845:
271:. The high sweetness detection threshold and low bitterness detection threshold would have predisposed our primate ancestors to seek out sweet-tasting (and energy-dense) foods and avoid bitter-tasting foods. Even amongst leaf-eating primates, there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves, which tend to be higher in protein and lower in fibre and poisons than mature leaves. The "sweet tooth" thus has an ancient heritage, and while food processing has changed consumption patterns, human physiology remains largely unchanged. Biologically, a variant in
1099:. Early organic chemists tasted many of their products, either intentionally (as a means of characterization) or accidentally (due to poor laboratory hygiene). One of the first attempts to draw systematic correlations between molecules' structures and their tastes was made by a German chemist, Georg Cohn, in 1914. He hypothesized that to evoke a certain taste, a molecule must contain some structural motif (called a
140:
22:
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of food can affect sweetness perception. Adding more red color to a drink increases its perceived sweetness. In a study darker colored solutions were rated 2β10% higher than lighter ones despite having 1% less sucrose concentration. The effect of color is believed to be due to cognitive expectations.
961:
Human studies have shown that sweet taste receptors are not only found in the tongue, but also in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract as well as the nasal epithelium, pancreatic islet cells, sperm and testes. It is proposed that the presence of sweet taste receptors in the GI tract controls the
1185:
in 1991. This theory involves a total of eight interaction sites between a sweetener and the sweetness receptor, although not all sweeteners interact with all eight sites. This model has successfully directed efforts aimed at finding highly potent sweeteners, including the most potent family of
2310:
Philippaert, Koenraad; Pironet, Andy; Mesuere, Margot; Sones, William; Vermeiren, Laura; Kerselaers, Sara; Pinto, SΓlvia; Segal, Andrei; Antoine, Nancy; Gysemans, Conny; Laureys, Jos; Lemaire, Katleen; Gilon, Patrick; Cuypers, Eva; Tytgat, Jan; Mathieu, Chantal; Schuit, Frans; Rorsman, Patrik;
753:
Some variation in values is not uncommon between various studies. Such variations may arise from a range of methodological variables, from sampling to analysis and interpretation. Indeed, the taste index of 1, assigned to reference substances such as sucrose (for sweetness),
1024:, the taste cells for sweet, bitter and umami share the same intracellular signalling pathway. Incoming sweet molecules bind to their receptors, which causes a conformational change in the molecule. This change activates the G-protein, gustducin, which in turn activates
758:(for sourness), quinine (for bitterness), and sodium chloride (for saltiness), is itself arbitrary for practical purposes. Some values, such as those for maltose and glucose, vary little. Others, such as aspartame and sodium saccharin, have much larger variation.
915:, cause sour foods to taste sweet. Once the tongue has been exposed to either of these proteins, sourness is perceived as sweetness for up to an hour afterwards. While curculin has some innate sweet taste of its own, miraculin is by itself quite tasteless.
2417:
Taruno, A; Vingtdeux, V; Ohmoto, M; Ma, Z; Dvoryanchikov, G; Li, A; Adrien, L; Zhao, H; Leung, S; Abernethy, M; Koppel, J; Davies, P; Civan, MM; Chaudhari, N; Matsumoto, I; Hellekant, G; Tordoff, MG; Marambaud, P; Foskett, JK (14 March 2013).
1542:
DuBois, Grant E.; Walters, D. Eric; Schiffman, Susan S.; Warwick, Zoe S.; Booth, Barbara J.; Pecore, Suzanne D.; Gibes, Kernon; Carr, B. Thomas; Brands, Linda M. (1991-12-31), Walters, D. Eric; Orthoefer, Frank T.; DuBois, Grant E. (eds.),
1169:. Later researchers have statistically analyzed the distances between the presumed AH, B, and X sites in several families of sweet substances to estimate the distances between these interaction sites on the sweetness receptor.
924:
1118:
In 1919, Oertly and Myers proposed a more elaborate theory based on a then-current theory of color in synthetic dyes. They hypothesized that to be sweet, a compound must contain one each of two classes of structural motif, a
1164:
and sweetness. This theory formalized these observations by proposing that to be sweet, a compound must have a third binding site (labeled X) that could interact with a hydrophobic site on the sweetness receptor via
862:
A few substances alter the way sweet taste is perceived. One class of these inhibits the perception of sweet tastes, whether from sugars or from highly potent sweeteners. Commercially, the most important of these is
262:
appears to have the lowest detection threshold, at about 1 part in 2 million for quinine in solution. In the natural settings that human primate ancestors evolved in, sweetness intensity should indicate
2767:
Max M, Shanker YG, Huang LQ, Rong M, Liu Z, Campagne F, Weinstein H, Damak S, Margolskee RF (2001). "Tas1r3, encoding a new candidate taste receptor, is allelic to the sweet responsiveness locus Sac".
305:(table sugar) is the prototypical example of a sweet substance. Sucrose in solution has a sweetness perception rating of 1, and other substances are rated relative to this. For example, another sugar,
1016:
To depolarize the cell, and ultimately generate a response, the body uses different cells in the taste bud that each express a receptor for the perception of sweet, sour, salty, bitter or
992:
like domestic cats cannot perceive sweetness at all. The ability to taste sweetness often atrophies genetically in species of carnivores who do not eat sweet foods like fruits, including
231:
basis for detecting sweetness, which varies between both individuals and species, has only begun to be understood since the late 20th century. One theoretical model of sweetness is the
939:, the biomolecular mechanism of sweet taste was sufficiently elusive that as recently as the 1990s, there was some doubt whether any single "sweetness receptor" actually exists.
965:
Another research has shown that the threshold of sweet taste perception is in direct correlation with the time of day. This is believed to be the consequence of oscillating
1153:. According to this theory, the AH-B unit of a sweetener binds with a corresponding AH-B unit on the biological sweetness receptor to produce the sensation of sweetness.
942:
The breakthrough for the present understanding of sweetness occurred in 2001, when experiments with laboratory mice showed that mice possessing different versions of the
2239:
2903:
2477:"Calcium homeostasis modulator 1 (CALHM1) is the pore-forming subunit of an ion channel that mediates extracellular Ca2+ regulation of neuronal excitability"
2194:"Evolution of the Sweetness Receptor in Primates. I. Why Does Alitame Taste Sweet in all Prosimians and Simians, and Aspartame only in Old World Simians?"
969:
levels in blood that may impact the overall sweetness of food. Scientists hypothesize that this is an evolutionary relict of diurnal animals like humans.
3162:
Tinti, Jean-Marie; Nofre, Claude (1991). "Why does a sweetener taste sweet? A new model". In
Walters, D.E.; Orthoefer, F.T; DuBois, G.E. (eds.).
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Kitagawa M, Kusakabe Y, Miura H, Ninomiya Y, Hino A (2001). "Molecular genetic identification of a candidate receptor gene for sweet taste".
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1821:
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Hundreds of synthetic organic compounds are known to be sweet, but only a few of these are legally permitted as food additives. For example,
1777:
O'Brien-Nabors, Lyn, ed. (2012). Alternative sweeteners (4th ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-4614-8. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
931:
Despite the wide variety of chemical substances known to be sweet, and knowledge that the ability to perceive sweet taste must reside in
871:. It is used in some jellies and other fruit preserves to bring out their fruit flavors by suppressing their otherwise strong sweetness.
165:
most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are generally regarded as pleasurable. In addition to sugars like
2987:
1974:
Yamashita H, Akabane T, Kurihara Y (April 1995). "Activity and stability of a new sweet protein with taste-modifying action, curculin".
3069:
Schiffman, S.S.; Diaz, C; Beeker, T.G (March 1986). "Caffeine
Intensifies Taste of Certain Sweeteners: Role of Adenosine Receptor".
1876:
1762:
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From these beginnings in the early 20th century, the theory of sweetness enjoyed little further academic attention until 1963, when
105:
972:
Sweetness perception may differ between species significantly. For example, even amongst the primates sweetness is quite variable.
3196:"Opioid hedonic hotspot in nucleus accumbens shell: mu, delta, and kappa maps for enhancement of sweetness "liking" and "wanting""
1871:
Kinghorn, A.D. and
Compadre, C.M. Alternative Sweeteners: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, Marcel Dekker ed., New York, 2001.
1127:. Based on those compounds known to be sweet at the time, they proposed a list of six candidate glucophores and nine auxoglucs.
3302:
2561:
Shankar MU, Levitan CA, Spence C (2010). "Grape expectations: the role of cognitive influences in color-flavor interactions".
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250:. Newborn human infants also demonstrate preferences for high sugar concentrations and prefer solutions that are sweeter than
2235:
43:
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in 1972. While previous researchers had noted that among some groups of compounds, there seemed to be a correlation between
1039:-receptor and induces calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum. This increase in intracellular calcium activates the
3507:
358:. It is roughly 250 times sweeter than sucrose. Another class of potent natural sweeteners are the sweet proteins such as
221:
238:
Studies indicate that responsiveness to sugars and sweetness has very ancient evolutionary beginnings, being manifest as
2475:
Ma, Z; Siebert, AP; Cheung, KH; Lee, RJ; Johnson, B; Cohen, AS; Vingtdeux, V; Marambaud, P; Foskett, JK (10 July 2012).
2313:"Steviol glycosides enhance pancreatic beta-cell function and taste sensation by potentiation of TRPM5 channel activity"
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Nakamura, Y.; Sanematsu, K.; Ohta, R.; Shirosaki, S.; Koyano, K.; Nonaka, K.; Shigemura, N.; Ninomiya, Y. (2008-07-15).
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301:, are sweet. Among common biological substances, all of the simple carbohydrates are sweet to at least some degree.
955:
856:
122:
39:
32:
2370:"Intracellular Ca(2+) and TRPM5-mediated membrane depolarization produce ATP secretion from taste receptor cells"
65:
3239:"Hedonic hot spot in nucleus accumbens shell: where do mu-opioids cause increased hedonic impact of sweetness?"
1888:
Kurihara Y (1992). "Characteristics of antisweet substances, sweet proteins, and sweetness-inducing proteins".
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proposed the AH-B theory of sweetness. Simply put, they proposed that to be sweet, a compound must contain a
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72:
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The sweetness of 5% solution of glycine in water compares to a solution of 5.6% glucose or 2.6% fructose.
129:
2070:"Sweet taste receptor in the hypothalamus: a potential new player in glucose sensing in the hypothalamus"
2137:"Diurnal Variation of Human Sweet Taste Recognition Thresholds Is Correlated With Plasma Leptin Levels"
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The most elaborate theory of sweetness to date is the multipoint attachment theory (MPA) proposed by
1111:
atoms are often sweet, and that among a series of structurally similar compounds, those with smaller
821:
610:
2534:
Johnson, J.; Clydesdale, F. (1982). "Perceived sweetness and redness in colored sucrose solutions".
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gets activated by the depolarization and releases ATP neurotransmitter which activates the afferent
3295:
1096:
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1103:) that produces that taste. With regard to sweetness, he noted that molecules containing multiple
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that are sweet at concentrations much lower than common sugars. The most well-known example is
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root, which is about 30 times sweeter than sucrose. Another commercially important example is
290:
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in the 19th century introduced many new chemical compounds and the means to determine their
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235:, which involves multiple binding sites between a sweetness receptor and a sweet substance.
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Two natural products have been documented to have similar sweetness-inhibiting properties:
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T1R3 prefer sweet foods to different extents. Subsequent research has shown that the
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182:
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are the sweetest. Some other amino acids are perceived as both sweet and bitter.
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3018:"Amiloride reduces the taste intensity of Na+ and Li+ salts and sweeteners"
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The perceived intensity of sugars and high-potency sweeteners, such as
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3164:
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900:). Gymnemic acid has been widely promoted within
904:as a treatment for sugar cravings and diabetes.
1194:, is about 225,000 times sweeter than sucrose.
950:forms a complex with a related protein, called
1734:Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science
1703:Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology
1610:Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science
1115:were often sweeter than the larger compounds.
3296:
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106:Learn how and when to remove this message
1657:"Sweeteness Relative to Sucrose (table)"
1415:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
383:
1465:
1260:
1207:
907:On the other hand, two plant proteins,
3071:Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior
1381:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
1190:sweeteners. The most potent of these,
2074:The Journal of Physiological Sciences
1396:The Psychology of Eating and Drinking
773:. The latter may have contributed to
267:, while bitterness tends to indicate
7:
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1757:. Woodhead Publishing. p. 264.
1699:; Hall, John; Hall, John E. (2006).
1028:to generate inositol trisphosphate (
44:adding citations to reliable sources
2988:The New England Journal of Medicine
2242:from the original on March 19, 2011
1310:The New England Journal of Medicine
878:, extracted from the leaves of the
275:increases craving for sweet foods.
3155:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1963.tb00247.x
2711:Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
2548:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1982.tb12706.x
1662:The World of Chemistry: Essentials
331:A number of plant species produce
14:
2835:"Mammalian sweet taste receptors"
2234:Biello, David (August 16, 2007).
1500:10.1038/scientificamerican0893-86
1035:), this subsequently opens the IP
892:, from the leaves of the Chinese
3178:
2961:10.1046/j.1471-4159.2001.00292.x
988:(including most humans) all do.
781:aristocracy: the Roman delicacy
20:
3194:Castro DC, Berridge KC (2014).
2683:Die Organischen Geschmackstoffe
1814:Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie
1754:Optimising Sweet Taste in Foods
1087:is the sweetest chemical known.
962:feeling of hunger and satiety.
785:was prepared by boiling soured
385:Sweetness of various compounds
232:
31:needs additional citations for
3255:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2329-05.2005
3237:PeciΓ±a S, Berridge KC (2005).
3212:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4458-13.2014
1526:Textbook of Medical Physiology
1186:sweeteners known to date, the
1:
2852:10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00451-2
2068:Kohno, Daisuke (2017-04-04).
1945:10.1126/science.161.3847.1241
1043:channel and induces cellular
222:neohesperidin dihydrochalcone
3083:10.1016/0091-3057(86)90536-8
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2575:10.1016/j.concog.2009.08.008
2386:10.1113/jphysiol.2010.191106
2015:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
1107:groups and those containing
279:Examples of sweet substances
233:multipoint attachment theory
3001:10.1056/nejm198305263082107
2690:Dobbing, John, ed. (1987).
2267:The Journal of Cell Biology
2263:"The cell biology of taste"
1322:10.1056/NEJM198306023082207
1156:B-X theory was proposed by
1149:(B) separated by about 0.3
1059:innervating the taste bud.
853:β On The Quays, New Orleans
808:are sweet, but also toxic.
273:fibroblast growth factor 21
256:taste recognition threshold
209:. Other compounds, such as
134:Sweetening (disambiguation)
3526:
2917:10.1177/003591576305600111
1751:Spillane WJ (2006-07-17).
1618:cited as "Derma, 1947" in
1557:10.1021/bk-1991-0450.ch020
1524:Guyton, Arthur C. (1991).
1440:10.1177/053901848001900603
1428:Social Science Information
956:G-protein coupled receptor
282:
143:Sweet foods, such as this
127:
123:Sweetness (disambiguation)
120:
2948:Journal of Neurochemistry
2656:10.1007/s12078-007-9003-z
2374:The Journal of Physiology
2087:10.1007/s12576-017-0535-y
1902:10.1080/10408399209527598
1400:. New York: W.H. Freeman.
867:, a compound produced by
339:, the sweet component of
2685:. Berlin: F. Siemenroth.
1794:. 2011-04-13. p. 16
1167:London dispersion forces
3143:Journal of Food Science
3125:10.1093/chemse/25.2.131
3043:10.1073/pnas.80.19.6136
2644:Chemosensory Perception
2536:Journal of Food Science
2502:10.1073/pnas.1204023109
2238:. Scientific American.
2213:10.1093/chemse/20.5.573
1988:10.1093/chemse/20.2.239
2752:10.1006/bbrc.2001.4760
2723:10.1002/jps.2600610910
2036:10.1073/pnas.072090199
1890:Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
1347:. New York: Doubleday.
1088:
1012:Sweet receptor pathway
928:
919:The sweetness receptor
859:
155:
150:, are often eaten for
130:Sweet (disambiguation)
2317:Nature Communications
2279:10.1083/jcb.201003144
1579:John McMurry (1998).
1083:
926:
847:
765:are sweet, including
643:Modified disaccharide
615:Oxathiazinone dioxide
289:A great diversity of
283:Further information:
173:are sweet, including
142:
3508:Culinary terminology
2681:Cohn, Georg (1914).
1392:Logue, A.W. (1986).
1343:McAleer, N. (1985).
1132:Robert Shallenberger
1097:molecular structures
1020:. Downstream of the
822:acesulfame potassium
747:230,000 (estimated)
732:200,000 (estimated)
717:200,000 (estimated)
702:188,000 (estimated)
687:162,000 (estimated)
611:Acesulfame potassium
191:non-sugar sweeteners
121:For other uses, see
40:improve this article
3034:1983PNAS...80.6136S
2798:Nature Neuroscience
2606:Acta Psychol (Amst)
2493:2012PNAS..109E1963M
2444:10.1038/nature11906
2436:2013Natur.495..223T
2337:10.1038/ncomms14733
2329:2017NatCo...814733P
2027:2002PNAS...99.4692L
1937:1968Sci...161.1241K
1851:10.1056/NEJMc062352
1492:1993SciAm.269b..86M
1480:Scientific American
1263:, pp. 115β124)
1234:10.1017/thg.2015.42
1091:The development of
1076:Historical theories
994:bottlenose dolphins
855:, 1853 painting by
840:Sweetness modifiers
836:are commonly used.
763:inorganic compounds
386:
2380:(Pt 13): 2343β50.
1622:American Scientist
1377:Johns, T. (1990).
1360:American Scientist
1221:Twin Res Hum Genet
1089:
929:
860:
767:beryllium chloride
384:
313:are mildly sweet:
291:chemical compounds
171:chemical compounds
156:
3490:
3489:
2701:978-0-387-17045-9
2153:10.2337/db07-1103
2147:(10): 2661β2665.
1823:978-3-540-73201-3
1718:978-0-7216-0240-0
1672:978-0-495-01213-9
1594:978-0-13-286261-5
1583:Organic Chemistry
1468:, pp. 83β98)
1113:molecular weights
1093:organic chemistry
982:Old World monkeys
974:New World monkeys
885:Gymnema sylvestre
857:George Henry Hall
756:hydrochloric acid
751:
750:
669:Aspartame analog
575:Steviol glycoside
393:Type of compound
381:, is also sweet.
377:protein found in
246:bacteria such as
187:sugar substitutes
116:
115:
108:
90:
3515:
3305:
3298:
3291:
3282:
3276:
3266:
3249:(50): 11777β86.
3233:
3223:
3188:
3183:
3182:
3167:
3158:
3137:
3127:
3102:
3065:
3055:
3045:
3028:(19): 6136β640.
3012:
2981:
2963:
2938:
2928:
2893:
2872:
2854:
2829:
2792:
2763:
2734:
2717:(9): 1394β1397.
2705:
2686:
2668:
2667:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2514:
2504:
2487:(28): E1963β71.
2472:
2466:
2465:
2455:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2397:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2348:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2290:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2198:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2172:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2107:
2089:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2048:
2038:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1931:(3847): 1241β3.
1920:
1914:
1913:
1885:
1879:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1784:
1778:
1775:
1769:
1768:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1706:
1697:Guyton, Arthur C
1693:
1684:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1617:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1586:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1539:
1530:
1529:
1521:
1512:
1511:
1475:
1469:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1399:
1389:
1383:
1382:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1287:10.1037/h0034906
1270:
1264:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1236:
1212:
1179:Jean-Marie Tinti
1051:release channel
793:) in lead pots.
771:lead(II) acetate
624:Sodium saccharin
560:Sodium cyclamate
432:(Ξ±,Ξ±-trehalose)
387:
285:Sugar substitute
111:
104:
100:
97:
91:
89:
48:
24:
16:
3525:
3524:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3493:
3492:
3491:
3486:
3455:
3414:
3383:
3352:
3314:
3309:
3279:
3236:
3206:(12): 4239β50.
3193:
3184:
3177:
3174:
3172:Further reading
3161:
3140:
3112:Chemical Senses
3105:
3068:
3015:
2984:
2941:
2896:
2875:
2832:
2795:
2769:Nature Genetics
2766:
2737:
2708:
2702:
2689:
2680:
2676:
2671:
2638:
2637:
2633:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2563:Conscious. Cogn
2560:
2559:
2555:
2533:
2532:
2528:
2474:
2473:
2469:
2430:(7440): 223β6.
2416:
2415:
2411:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2309:
2308:
2304:
2260:
2259:
2255:
2245:
2243:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2201:Chemical Senses
2196:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2067:
2066:
2062:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1870:
1866:
1845:(18): 1935β36.
1836:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1797:
1795:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1765:
1750:
1749:
1745:
1731:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1695:
1694:
1687:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1654:
1653:
1649:
1619:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1595:
1578:
1577:
1573:
1567:
1541:
1540:
1533:
1523:
1522:
1515:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1459:
1455:
1425:
1424:
1420:
1410:
1409:
1405:
1391:
1390:
1386:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1357:
1356:
1352:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1316:(22): 1337β43.
1307:
1306:
1302:
1272:
1271:
1267:
1254:
1250:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1175:
1078:
1065:
1038:
1033:
1026:phospholipase C
1014:
921:
902:herbal medicine
898:Ziziphus jujuba
849:Boys Pilfering
842:
806:ethylene glycol
708:Sucrononic acid
369:fruit. Hen egg
362:, found in the
287:
281:
137:
126:
119:
112:
101:
95:
92:
49:
47:
37:
25:
12:
11:
5:
3523:
3522:
3519:
3511:
3510:
3505:
3495:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3463:
3461:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3441:Scoville scale
3438:
3433:
3431:Acquired taste
3428:
3422:
3420:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3324:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3310:
3308:
3307:
3300:
3293:
3285:
3278:
3277:
3234:
3190:
3189:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3168:
3159:
3138:
3118:(2): 131β140.
3103:
3077:(3): 429β432.
3066:
3013:
2995:(21): 1275β9.
2982:
2954:(3): 896β903.
2939:
2894:
2884:(3): 263β274.
2878:Food Chemistry
2873:
2845:(3): 381β390.
2830:
2793:
2764:
2746:(1): 236β242.
2735:
2706:
2700:
2687:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2669:
2640:Hayes, John E.
2631:
2596:
2553:
2542:(3): 747β752.
2526:
2467:
2409:
2360:
2302:
2253:
2226:
2207:(5): 573β584.
2184:
2127:
2080:(4): 459β465.
2060:
2001:
1966:
1915:
1880:
1864:
1829:
1822:
1804:
1779:
1770:
1763:
1743:
1724:
1717:
1685:
1671:
1647:
1628:(6): 538β545.
1600:
1593:
1571:
1565:
1531:
1513:
1470:
1453:
1434:(6): 937β953.
1418:
1403:
1384:
1369:
1350:
1335:
1300:
1281:(3): 496β501.
1265:
1248:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1174:
1171:
1162:hydrophobicity
1077:
1074:
1064:
1061:
1045:depolarization
1036:
1031:
1022:taste receptor
1013:
1010:
1002:spotted hyenas
920:
917:
841:
838:
775:lead poisoning
749:
748:
745:
740:
734:
733:
730:
725:
719:
718:
715:
710:
704:
703:
700:
695:
689:
688:
685:
680:
674:
673:
670:
667:
661:
660:
657:
654:
648:
647:
644:
641:
635:
634:
631:
626:
620:
619:
616:
613:
607:
606:
603:
592:
586:
585:
582:
577:
571:
570:
567:
562:
556:
555:
552:
551:Monosaccharide
549:
543:
542:
539:
534:
528:
527:
518:
515:
509:
508:
505:
502:
496:
495:
492:
491:Monosaccharide
489:
483:
482:
479:
477:Monosaccharide
474:
468:
467:
464:
459:
453:
452:
449:
446:
440:
439:
436:
433:
426:
425:
422:
419:
413:
412:
409:
404:
398:
397:
394:
391:
349:South American
280:
277:
265:energy density
183:sugar alcohols
117:
114:
113:
28:
26:
19:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3521:
3520:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3500:
3498:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3423:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3386:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3325:
3323:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3306:
3301:
3299:
3294:
3292:
3287:
3286:
3283:
3274:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3191:
3187:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2989:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2810:10.1038/87440
2807:
2803:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2781:10.1038/88270
2778:
2774:
2770:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2693:
2688:
2684:
2679:
2678:
2673:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2635:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2600:
2597:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2569:(1): 380β90.
2568:
2564:
2557:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2530:
2527:
2522:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2471:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2413:
2410:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2364:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2306:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2273:(3): 285β96.
2272:
2268:
2264:
2257:
2254:
2241:
2237:
2230:
2227:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2195:
2188:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2128:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2021:(7): 4692β6.
2020:
2016:
2012:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1982:(2): 239β43.
1981:
1977:
1970:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1896:(3): 231β52.
1895:
1891:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1877:0-8247-0437-1
1874:
1868:
1865:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1830:
1825:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1805:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1780:
1774:
1771:
1766:
1764:9781845691646
1760:
1756:
1755:
1747:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1725:
1720:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1690:
1686:
1674:
1668:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1651:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1615:
1611:
1604:
1601:
1596:
1590:
1585:
1584:
1575:
1572:
1568:
1566:9780841219038
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1474:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1460:Fischler, C.
1457:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1407:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1388:
1385:
1380:
1373:
1370:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1351:
1346:
1339:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1301:
1296:
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1141:
1140:hydrogen bond
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983:
980:sweet, while
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916:
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886:
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877:
876:gymnemic acid
872:
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852:
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839:
837:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
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779:ancient Roman
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537:sugar alcohol
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448:Disaccharide
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57: β
56:
52:
51:Find sources:
45:
41:
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29:This article
27:
23:
18:
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3342:
3320:Basic tastes
3246:
3242:
3203:
3199:
3163:
3149:(5): 584β9.
3146:
3142:
3115:
3111:
3074:
3070:
3025:
3021:
2992:
2986:
2951:
2947:
2911:(1): 47β51.
2908:
2902:
2881:
2877:
2842:
2838:
2804:(5): 492β8.
2801:
2797:
2775:(1): 58β63.
2772:
2768:
2743:
2739:
2714:
2710:
2691:
2682:
2650:(1): 48β57.
2647:
2643:
2634:
2612:(1): 105β9.
2609:
2605:
2599:
2566:
2562:
2556:
2539:
2535:
2529:
2484:
2480:
2470:
2427:
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2412:
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2373:
2363:
2320:
2316:
2305:
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2256:
2244:. Retrieved
2229:
2204:
2200:
2187:
2144:
2140:
2130:
2077:
2073:
2063:
2018:
2014:
2004:
1979:
1976:Chem. Senses
1975:
1969:
1928:
1924:
1918:
1893:
1889:
1883:
1867:
1842:
1839:N Engl J Med
1838:
1832:
1813:
1807:
1796:. Retrieved
1791:
1782:
1773:
1753:
1746:
1737:
1733:
1727:
1702:
1678:14 September
1676:. Retrieved
1661:
1650:
1625:
1621:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1582:
1574:
1548:
1525:
1486:(2): 70β77.
1483:
1479:
1473:
1466:Dobbing 1987
1461:
1456:
1431:
1427:
1421:
1412:
1406:
1395:
1387:
1378:
1372:
1363:
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1353:
1344:
1338:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1278:
1274:
1268:
1261:Dobbing 1987
1256:
1255:Blass, E.M.
1251:
1227:(4): 361β7.
1224:
1220:
1210:
1183:Claude Nofre
1176:
1155:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1100:
1090:
1066:
1015:
976:do not find
971:
964:
960:
954:, to form a
948:T1R3 protein
941:
930:
906:
897:
883:
873:
869:Domino Sugar
861:
848:
802:nitrobenzene
795:
789:(containing
782:
760:
752:
554:1.17 β 1.75
522:
521:
517:Disaccharide
451:0.40 - 0.50
444:Isomaltulose
424:0.33 β 0.45
421:Disaccharide
407:Disaccharide
379:chicken eggs
364:West African
352:
337:glycyrrhizin
330:
327:
288:
247:
237:
229:chemosensory
226:
215:
158:
157:
102:
93:
83:
76:
69:
62:
50:
38:Please help
33:verification
30:
3446:Supertaster
3410:Hypergeusia
3374:Soft palate
3243:J. Neurosci
3200:J. Neurosci
3186:Food portal
1158:Lemont Kier
1145:(AH) and a
1136:Terry Acree
791:acetic acid
678:Sucrooctate
507:0.6 β 0.86
494:0.74 β 0.8
462:Polyalcohol
347:, from the
311:amino acids
163:basic taste
118:Basic taste
55:"Sweetness"
3497:Categories
3451:Tongue map
3426:Aftertaste
3405:Hypogeusia
3364:Epiglottis
3328:Bitterness
1798:2023-12-10
1549:Sweeteners
1366:: 256β263.
1198:References
1173:MPA theory
1151:nanometres
1147:Lewis base
1121:glucophore
933:taste buds
798:chloroform
777:among the
761:Even some
693:Bernardame
633:300 β 675
605:180 β 250
504:Amino acid
438:max. 0,45
396:Sweetness
375:antibiotic
356:rebaudiana
345:stevioside
333:glycosides
293:, such as
260:bitterness
240:chemotaxis
145:strawberry
96:April 2024
66:newspapers
3503:Gustation
3400:Dysgeusia
3388:Gustology
3343:Sweetness
3333:Saltiness
2692:Sweetness
2664:145694059
2323:: 14733.
2161:0012-1797
2096:1880-6546
1792:d-nb.info
1634:0003-0996
1448:143766021
1192:lugduname
1188:guanidine
1101:sapophore
1085:Lugduname
1063:Cognition
998:sea lions
978:aspartame
909:miraculin
865:lactisole
826:sucralose
818:aspartame
814:cyclamate
810:Saccharin
743:Guanidine
738:Lugduname
728:Guanidine
723:Carrelame
713:Guanidine
698:Guanidine
683:Guanidine
652:Thaumatin
639:Sucralose
595:Dipeptide
590:Aspartame
584:40 β 300
580:Glycoside
565:Sulfonate
523:reference
472:Galactose
430:Trehalose
360:thaumatin
295:aldehydes
218:aspartame
211:miraculin
203:sucralose
199:aspartame
195:saccharin
175:aldehydes
159:Sweetness
148:shortcake
3460:See also
3436:Pungency
3338:Sourness
3273:16354936
3230:24647944
3134:10781019
3099:20419613
2978:11296598
2970:11331418
2935:13941509
2869:11886074
2861:11509186
2826:21010650
2818:11319557
2789:11326277
2760:11322794
2626:20097323
2591:32230245
2583:19828330
2521:22711817
2462:23467090
2404:20498227
2355:28361903
2297:20696704
2246:July 28,
2240:Archived
2179:18633111
2141:Diabetes
2114:28378265
2105:10717116
2055:11917125
1961:24451890
1859:17079773
1740:: 15β18.
1642:29775325
1616:: 15β18.
1243:26181574
1125:auxogluc
1109:chlorine
1105:hydroxyl
913:curculin
890:ziziphin
851:Molasses
629:Sulfonyl
547:Fructose
457:Sorbitol
371:lysozyme
341:licorice
307:fructose
269:toxicity
242:even in
193:include
3472:Hearing
3395:Ageusia
3369:Pharynx
3357:Anatomy
3264:6726018
3221:3960467
3091:3010333
3062:6577473
3030:Bibcode
3009:6341841
2926:1896974
2731:5068944
2674:General
2512:3396471
2489:Bibcode
2453:3600154
2432:Bibcode
2395:2915511
2346:5380970
2325:Bibcode
2288:2922655
2221:8564432
2170:2551675
2122:3984011
2023:Bibcode
1996:7583017
1953:5673432
1933:Bibcode
1925:Science
1910:1418601
1508:8351513
1488:Bibcode
1330:6341845
1295:4745817
1123:and an
1057:neurons
935:on the
834:neotame
830:alitame
665:Neotame
656:Protein
532:Xylitol
513:Sucrose
500:Glycine
487:Glucose
417:Maltose
402:Lactose
367:katemfe
319:glycine
315:alanine
303:Sucrose
299:ketones
252:lactose
248:E. coli
189:. Such
179:ketones
167:sucrose
152:dessert
80:scholar
3379:Tongue
3271:
3261:
3228:
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3053:534376
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1241:
1053:CALHM1
1047:. The
1006:fossas
990:Felids
967:leptin
937:tongue
894:jujube
880:Indian
832:, and
804:, and
598:methyl
520:1.00 (
354:Stevia
351:shrub
323:serine
321:, and
244:motile
207:stevia
181:, and
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3482:Touch
3477:Smell
3467:Sight
3419:Other
3348:Umami
3312:Taste
3095:S2CID
2974:S2CID
2865:S2CID
2822:S2CID
2660:S2CID
2587:S2CID
2197:(PDF)
2118:S2CID
1957:S2CID
1638:JSTOR
1444:S2CID
1203:Cited
1143:donor
1069:color
1041:TRPM5
1018:umami
882:vine
672:8000
659:2000
601:ester
541:1,02
481:0.65
411:0.16
390:Name
373:, an
161:is a
87:JSTOR
73:books
3269:PMID
3226:PMID
3130:PMID
3087:PMID
3058:PMID
3005:PMID
2966:PMID
2931:PMID
2857:PMID
2839:Cell
2814:PMID
2785:PMID
2756:PMID
2727:PMID
2696:ISBN
2622:PMID
2579:PMID
2517:PMID
2458:PMID
2400:PMID
2351:PMID
2293:PMID
2248:2009
2217:PMID
2175:PMID
2157:ISSN
2110:PMID
2092:ISSN
2051:PMID
1992:PMID
1949:PMID
1906:PMID
1873:ISBN
1855:PMID
1818:ISBN
1759:ISBN
1713:ISBN
1680:2010
1667:ISBN
1630:ISSN
1589:ISBN
1561:ISBN
1504:PMID
1326:PMID
1291:PMID
1239:PMID
1181:and
1134:and
1067:The
1004:and
986:apes
984:and
952:T1R2
944:gene
911:and
888:and
787:wine
783:sapa
769:and
646:600
618:200
466:0.6
297:and
227:The
220:and
205:and
132:and
59:news
3259:PMC
3251:doi
3216:PMC
3208:doi
3151:doi
3120:doi
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3048:PMC
3038:doi
2997:doi
2993:308
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2847:doi
2843:106
2806:doi
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