-576-X
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4954:
4951:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4927:
4924:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4904:
4901:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4877:
4874:
4869:
4865:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4834:
4831:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4799:
4796:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4772:
4769:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4749:
4746:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4722:
4719:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4699:
4696:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4672:
4669:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4637:
4634:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4610:
4607:
4603:
4597:
4594:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4562:
4559:
4554:
4552:9780815514381
4548:
4544:
4537:
4530:
4527:
4523:
4517:
4514:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4490:
4487:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4455:
4452:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4420:
4417:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4397:
4394:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4374:
4371:
4358:
4354:
4348:
4345:
4340:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4322:
4315:
4312:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4280:
4277:
4273:
4267:
4264:
4260:
4254:
4251:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4213:
4210:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4170:
4167:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4127:
4124:
4111:
4105:
4102:
4098:
4092:
4089:
4077:
4073:
4066:
4063:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4033:
4030:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3994:
3991:
3979:
3975:
3969:
3966:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3934:
3931:
3927:
3921:
3918:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3860:
3857:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3817:
3814:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3782:
3779:
3774:
3772:9780850668520
3768:
3764:
3757:
3754:
3749:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3716:
3713:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3689:
3686:
3680:
3677:
3673:
3667:
3664:
3659:
3657:9780521070119
3653:
3649:
3642:
3639:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3611:
3608:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3572:
3569:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3531:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3478:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3442:
3439:
3434:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3385:
3382:
3377:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3358:
3356:
3354:
3350:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3288:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3247:
3245:
3243:
3239:
3227:
3223:
3217:
3214:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3179:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3155:
3152:
3146:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3078:
3075:
3070:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3019:
3016:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2989:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2921:
2917:
2916:"Superalloys"
2910:
2907:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2891:
2886:
2884:0-87339-576-X
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2861:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2804:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2780:
2778:0-87339-477-1
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2713:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2689:
2686:
2681:
2677:
2670:
2667:
2662:
2658:
2655:(6): 612–15.
2654:
2650:
2643:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2608:
2605:
2600:
2598:9780521070119
2594:
2590:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2545:
2542:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2522:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2502:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2476:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2457:
2455:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2402:
2399:
2391:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2365:This section
2363:
2359:
2354:
2353:
2347:
2345:
2339:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2325:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2296:turbine blade
2293:
2284:
2276:
2273:
2265:
2255:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2239:This section
2237:
2233:
2228:
2227:
2221:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2192:
2190:
2183:
2181:
2174:
2172:
2165:
2163:
2157:Titaniumizing
2156:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2127:
2123:
2122:
2118:
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2109:eutectic bond
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2021:
2013:
2011:
2005:
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1744:
1743:embrittlement
1740:
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1707:
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1681:
1680:intermetallic
1677:
1673:
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1652:
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1173:
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1080:
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959:
956:matrix. This
955:
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897:intermetallic
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889:
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863:Around 1950,
861:
857:
850:
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820:
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817:
814:
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810:
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500:
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492:
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486:
485:
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460:
457:
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453:Ti forms γ'.
452:
449:
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419:
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369:
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348:
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73: –
72:
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67:Find sources:
61:
57:
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50:
45:This article
43:
39:
34:
33:
30:
19:
5143:
5139:
5120:
5113:Bibliography
5099:. Retrieved
5095:
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4992:
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4396:
4379:
4373:
4361:. Retrieved
4357:the original
4347:
4320:
4314:
4289:
4285:
4279:
4271:
4266:
4258:
4257:Y. Tamarin,
4253:
4218:
4212:
4179:
4175:
4169:
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4132:
4126:
4114:. Retrieved
4104:
4096:
4091:
4079:. Retrieved
4075:
4065:
4048:
4044:
4032:
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3993:
3981:. Retrieved
3977:
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3859:
3826:
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3756:
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3679:
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3641:
3629:. Retrieved
3627:(3): 319–328
3624:
3620:
3610:
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3585:
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3257:
3253:
3229:. Retrieved
3225:
3216:
3191:
3187:
3181:
3164:
3160:
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3131:
3091:
3087:
3077:
3032:
3028:
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2997:
2991:
2950:
2946:
2923:. Retrieved
2919:
2909:
2866:
2860:
2838:(1): 11–52.
2835:
2831:
2806:. Retrieved
2760:
2734:
2730:
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2702:
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2688:
2679:
2669:
2652:
2648:
2642:
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2588:
2554:
2550:
2544:
2527:
2480:
2477:
2473:
2461:
2453:
2445:
2441:
2428:nanoparticle
2424:nanoparticle
2418:is studying
2414:
2394:
2385:
2374:Please help
2369:verification
2366:
2343:
2328:Carnot cycle
2321:
2312:
2308:
2288:
2268:
2259:
2248:Please help
2243:verification
2240:
2222:Applications
2217:
2196:
2187:
2178:
2169:
2160:
2151:Sherardizing
2148:Siliconizing
2137:
2114:
2102:
2082:
2069:fossil fuels
2049:
2034:
2017:
2009:
1990:
1985:
1966:
1946:
1935:
1923:
1903:
1894:
1890:
1882:
1867:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1829:
1798:
1758:
1717:
1708:
1696:
1665:
1653:
1645:
1617:
1605:
1574:precipitates
1559:
1551:
1491:slip systems
1396:
1384:
1183:
1166:Dislocations
1152:Al phase Al
1147:
1139:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1053:Ti or FCC Co
1013:
1006:
999:
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948:between the
869:
862:
858:
854:
766:tetrahedral
665:
658:
647:
643:
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479:
468:
464:
336:
249:
241:
234:
207:
176:
174:resistance.
151:
147:
145:
118:
109:
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92:
85:
78:
71:"Superalloy"
66:
54:Please help
49:verification
46:
29:
5206:Superalloys
5101:12 February
3094:: 137–148.
3035:: 438–447.
2925:10 December
2142:Aluminizing
2071:, electric
1823:, reducing
1688:dislocation
1656:Eglin steel
1562:gas turbine
1392:cross-slips
977:Laves phase
973:"TCP phase"
942:anisotropic
668:= metal)
578:Appearance
384:Ni, Fe, Co
339:dislocation
262:, but also
199:Rene alloys
18:Superalloys
5201:Metallurgy
5195:Categories
4051:: 152954.
3549:: 106670.
3497:: 118372.
3042:1603.05967
2503:References
2420:radiolysis
2411:Radiolysis
2388:April 2022
2310:1,000 C..
2262:April 2022
2154:Boronizing
2145:Chromizing
2053:aluminides
1976:green body
1864:Processing
1148:In pure Ni
786:hexagonal
572:Structure
461:0.05-0.2%
284:molybdenum
264:metalloids
183:austenitic
148:superalloy
112:March 2018
82:newspapers
5168:135755442
5096:New Atlas
5070:136677636
5009:CiteSeerX
4868:137312835
4588:136826569
4496:Corrosion
4325:CiteSeerX
4245:139639438
4204:137144519
4161:137660703
4024:1543-1940
3851:137172614
3732:: 17002.
3602:0921-5093
3563:0966-9795
3521:1359-6454
3472:1359-6454
3415:2045-2322
3344:137160315
3282:137354503
3167:: 11–19.
3004:: 36–39.
2184:Gas phase
2046:Bond coat
2020:aluminide
1968:Sintering
1832:corrosion
1753:depletion
1724:Oxidation
1720:corrosive
1714:Oxidation
1704:ruthenium
1702:(Re) and
1648:ruthenium
1588:) at the
1359:¯
1307:¯
1220:¯
1180:boundary.
1042:carbides.
304:zirconium
296:aluminium
268:nonmetals
222:aluminium
187:Hastelloy
172:oxidation
168:corrosion
3748:55396795
3433:27511822
3069:11222811
2983:23877638
2975:16601187
2486:See also
2348:Research
2285:Turbines
2087:(CVD)),
2073:furnaces
2006:Coatings
1993:) is an
1825:spalling
1821:adhesion
1805:kinetics
1766:chromium
1762:aluminum
1741:surface
1736:spalling
1580:(e.g. Cr
1578:carbides
1572:(Al,Ti)
1536:⟩
1530:⟨
1481:family (
1468:⟩
1462:⟨
1422:⟩
1416:⟨
1068:Fe-based
1023:(Ta,V).
992:Co-based
932:Nb or Ni
846:Ni-based
637:Carbide
634:Carbide
623:(Al,Ti)
379:Purpose
371:Element
359:titanium
355:aluminum
345:(Al,Ti)
320:vanadium
300:titanium
292:tantalum
288:tungsten
272:chromium
226:chromium
218:carbides
195:Waspaloy
154:, is an
5148:Bibcode
5062:1185421
5001:Bibcode
4848:Bibcode
4813:Bibcode
4651:Bibcode
4469:Bibcode
4434:Bibcode
4363:3 March
4294:Bibcode
4184:Bibcode
4141:Bibcode
4116:1 March
3948:Bibcode
3874:Bibcode
3831:Bibcode
3796:Bibcode
3631:8 March
3499:Bibcode
3424:4980694
3336:1362187
3316:Bibcode
3262:Bibcode
3231:2 March
3196:Bibcode
3096:Bibcode
3047:Bibcode
2955:Bibcode
2947:Science
2840:Bibcode
2808:6 March
2622:Bibcode
2057:cermets
1817:yttrium
1813:silicon
1782:chromia
1770:alumina
1749:failure
1747:fatigue
1700:rhenium
1620:rhenium
1601:casting
1566:Nimonic
1485:). The
968:motion.
851:History
821:(Fe,Co)
589:matrix
581:Effect
490:0-0.1%
423:0.5-6%
387:50-70%
332:hafnium
316:yttrium
312:rhenium
308:niobium
203:Incoloy
191:Inconel
96:scholar
5166:
5127:
5068:
5060:
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2294:(e.g.
2105:retort
2061:Cobalt
1815:, and
1801:stress
1780:) and
1706:(Ru).
1596:until
1594:forged
1027:Phases
886:Phases
825:(Mo,W)
812:Laves
797:Ti, Fe
793:Nb, Co
657:, and
566:Phase
512:1-10%
467:C and
404:5-20%
324:carbon
280:cobalt
260:metals
256:Nickel
181:(FCC)
98:
91:
84:
77:
69:
5164:S2CID
5066:S2CID
4864:S2CID
4584:S2CID
4539:(PDF)
4241:S2CID
4200:S2CID
4157:S2CID
3847:S2CID
3744:S2CID
3340:S2CID
3278:S2CID
3065:S2CID
3037:arXiv
2979:S2CID
2014:Types
1839:Creep
1809:boron
1728:oxide
1676:creep
1624:creep
1154:atoms
501:0-5%
487:B,Zr
450:1-4%
347:phase
328:boron
252:creep
156:alloy
150:, or
140:RB199
103:JSTOR
89:books
5125:ISBN
5103:2023
5058:OSTI
4972:ISBN
4682:A245
4547:ISBN
4365:2016
4231:ISBN
4118:2016
4083:2024
4020:ISSN
3985:2024
3767:ISBN
3652:ISBN
3633:2020
3598:ISSN
3559:ISSN
3517:ISSN
3468:ISSN
3429:PMID
3411:ISSN
3370:ISBN
3332:OSTI
3233:2018
2971:PMID
2927:2019
2879:ISBN
2810:2020
2773:ISBN
2593:ISBN
2466:and
1970:and
1764:and
815:TCP
783:TCP
763:TCP
710:GCP
682:GCP
679:γ''
640:FCC
609:GCP
394:Al).
357:and
276:iron
266:and
224:and
212:and
170:and
75:news
5156:doi
5050:doi
5019:doi
4964:doi
4941:doi
4937:352
4914:doi
4891:doi
4856:doi
4821:doi
4786:doi
4759:doi
4736:doi
4732:384
4709:doi
4686:doi
4659:doi
4624:doi
4576:doi
4504:doi
4477:doi
4442:doi
4430:118
4407:doi
4384:doi
4335:doi
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4223:doi
4192:doi
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4053:doi
4049:819
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3956:doi
3908:doi
3882:doi
3839:doi
3804:doi
3734:doi
3703:doi
3590:doi
3586:207
3551:doi
3547:117
3507:doi
3495:241
3460:doi
3419:PMC
3403:doi
3324:doi
3308:JOM
3270:doi
3254:JOM
3204:doi
3169:doi
3140:doi
3104:doi
3092:151
3055:doi
3033:122
3006:doi
2963:doi
2951:312
2871:doi
2848:doi
2765:doi
2739:doi
2707:doi
2657:doi
2630:doi
2559:doi
2532:doi
2378:by
2252:by
1999:CAD
1784:(Cr
1772:(Al
1632:TCP
1533:110
1505:111
1465:211
1419:110
1255:111
1188:of
1172:.
981:HCP
954:FCC
950:BCT
801:Ti
748:Nb
724:Ti
696:Nb
664:C (
646:C,
606:γ'
498:Nb
447:Ti
420:Al
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330:or
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