Languages of science

805:

frequently been used as a "pivotal" language and served as a hidden intermediary state for the translation of two non-English languages. Probabilistic methods tend to favor the most expected possible translation from the training corpus and to rule out more unusual alternatives: "A common argument against the statistical methods in translation is that when the algorithm suggests the most probable translation, it eliminates alternative options and makes the language of the text so produced conform to well-documented modes of expression." While deep learning models are able to deal with a wider diversity of language construct, they can still be limited by collection bias of the original corpus: "the translation of a word can be affected by the prevailing theories or paradigms in the corpus harvested to train the AI".

935:

highlighted the relevancy of scientific content for local communities : "By looking at a broad range of indicators of impact and reach, far beyond the typical measures of one article citing another, I argue, it is possible to gain a sense of the people that are using Latin American research, thereby opening the door for others to see the ways in which it has touched those individuals and communities. In this context, new indicators for linguistic diversity. Proposals include the PLOTE-index and the Linguistic Diversity Index. Yet, as of 2022, they have had "limited traction in the scholarly anglophone literature". Comprehensive indicators for the local impact of research remain largely non-existent: "many aspects of research cannot be measured quantitatively, especially its socio-cultural impact."

235:, through numerous lexical and even syntactic borrowings from Greek and Arabic. The use of scientific Latin persisted long after the replacement of Latin by vernacular languages in most European administrations: "Latin's status as a language of science rested on the contrast it made with the use of the vernacular in other contexts" and created "a European community of learning" entirely distinct from the local communities where the scholars lived. Latin never was the sole language of science and education. Beyond local publications, vernaculars very early attained a status of international scientific languages, that could be expected to be understood and translated across Europe. In the mid-16th century, a significant amount of printed output in France was in Italian. 727:

extent." In these disciplines, the need for global communication is balanced by an implication in local culture: "the SSH are typically collaborating with, influencing and improving culture and society. To achieve this, their scholarly publishing is partly in the native languages." Yet, the specificity of the social science and the humanities has been increasingly reduced after 2000: by the 2010s, a large proportion of German and French articles in art and the humanities indexed in the Web of Science were in English. While German has been outpaced by English even in Germanic-speaking countries since the Second World War, it has also continued to be used marginally as a vehicular scientific language in specific disciplines or research fields (the

723:. Unprecedented access to larger corpus not covered by global index showed that multilingualism remain non-negligible, although it remains little studied: by 2022 there are "few examples of analyses at scale" of multilingualism in science. In seven European countries with a limited international reach of the local language, one third of researcher in Social Sciences and the Humanities publishes in two different languages or more: "research is international, but multilingual publishing keeps locally relevant research alive with the added potential for creating impact." Due to the discrepancy between the actual practices and their visibility, multilingualism has been described as a "hidden norm of academic publication". 777:

translations between a few major languages (English, Russian, French, German...), as a "transfer module" had to be developed for "each pair of languages" which quickly led to a combinatory explosions whenever more languages were contemplated. After the 1980s, the field of Machine Translation was revived as it underwent a "full-scale paradigm shift": explicit rules were replaced by statistical and machine learning methods applied to large aligned corpus. By then, most of the demand stemmed non longer from scientific publication but from commercial translations such as technical and engineering manuals. A second paradigm shift occurred in the 2010s, with the development of

827:. In November 2021, the UNESCO Recommendation acknowledged open science infrastructure as one of the four pillar of open science, along with open science knowledge, open engagement of societal actors and open dialog with other knowledge system and called for sustained investment and funding: "open science infrastructures are often the result of community-building efforts, which are crucial for their long-term sustainability and therefore should be not-for-profit and guarantee permanent and unrestricted access to all public to the largest extent possible." Examples of Open science infrastructure include indexes, publishing platforms, shared databases or computer grids. 500:. The transformation had more wide-ranging consequences than the substitution or two or three main language of science by one language: it marked "the transition from a triumvirate that valued, at least in a limited way, the expression of identity within science, to an overwhelming emphasis on communication and thus a single vehicular language." Ulrich Ammon characterizes English as an "asymmetrical lingua franca", as it is "the native tongue and the national language of the most influential segment of the global scientific community, but a foreign language for the rest of the world." This paradigm is usually connected with the 703:

scholar who are not sufficiently conversant in the language: in a survey organized in Germany in 1991, 30% of researchers in all disciplines gave up on publication whenever English was the only option. In this context, the emergence of new scientific powers is no longer linked with the apparition of a new language science as it used to be the case until the 1960s. China has fast become a major player in international research, ranking second behind the United States in numerous rankings and disciplines. Yet, most of this research is English-speaking and abide to the linguistic norms set up by commercial indexes.

314:, linguistic diversity of scientific publications increased significantly. The emergence of modern nationalities and early decolonization movements created new incentives to publish scientific knowledge in one's national language. Russian was one of the most successful developments of a new language of science. In the 1860s and 1870s, Russian researchers in chemistry and other physical sciences ceased to publish in German in favor of local periodicals, following a major work of adaptation and creation of names for scientific concepts or elements (such as chemical compounds). A controversy over the meaning of the 472:, which aimed to demonstrate that the technique was sufficiently mature despite the significant shortcomings of the computing infrastructure of the time: some sentences from Russian scientific articles were automatically translated using a dictionary of 250 words and six basic syntax rules. It was not made clear at the time that the sentences had been purposely selected for their fitness for automated translation. At most Dostert argued that "scientific Russian" was easier to translate since it was more formulaic and less grammatically diverse than day-to-day Russian. 959:: "to consider all the communication purposes in all different areas of research, and all the languages needed to fulfil these purposes, in a holistic manner without exclusions or priorities." In 2016, Sivertsen contributed to the "Norwegian model" of scientific evaluation by proposing a flat hierarchy between a few large international journals and a wide selection of journals that would not discriminate against local publications, and encouraged journals in social sciences and the humanities to favor Norwegian publications. 347:"with support from 310 member organizations". The Delegation was tasked to find an auxiliary language that could be used for "scientific and philosophical exchanges" and could not be any "national language". In the context of increased nationalistic tensions any of the dominant languages of science would have appeared as a non-neutral choice. The Delegation had consequently a limited set of options that included the unlikely revival of a classical language like Latin or a new constructed language such as 426:

research from non-Germanic countries. German never recovered its privileged status as a leading language of science in the United States, and due to the lack of alternatives beyond French, American education became "increasingly monoglot" and isolationist. Not affected by international boycott, the use of French reached "a plateau between the 1920s and 1940s": while it did not decline, neither did it profit from the marginalization of German, but instead decreased relative to the expansion of English.

251:

started to use French as well; this trend was reversed after 1597 and most medical literature in France remained only accessible in Latin until the 1680s. In 1670, as many books were printed in Latin as in German in the German states; in 1787, they accounted for no more 10%. At this point, the decline became irreversible: since less and less European scholars were conversant with Latin, publications dwindled and there was less incentive to maintain

303:

acknowledged as the international standard of European science in the late 18th century, and remained "essential" throughout the 19th century. German became a major scientific language within the 19th century as it "covered portions of the physical sciences, particularly physics and chemistry, plus mathematics and medicine." English was largely used by researchers and engineers, due to the seminal contribution of English technology to the

86: 756:

which is both indicative of remaining "spaces of resilience and contestation of some hegemonic practices" and of a potential new paradigm of scientific publishing "steered towards plurilingual diversity". Multilingualism as a practice and competency has also increased: in 2022, 65% of early career researchers in Poland have published in two or more languages whereas only 54% of the older generations have done so.

449:

German: "In a 1958 survey, 49% of American scientific and technical personnel claimed they could read at least one foreign language, yet only 1.2% could handle Russian." Science administrators and funders had recurring fears that they were not able to track efficiently the progress of academic research in the URSS. This ongoing anxiety became an overt crisis after the successful launch of

488:

remained costly as it relied on numerous computer operators using thousands of punch cards. Yet the quality of the output did not progress significantly: in 1964, the automated translation of the few sentences submitted during the Georgetown–IBM experiment yielded a much less readable output, as it was no longer possible to tweak the rules on a predefined corpus.

387:, which was submitted very late in the process by an unknown contributor. While it was framed as a compromise between the esperantist and the anti-esperantist factions, this decision ultimately disappointed all the proponents of an international medium for scientific communication and durably harmed the adoption of constructed languages in academic circles. 782:

significantly more accurate: after 2018, the automated translation of PubMed abstracts was deemed better than human translation for a few languages (like English to Portuguese). Scientific publications are a rather fitting use case for neural-network translation model since they work best "in restricted fields for which it has a lot of training data."

400:

it. For Ulrich Ammon, "even without the World Wars the English language community would have gained economic and, consequently, scientific superiority and, thus, preference of its language for international scientific communication." In contrast, Michael Gordin underlines that until the 1960s the privileged status of English was far from settled.

430:

collaborations and emigration. The German language was not boycotted again in international scientific conferences after the Second World War, as its use had quickly become marginal, even in Germany itself: even after the end of the occupied zone, English in the West and Russian in the East became major vehicular languages for higher education.

739:

language and type of SSH publications are related not only to the norms, culture, and expectations of each SSH discipline but also to each country’s specific cultural and historic heritage." Use of English was more prevalent in Northern Europe than in Eastern Europe and publication in the local languages remain especially significant in

677:

English and full text in another language. However, going forward, it is clear that the journals most important to the international research community will publish full text in English. This is especially true in the natural sciences. There are notable exceptions to this rule in the Arts & Humanities and in Social Sciences topics.

182:. Local languages still remain largely relevant scientificly in major countries and world regions such as China, Latin America, and Indonesia. Disciplines and fields of study with a significant degree of public engagement such as social sciences, environmental studies, and medicine also have a maintained revelance of local languages. 538:

the 1980s and, by then, the translation of scientific publications was no longer the main incentive. Research in this area was still pursued in a few countries where bilingualism was an important political and cultural issue: in Canada, a METEO system was successfully set up to "translate weather forecasts from English into French".

36: 530:

European Union, the Bologna Declaration of 1999 "obliged universities throughout Europe and beyond to align their systems with that of the United Kingdom" and created strong incentives to publish academic results in English. From 1999 to 2014, the number of English-speaking course in European universities increased ten-fold.

931:) and the Iberian region has concurred to the resurgence of the Spanish and Portuguese language in international scientific communication: regional growth "may also be associated with the boom in open access publishing. Both Portuguese and Spanish (as well as Brazil and Spain) play important roles in open access publishing. 460:. Research in this area emerged very precociously: automated translation appeared as a natural extension of the initial purpose of the first computers: code-breaking. Despite the initial reluctance of leading figures in computing like Norbert Wiener, several well-connected science administrators in the US, like 1008:

included a detailed recommendation on "Development of multilingualism for European scholarly publications" in its research assessment of open science. The declaration acknowledges the "important role of multilingualism in the context of science communication with society" and welcomes "initiatives to

943:

A new scientific and policy debate over linguistic diversity emerged after 2015: "in recent years, policies for Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) and Open Science call for increasing access to research, interaction between science and society and public understanding of science". It initially

887:

Publication in open access platforms has created new incentives for publishing in a local language. In commercial indexes, non-English publications were penalized by the lack of international reception and had a significantly lower impact factor. Without a paywall, local language publication can find

871:(> 95%). Six languages are represented by more than 500 journals: Spanish (2776 journals, or 19.3%), Portuguese (1917 journals), Indonesia (1329 journals), French (993 journals), Russian (733 journals) and Italian (529 journals). Most of the language diversity is due to non-commercial journals (or 776:

with early experiments going back to 1954. Developments in this area were slowed after 1965, due to the increasing domination of English, the limitations of the computing infrastructure, and the shortcomings of the leading approach, rule-based machine translation. Rule-based methods favored by design

629:

has an international audience, one might say that the ideal publication would be multi-lingual, listing all titles in five languages -- one or more of which is read by most of our subscribers, including German, French, Russian and Japanese, as well as English. This is, of course, impractical since it

537:

underlined that "there is no emergency in the field of translation" and that translators were easily up to the task of making foreign research accessible. Funding stopped simultaneously in the United States and the Soviet Union and Machine Translation did not recover from this research "winter" until

529:

admitted that "English is by now the international standard language of science and it could very nearly become its unique language" and is already the main "mean of communication" in European countries with a long-standing tradition of publication in the local language like Germany and Italy. In the

448:

The expansion of Russian scientific publication became a source of recurring tensions in the United States during the decade of the cold war. Very few American researchers were able to read Russian which contrasted with a still widespread familiarity in the two oldest languages of science, French and

794:

In an academic setting, machine translation covers a variety of uses. Production of written translations remain constrained by a lack of accuracy and, consequently, of efficiency, as the post-editing of an imperfect translation needs to take less time than human translation. Automated translation of

755:

enhanced its regional coverage during the 2005-2010 period, which had the effect to "increase the number of non-English papers such as Spanish papers". In the Portuguese research communities, there have been a steep rise of Portuguese-language papers during the 2007-2018 period in commercial indexes

702:

For Ulrich Ammon the predominance of English has created a hierarchy and a "central-peripheral dimension" within the global scientific publication landscape, that affects negatively the reception of research published in a non-English language. The unique use of English has discriminating effects on

399:

of the three main languages of science in 19th century and paved the way for the domination in English in the latter part of the 20th century. There is still ongoing debate as to whether the world wars accelerated a structural tendency toward English predominance or merely created the conditions for

197:

and called for supporting multilingualism and the development of "infrastructure of scholarly communication in national languages". The 2021 Unesco Recommendation for Open Science includes "linguistic diversity" as one of the core features of open science, as it aims to "make multilingual scientific

808:

In its 2022 research assessment of open science, the Council of European Union welcomed the "promising developments that have recently emerged in the area of automatic translation" and supported a more widespread use of "semi-automatic translation of scholarly publications within Europe" due to its

804:

Increased use machine translation has created concerns of "uniform multilingualism". Research in the field has largely been focused on English and a few major European languages: "While we live in a multilingual word, this is paradoxically not taken into account by machine translation". English has

799:

If machine translation for assimilation purposes makes it possible, in principle, for researchers to publish in their own language and still reach a wide audience, then machine translation for dissemination purposes could be seen to favor the opposite and to support the use of a common language for

790:

have become ubiquitous: "There is an emerging yet rapidly increasing need for machine translation literacy among members of the scientific research and scholarly communication communities. Yet in spite of this, there are very few resources to help these community members acquire and teach this type

681:

This commitment toward English science has a significant performative effect. Commercial databases "now wield on the international stage is considerable and works very much in favor of English" as they provide a wide range of indicators of research quality. They contributed "large-scale inequality,

487:

and had enough resources to overcome the technical limitations of existing computing infrastructure: in 1957, automated translation from Russian to English could run on a vastly expanded dictionary of 24,000 words and rely on hundreds of predefined syntax rules. At this scale, automated translation

362:

Throughout the first part of the 20th century, Esperanto was seriously considered as a potential international language of science. As late as 1954, UNESCO passed a recommendation to promote the use of Esperanto for scientific communication. In contrast with Idiom Neutral, or the simplified version

822:

The development of open science infrastructure or "community-controlled infrastructure" has become a major policy issue of the open science movement. In the 2010s expansion of commercial scientific infrastructure created a large acknowledgment of the fragility of open scholarly publishing and open

795:

foreign language text in the context of literature survey or "information assimilation" is more widespread, as the quality requirements are generally lower and a global understanding of a text is sufficient. The impact of machine translation on linguistic diversity in science depends on these use:

759:

In 2022, Bianca Kramer and Cameron Neylon have led a large scale analysis of the metadata available for 122 millions of Crossref objects indexed by a DOI. Overall, non-English publications make up for "less than 20%", although they can be under-estimated due to a lower adoption rate of DOIs or the

715:

Several languages have kept a secondary status of international language of science, either due to the extent of the local scientific production or to their continued use as a vehicular language in specific contexts. This includes generally "Chinese, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Russian, and

286:

The gradual disuse of Latin opened an uneasy transition period as more and more works were only accessible in local languages. Many national European languages held the potential to become a language of science within a specific research field: some scholars "took measures to learn Swedish so they

250:

Classical languages declined throughout Eurasia during the 2nd millennium. Sanskrit was increasingly marginalized after the 13th century. Until the end of the 17th century, there was no clear trend of displacement of Latin in Europe by vernacular languages: while in the 16th century, medical books

999:

In November 2021, the UNESCO Recommendation for Open Science included multilingualism at the core of its definition of Open Science: "For the purpose of this Recommendation, open science is defined as an inclusive construct that combines various movements and practices aiming to make multilingual

990:

In the wake of the Helsinki Initiative, multilingualism has been increasingly associated to Open Science. This trend was accelerated in the context of the COVID pandemic, which "saw a widespread need for multilingual scholarly communication, not only between researchers, but to enable research to

781:

methods, that can be partially trained on non-aligned corpus ("zero-shot translation"). Requiring little supervision inputs, deep learning models makes it possible to incorporate a wider diversity of languages, but also a wider diversity of linguistic contexts within one language. The results are

574:

The pattern has become so routine as to be almost cliché: first, a periodical publishes only in a particular ethnic language (French, German, Italian); then, it permits publication in that language and also a foreign tongue, always including English but sometimes also others; finally, the journal

482:

with Soviet researchers. While the Georgetown–IBM experiment did not have a large impact at first in the United States, it was immediately noticed in the USSR. The first articles in the field appeared in 1955; and only one year later, a major conference was held attracting 340 representatives. In

230:

In Europe, starting in the 12th century, Latin was the primary language of religion, law and administration until the Early Modern period. It became a language of science "through its encounter with Arabic"; during the Renaissance of the 12th century, a large corpus of Arabian scholarly texts was

1003:

In the early 2020s, the European Union started to officially support language diversity in science, as a continuation of its general policies in favor of multilingualism. In December 2021, an important report of the European Commission on the future of scientific assessment in European countries

838:

in 2021 shows that European open science infrastructures "provide access to a range of language content of local and international significance." In 2019, leading open science infrastructure have endorsed the Helsinki Initiative on Multilingualism in Scholarly Communication and thus committed to

785:

In 2021, there were "few in-depth studies on the efficiency of Machine Translation in social science and the humanities" as "most research in translation studies are focused on technical, commercial or law texts". Uses of machine translation are especially difficult to estimate and ascertain, as

726:

Overall, the social sciences and the humanities have preserved more diverse linguistic practices: "while natural scientists of any linguistic background have largely shifted to English as their language of publication, social scientists and scholars of the humanities have not done so to the same

738:

Beyond the generic distinction between social sciences and natural sciences, there are finer-grained distribution of language practices. In 2018, a bibliometric analysis of the publications of eight European countries in social sciences and the humanities (SSH) highlighted that "patterns in the

690:

National databases of scientific publications shows that the use English has continued to expand in the 2000s and the 2010s at the expense of local language. A comparison of seven national database in Europe from 2011 to 2014 shows that in "all countries, there was a growth in the proportion of

676:

English is the universal language of science. For this reason, Thomson Reuters focuses on journals that publish full text in English, or at very least, bibliographic information in English. There are many journals covered in Web of Science that publish articles with bibliographic information in

433:

In the two decades following the Second World War, English had become the leading language of science. However, a large share of global research continued to be published in other languages, and language diversity even seemed to increase until the 1960s. Russian publications in numerous fields,

620:

had a better coverage of English-speaking journals which yielded them a stronger Journal Impact Factor and created incentives to publish in English: "Publishing in English placed the lowest barriers toward making one’s work "detectable" to researchers." Due to the convenience of dealing with a

429:

The rise of totalitarianism in the 1930s reinforced the status of English as the leading scientific language. In absolute terms German publications retained some relevance, but German scientific research was structurally weakened by anti-Semitic and political purges, rejection of international

425:

as working languages. In 1932, almost all (98.5%) of international scientific conferences admitted contributions in French, 83.5% in English and only 60% in German. In parallel, the focus of German periodicals and conferences had become increasingly local, and less and less frequently included

911:

shows that the audience of Finnish-speaking articles is significantly more diverse: "in case of the national language publications students (42%) are clearly the largest group, and besides researchers (25%), also private citizens (12%) and other experts (11%)". Comparatively, English-speaking

686:

or Springer are increasingly able to control "all aspects of the research lifecycle, from submission to publication and beyond" Due to this vertical integration, commercial metrics are no longer restricted to journal article metadata but can include a wide range of individual and social data

373:

aimed to adapt Esperanto to the specific needs of scientific communication. The development of a specialized technical vocabulary was a challenging task, as the extensive system of derivation of Esperanto made it complicated to import directly words commonly used in German, French or English

302:

of dominant languages of science: French, English and German. While each language would be expected to be understood for the purpose of international scientific communication, they also followed "different functional distributions evident in various scientific fields". French had been almost

878:

Non-English open infrastructures have experimented a significant growth: in 2022, "national repositories and databases are growing everywhere (see the databases such as Latindex in Latin America, or the new repositories in Asia, China, Russia, India)". This development opens up new research

334:

Today with the recrudescence of certain minor linguistic units and the increased nationalistic spirit of certain larger ones, we face a time when scientific publications of value may appear in perhaps twenty languages be facing an era in which important publications will appear in Finnish,

934:

While multilingualism have been either neglected or even discriminated in commercial databases, it has been valued as a significant component of the social impact of open science platforms and infrastructure. In 2015, Juan Pablo Alperin introduced a systematic measure of social impact that

615:

had a massive and lasting influence on the structure of global scientific publication in the last decades of the 20th century, as its most important metrics; the Journal Impact Factor, "ultimately came to provide the metric tool needed to structure a competitive market among journals." The

866:

In contrast with commercial index, the Directory of Open Access Journals does not prescribe the use of English. Consequently, only half of the journals indexed are primarily published in English, which comes in stark contrast with the large prevalence of English in commercial indexes like

242:

was a leading vehicular language for science. Sanskrit has been remodeled even more radically than Latin for the purpose of scientific communication as it shifted "toward ever more complex noun forms to encompass the kinds of abstractions demanded by scientific and mathematical thinking."

407:

had an immediate impact on the global use of German in academic settings. For nearly a decade after the First World War, German researchers were boycotted by international scientific events. The German scientific communities had been compromised by nationalistic propaganda in favor of

443:

It seems wise to assume that in the long run the number of significant contributions to scientific knowledge by different countries will be roughly proportional to their populations, and that except where populations are very small contributions will normally be published in native

412:

during the war, as well as by the exploitation of scientific research for war crimes. German was no longer acknowledged as a global scientific language. While the boycott did not last, its effects were long-term. In 1919 the International Research Council was created to replace the

1009:

promote multilingualism, such as the Helsinki initiative on multilingualism in scholarly communication." While the declaration is not constraining it invites the experiment with multilingualism "on a voluntary basis" and to assess the needs for further actions by the end of 2023.

667:

Criteria for inclusion in commercial databases not only favor English journals but incentivize non-English journals to give up on their local journals. They "demand that articles be in English, have abstracts in English, or at least have their references in English". In 2012, the

875:): 25.7% of these publications accept contributions in Spanish vs. only 2.4% of APC-based journals. On the 2020-2022 period, "for English articles in DOAJ journals, 21% are in non-APC journals, but for articles in languages other than English, this percentage is a massive 86%." 706:

The dominant position of English has also been strengthened by the "lexical deficit" accumulated through the past decades by alternative language of sciences: after the 1960s "new terms were being coined in English at a much faster rate than they were being created in French."

2890:

Ficarra, Victoria; Chiarelli, Andrea (2020). "Open science, open access, open infrastructure, services, sustainability, funding, open standards, open content, good governance, open principles". Dataset: Scoping the Open Science Infrastructure Landscape in Europe (Dataset).

743:

due to a large "‘local’ market of academic output". Local research policies may have a significant impact as preference for international commercial database like Scopus or the Web of Science may account for a steeper decline of publications in the local language in the

507:

No specific event accounts for the entire shift although numerous transformations highlight an accelerated conversion to English science in the later part of the 1960s. On June 11, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson acted that the English language has become a

378:

seemed close to retaining Esperanto as its preferred language. Significant criticism was nevertheless still addressed at a few remaining complexities of the language as well as its lack of scientific purpose and technical vocabulary. Unexpectedly, the

682:

notably between Northern and Southern countries". While leading scientific publishers had initially, "failed to grasp the significance of electronic publishing," they have successfully pivoted to a "data analytics business" by the 2010s. Actors like

367:, Esperanto was not primarily conceived as a scientific language. Yet, by the early 1900s, it was by far the most successful constructed language, with a large international community as well as numerous dedicated publications. Starting in 1904, the 879:

opportunities for the study of multilingualism in a scientific context: it will become increasingly feasible to study " differences between locally published research in non-English speaking contexts and English-speaking international authors".

4637:. Helsinki: Federation of Finnish Learned Societies, Committee for Public Information, Finnish Association for Scholarly Publishing, Universities Norway & European Network for Research Evaluation in the Social Sciences and the Humanities. 659:

as non-English publications can be held less valuable since they are not indexed in international rankings and fare poorly in evaluation metrics. As many as 75,000 articles, book titles and book reviews from Germany were excluded from

630:

would quadruple the size of Current Contents (…) the only reasonable solution is to publish as many contents pages in English as is economically and technically feasible. To do this we need the cooperation of publishers and authors.

950:

issued ten principles to "guide research evaluation" that included a call to "protect excellence in locally relevant research". Building up on empirical data showing the persistence of non-English research communities in Europe,

512:

that opened "doors to scientific and technical knowledge" and whose promotion should be a "major policy" of the United States. In 1969, the most prestigious abstract collection in chemistry of the early 20th century, the German

2851:

European Commission. Directorate General for Research and Innovation. (2019). Future of scholarly publishing and scholarly communication: report of the Expert Group to the European Commission (Report). LU: Publications Office.

2980:

Ammon, Ulrich (2012-10-10). "Linguistic inequality and its effects on participation in scientific discourse and on global knowledge accumulation – With a closer look at the problems of the second-rank language communities".

995:

published a "Call to Diversify the Lingua Franca of Academic STEM Communities", that stressed that "cross-cultural solutions are necessary to prevent critical information from being missed by English-speaking researchers."

178:. In the last decades of the 20th century, an increasing number of scientific publications used primarily English, in part due to the preeminence of English-speaking scientific infrastructures, indexes and metrics like the 151:. Yet new languages of science such as Russian or Italian had started to emerge by the end the 19th century, to the point that international scientific organizations started to promote the use of constructed languages like 735:, "the proportion of English-language documents in the regional or national databases (KCI, RSCI, SciELO) was approximately 26%, whereas virtually all the documents (approximately 98%) in Scopus and WoS were in English." 541:

English content became gradually prevalent in originally non-English journals, first as an additional language and then as the default language. In 1998, seven leading European journals published in their local languages

438:

still raised doubts about the future of English as the leading language in science, with Russian and Japanese rising as major languages of science and the new decolonized states seemingly poised to favor local languages:

198:

knowledge openly available, accessible and reusable for everyone." In 2022, the Council of the European Union officially supported "initiatives to promote multilingualism" in science, such as the Helsinki declaration.

579:

Early scientific infrastructures have been a leading factor in the conversion to a single vehicular languages. Critical developments in applied scientific computing and information retrieval system occurred in the

231:

translated into Latin, in order for it to be available in the emerging network of European universities and centers of knowledge. In this process, the Latin language changed, and acquired the specific features of

748:, in comparison with Poland. Additional factors include the distribution of economic model within the journals: non-commercial publications have a much stronger "language diversity" than commercial publications. 3615:

Kulczycki, Emanuel; Engels, Tim C. E.; Pölönen, Janne; Bruun, Kasper; Dušková, Marta; Guns, Raf; Nowotniak, Robert; Petr, Michal; Sivertsen, Gunnar; Istenič Starčič, Andreja; Zuccala, Alesia (2018-07-01).

322:

contributed to the acknowledgement of original publications in Russian in the global scientific debate: the original version was deemed more authoritative than its first "imperfect" translation in German.

912:

publications attract mostly professional researchers. Due to the ease of access, open science platforms in a local language can also attain a more global reach. The French-Canadian journal consortium

731:

or "niche-disciplines"). Linguistic diversity is not specific to social sciences but this persistence may be invisibilized by the high prestige attached to international commercial databases: in the

3673:

Kulczycki, Emanuel; Guns, Raf; Pölönen, Janne; Engels, Tim C. E.; Rozkosz, Ewa A.; Zuccala, Alesia A.; Bruun, Kasper; Eskola, Olli; Starčič, Andreja Istenič; Petr, Michal; Sivertsen, Gunnar (2020).

4599: 258:

The emergence of scientific journals was both a symptom and cause of the declining use of a classical language. The first two modern scientific journals were published simultaneously in 1665: the

664:

from 1970 to 1996. In 2009, at least 6555 journals were published in Spanish and Portuguese on a global scale and "only a small fraction are included in the Scopus and Web of Science indices."

468:, set up a series of major conferences and experiments in the nascent field, out of a concern that "translation was vital to national security". On January 7, 1954, Dostert coordinated the 644:

Nearly all the scientific publications indexed on the leading commercial academic search engines are in English. In 2022, this concerns 95.86% of the 28,142,849 references indexed on the

962:

These local initiatives developed into a new international movement in favor of multilingualism. In 2019, 120 research organizations and several hundred individual researchers co-signed

719:

Empirical studies of the use of languages in scientific publications have long been constrained by structural bias in the most readily accessible sources: commercial databases like the

434:

especially chemistry and astronomy, had grown rapidly after the war: "in 1948, more than 33% of all technical data published in a foreign language now appeared in Russian." In 1962,

339:

The definition of an auxiliary language for science became a major issue discussed in the emerging international scientific institutions. On January 17, 1901, the newly established

135:

were commonly used across Afro-Eurasia for the purpose of international scientific communication. A combination of structural factors, the emergence of nation-states in Europe, the

4537: 3914:

Luczaj, Kamil; Leonowicz-Bukala, Iwona; Kurek-Ochmanska, Olga (2022-04-01). "English as a lingua franca? The limits of everyday English-language communication in Polish academia".

2725: 588:

crisis has been the main incentive, as it "turned the librarians’ problem of bibliographic control into a national information crisis." and favored ambitious research plans like

891:

In the 2010s, quantitative studies have started to highlight the positive impact of local languages on the reuse of open access resources in varied national contexts such as

2877:

Ficarra, Victoria; Fosci, Mattia; Chiarelli, Andrea; Kramer, Bianca; Proudman, Vanessa (2020-10-30). Scoping the Open Science Infrastructure Landscape in Europe (Report).

977:

model "make sure not for-profit journals and book publishers have both sufficient resources". Non-commercial journals are more likely to be published in a local language.

1770: 247:

held a similarly prestigious position in East Asia, being largely adopted by scientific and Buddhist communities beyond the Chinese Empire, notably in Japan and Korea.

266: 2824:

Bosman, Jeroen; Frantsvåg, Jan Erik; Kramer, Bianca; Langlais, Pierre-Carl; Proudman, Vanessa (2021-03-09). OA Diamond Journals Study. Part 1: Findings (Report).

3012:"Écrire en langues. Entre traduction automatique et hégémonie globish, le multilinguisme comme horizon réaliste pour les revues de sciences humaines et sociales" 112:, they are "either specific forms of a given language that are used in conducting science, or they are the set of distinct languages in which science is done." 4580: 3406:

Hock, Hans Henrich (1983). Kachru, Braj B. (ed.). "Language-death phenomena in Sanskrit: grammatical evidence for attrition in contemporary spoken Sanskrit".

751:

Since the 2000s, the expansion of digital collections had contributed to a relative increase in linguistic diversity academic indexes and search engines. The

3580:

Kulczycki, Emanuel; Engels, Tim C. E.; Pölönen, Janne (2022-04-12). "Multilingualism of social sciences". In Engels, Tim C. E.; Kulczycki, Emanuel (eds.).

970:"Support dissemination of research results for the full benefit of the society", which implies that they should be available "in a variety of languages". 764:). Yet, multilingualism seem to have improved through the past 20 years, with a significant growth of publication in Portuguese, Spanish and Indonesian. 716:

Spanish." Local languages have remained prevalent in major scientific countries: "most scientific publications are still published in Chinese in China".

533:

Machine translation, which has been booming since 1954 thanks to Soviet-American competition, was immediately affected by the new paradigm. In 1964, the

456:

Although the Sputnik crisis did not last long, it had far reaching consequences for linguistic practices in science: in particular, the development of

991:

reach decision-makers, professionals and citizens". Multilingualism has also re-emerged as a topic of debate beyond the social sciences: in 2022, the

330:

underlined that scientific communication could be significantly disrupted in the near future by the use of as many as "twenty" languages of science:

3505: 162:, English gradually outpaced French and German and became the leading language of science, but not the only international standard. Research in the 3098:"Usage et diffusion des revues savantes québécoises en sciences sociales et humaines : analyse des téléchargements de la plateforme Érudit" 414: 340: 395:

The two world wars had a lasting impact on scientific languages. A combination of political, economic and social factors durably weakened the

4180: 3605: 2867: 2789: 2770: 2751: 2714: 2695: 2676: 2657: 2629: 326:

Linguistic diversity became framed as a structural problem that ultimately limited the spread of scientific knowledge. In 1924, the linguist

54: 3726:"Le français, langue seconde ? De l'évolution des lieux et langues de publication des chercheurs au Québec, en France et en Allemagne" 4634: 4518: 4545: 1845: 607:

The predominant use of English was not limited to the architecture of networks and infrastructures but affected the content as well. The

600:, scientific infrastructure and database became a profitable business in the 1970s. Even before the emergence of global network like the 570:, an international journal only accepting English submissions. The same process occurred repeatedly in less prestigious publications: 4481: 72: 4165: 3869:"The changing role of non-English papers in scholarly communication: Evidence from Web of Science's three journal citation indexes" 4166:"The Status of German as a Lingua Franca in Written Scientific Communication: A Study on Language Policies in Linguistic Journals" 3218:

Gao, Bin; Guo, Chunyue (2022-03-31). "Where to Publish: Chinese HSS Academics' Responses to 'Breaking SSCI Supremacy' Policies".

980:"Promote language diversity in research assessment, evaluation, and funding systems", in line with third recommendation of the 761: 1778: 973:"Protect national infrastructures for publishing locally relevant research" through a specific support of the non-commercial/ 189:

has revived the debate over linguistic diversity in science, as social and local impact has become an important objective of

944:

stemmed from a wider discussion over the evaluation of open science and the limitations of commercial metrics: in 2015, the

469: 4628:" (June 11, 1965). National Security Files, Series: National Security Action Memorandums, Box: 6. LBJ Presidential Library. 1005: 830:

Open infrastructures have supported linguistic diversity in science. The leading free software for scientific publishing,

453:

in 1958, as the decentralized American research system seemed for a time outpaced by the efficiency of Soviet planning.

3953:"Local emergence, global expansion: understanding the structural evolution of a bi-lingual national research landscape" 2923: 604:, "it was estimated in 1986 that fully 85% of the information available in worldwide networks was already in English." 4699: 1004:

still overlooked the issue of linguistic diversity: "Multilingualism is the most notable omission". In June 2022, the

534: 484: 190: 46: 621:

monolingual corpus, Eugene Garfield called for acknowledging English as the only international language for science:

3834:"Linguistic Diversity Index: A Scientometric Measure to Enhance the Relevance of Small and Minority Group Languages" 2945: 592:(an ultimately failed proposal to create a centrally planned system of electronic publication in the early 1960s), 2669:

Machine Translation and Global Research: Towards Improved Machine Translation Literacy in the Scholarly Community

834:, is available in 50 languages and is widespread among non-commercial open access journals. A landscape study of 435: 4704: 3725: 3181:"Making citations of publications in languages other than English visible: On the feasibility of a PLOTE-index" 1848:[Open Science Barometer (general)] (in French). Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Innovation. 526: 369: 108:

used by one or several scientific communities for international communication. According to science historian

3783:"The rate of growth in scientific publication and the decline in coverage provided by Science Citation Index" 2800: 4681:'s Global Open Access Portal, providing "status of open access to scientific information around the world." 2963:[Report from the Academy of Sciences on the French language and the influence of French science]. 617: 608: 260: 179: 596:(for medicine journals) or NASA/RECON (for astronomics and engineering). In contrast with the decline of 4600:"Multilingualism is integral to accessibility and should be part of European research assessment reform" 4127:

Ramati, Ido; Pinchevski, Amit (2018). "Uniform multilingualism: A media genealogy of Google Translate".

517:

disappeared: this polyglot compilation in 36 languages could no longer compete with the English-focused

304: 136: 4664: 2961:"Rapport de l'Académie des sciences sur la langue française et le rayonnement de la science française" 952: 496:

During the 1960s and the 1970s, English was no longer a majority language of science but a scientific

3998: 3346: 3097: 2332: 888:

their own specific audience among a large non-academic public that may be less competent in English.

839:"protect national infrastructures for publishing locally relevant research." Signatories include the 831: 4561: 3618:"Publication patterns in the social sciences and humanities: evidence from eight European countries" 3434:"The need for a new set of measures to assess the impact of research in earth sciences in Indonesia" 3016:

Biens Symboliques / Symbolic Goods. Revue de sciences sociales sur les arts, la culture et les idées

974: 872: 773: 597: 475: 457: 270:

in England. They both used the local vernacular, which "made perfect historical sense" as both the

212: 175: 4502: 4408: 699:

shows that the share of publication in French has shrunk from 23% in 2013 to 12-16% by 2019–2020.

4344: 4152: 4115: 4086:"Who are the users of national open access journals? The case of the Finnish Journal.fi platform" 4072: 3939: 3896: 3763: 3655: 3568: 3486: 3432:

Irawan, Dasapta Erwin; Abraham, Juneman; Tennant, Jonathan Peter; Pourret, Olivier (2021-08-07).

3388: 3286: 3243: 3167: 3084: 3035: 275: 252: 116: 4256: 908: 139:

and the expansion of colonization entailed the global use of three European national languages:

4207:"SciBabel: a system for crowd-sourced validation of automatic translations of scientific texts" 3675:"Multilingual Publishing in the Social Sciences and Humanities: A Seven-Country European Study" 2840: 4438: 4395: 4377: 4336: 4244: 4226: 4176: 4144: 4107: 4037: 3974: 3931: 3888: 3855: 3820: 3802: 3755: 3712: 3694: 3647: 3601: 3560: 3525: 3455: 3380: 3372: 3321: 3278: 3235: 3200: 3159: 3117: 3076: 3027: 2998: 2863: 2785: 2766: 2747: 2710: 2691: 2672: 2653: 2625: 923:

The development of a strong network of open science infrastructures in South America (such as

335:

Lithuanian, Hungarian, Serbian, Irish, Turkish, Hebrew, Arabic, Hindustani, Japanese, Chinese.

327: 294:

Language preferences and use across scientific communities were gradually consolidated into a

271: 244: 132: 3468: 823:

archives. The concept of open science infrastructure emerged in 2015 with the publication of

4638: 4428: 4420: 4385: 4369: 4326: 4299: 4289: 4278:"Publish in English or Perish in Portuguese: Struggles and Constraints on the Semiperiphery" 4234: 4218: 4136: 4097: 4062: 4029: 4006: 3964: 3923: 3880: 3868: 3845: 3810: 3794: 3745: 3737: 3702: 3686: 3637: 3629: 3593: 3585: 3552: 3517: 3476: 3445: 3362: 3354: 3311: 3268: 3227: 3192: 3151: 3109: 3066: 3019: 2990: 2927: 2892: 2878: 2853: 2825: 982: 946: 856: 844: 787: 626: 612: 589: 422: 319: 167: 148: 124: 3333:

Hicks, Diana; Wouters, Paul; Waltman, Ludo; de Rijcke, Sarah; Rafols, Ismael (April 2015).

85: 2926:(Report). European Network for Research Evaluation in the Social Sciences and Humanities. 2727:

Common Struggles: Policy-based vs. scholar-led approaches to open access in the humanities

916:

has mostly an international audience, with less than one third of the readers coming from

852: 418: 404: 311: 288: 159: 144: 140: 4084:

Pölönen, Janne; Syrjämäki, Sami; Nygård, Antti-Jussi; Hammarfelt, Björn (October 2021b).

672:

was explicitly committed to the anglicization (and romanization) of published knowledge:

465: 4358:"Providing English and native language quotes in qualitative research: A call to action" 4002: 3350: 4626:

Memorandum # 332, U.S. Government Policy on English Language Teaching Abroad, 6/11/1965

4598:

Pölönen, Janne; Kulczycki, Emanuel; Mustajoki, Henriikka; Røeggen, Vidar (2021-12-07).

4390: 4357: 4239: 4206: 3815: 3782: 3707: 3674: 2960: 2322: 745: 732: 669: 645: 601: 315: 109: 2922:

Ochsner, Michael; Kancewicz-Hoffman, Nina; Hołowiecki, Marek; Holm, Jon (April 2020).

2907: 4693: 4119: 4076: 3943: 3767: 3642: 3597: 3572: 3490: 3290: 3247: 3171: 3088: 3039: 2370: 778: 656: 581: 501: 461: 352: 171: 105: 4579:

Taşkın, Zehra; Dogan, Guleda; Kulczycki, Emanuel; Zuccala, Alesia Ann (2020-06-18).

4348: 4156: 2931: 3900: 3659: 3392: 3137:"Multilingualism in academic writing for publication: Putting English in its place" 860: 278:

were engaged in an active policy of linguistic promotion of the language standard.

224: 186: 163: 90: 17: 4020:

O'Neil, David (2018). "English as the lingua franca of international publishing".

3556: 4051:"Historical Bibliometrics Using Google Scholar: The Case of Roman Law, 1727–2016" 2782:

English-taught Programmes in European Higher Education: The State of Play in 2014

391:

A transition period: English, new competitors and machine translation (1920–1965)

4643: 4294: 4277: 4173:

Language for International Communication: Linking Interdisciplinary Perspectives

3589: 504:

of American and English-speaking culture in the later part of the 20th century.

364: 4625: 4011: 3986: 3969: 3952: 3469:"Securing community-controlled infrastructure: SPARC's plan of action | Joseph" 3231: 2994: 478:

became a major priority in Federal research funding in 1956 due to an emerging

193:

and platforms. In 2019, 120 international research organizations co-signed the

4684: 4562:"How did science come to speak only English? – Michael D Gordin | Aeon Essays" 4463:

Shearer, Kathleen; Chan, Leslie; Kuchma, Iryna; Mounier, Pierre (2020-04-15).

4259:[Delegation for the adoption of an international auxiliary language]. 3951:

Milia, Matias Federico; Giralt, Ariadna Nebot; Arvanitis, Rigas (2022-06-21).

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Olechnicka, Agnieszka; Ploszaj, Adam; Celińska-Janowicz, Dorota (2018-10-08).

1000:

scientific knowledge openly available, accessible and reusable for everyone".

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Kent, Roland G. (1924-06-20). "The Scientist and an International Language".

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Linkov, Václav; O’Doherty, Kieran; Choi, Eunsoo; Han, Gyuseog (2021-04-01).

3617: 3450: 3433: 3011: 521:

as more than 65% of publications in the field were in English. By 1982, the

479: 356: 152: 4399: 4248: 4067: 4050: 3824: 3716: 3564: 3384: 3136: 2897: 2883: 2830: 896: 282:

French, English, German and the quest for an auxiliary language (1800–1920)

4581:"Science needs to inform the public. That can't be done solely in English" 4356:

Younas, Ahtisham; Fàbregues, Sergi; Durante, Angela; Ali, Parveen (2022).

3481: 3334: 2641:

Die internationale Positionierung der Geisteswissenschaften in Deutschland

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Henry, Kaylee; Virk, Ranya; DeMarchi, Lindsay; Sears, Huei (2021-08-30).

3180: 1040: 848: 683: 239: 128: 4466:

Fostering Bibliodiversity in Scholarly Communications: A Call for Action

3367: 3316: 3299: 2707:

Does Science Need a Global Language?: English and the Future of Research

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Behrens, Julia; Fischer, Lars; Minks, Karl-Heinz; Rösler, Lena (2010).

2327: 928: 900: 892: 593: 575:

excludes all other languages but English and becomes purely Anglophone.

450: 4373: 4276:

Solovova, Olga; Santos, Joana Vieira; Veríssimo, Joaquim (June 2018).

4102: 4085: 3884: 3750: 3741: 3690: 3113: 2688:

Scientific Babel: How Science Was Done Before and After Global English

2401: 2399: 4678: 4331: 4314: 3023: 924: 917: 904: 740: 692: 649: 216: 94: 4464: 4424: 4409:"The New Research Assessment Reform in China and Its Implementation" 3358: 3300:"A Call to Diversify the Lingua Franca of Academic STEM Communities" 170:, and access to Russian journals became a major policy issue in the 4635:"Helsinki Initiative on Multilingualism in Scholarly Communication" 4257:"Délégation pour l'adoption d'une langue auxiliaire internationale" 3273: 3256: 3071: 3054: 2858: 1291: 1041:"Helsinki Initiative on Multilingualism in Scholarly Communication" 483:

1956, Léon Dostert secured a large funding with the support of the

4665:

A Call to Diversify the Lingua Franca of Academic STEM Communities

3421:

A Concise History. Computer Aided Translation: Theory and Practice

835: 376:

Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language

345:

Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language

120: 84: 4685:

Helsinki Initiative on Multilingualism in Scholarly Communication

4196:

Sivertsen, Gunnar (2018). "Balanced multilingualism in science".

3679:

Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology

3419:

Hutchins, John (2007). "Machine translation: a concise history".

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Helsinki Initiative on Multilingualism in Scholarly Communication

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Helsinki Initiative on Multilingualism in Scholarly Communication

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Soares, Felipe; Rebechi, Rozane; Stevenson, Mark (2020-06-15).

3055:"Russian and the Making of World Languages during the Cold War" 2428: 2426: 2562: 2560: 384: 29: 2590: 1078: 215:

played an instrumental role in the diffusion of languages in

4519:"Why Science's Universal Language Is a Problem for Research" 2622:

Dutch Messengers: A History of Science Publishing, 1930–1980

2613:

The public impact of Latin America's approach to open access

2210: 2208: 2136: 2134: 772:

Scientific publication has been the first major use case of

4313:

Stojanovski, Jadranka; Petrak, Jelka; Macan, Bojan (2009).

4198:

BiD: Textos universitaris de biblioteconomia i documentació

4175:. Vol. 3. University of Latvia Press. pp. 79–93. 2082: 2080: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1933: 3335:"Bibliometrics: The Leiden Manifesto for research metrics" 1035: 1033: 4483:

Research evaluation in the southern road to open science

3781:

Larsen, Peder Olesen; von Ins, Markus (September 2010).

655:

The lack of coverage of non-English languages creates a

2648:

Bourne, Charles P.; Hahn, Trudi Bellardo (2003-08-01).

2297: 2175: 2152: 4669: 3987:"Superpowered science: charting China's research rise" 3582:

Handbook on Research Assessment in the Social Sciences

2841:

Research assessment and implementation of Open Science

2540: 2456: 2125: 4674: 3010:

Anglaret, Anne-Sophie; Sofio, Séverine (2021-12-27).

2965:

Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Sciences

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A History of Online Information Services, 1963-1976

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(2008-09-15). 2023: 1983: 1873: 1861: 1820: 1730: 1563: 1551: 1378: 1198: 955:has in 2018 theorized the need for a 174:, prompting the early development of 7: 4536:van Weijen, Daphne (November 2012). 2541:Kulczycki, Engels & Pölönen 2022 2457:Stojanovski, Petrak & Macan 2009 2126:Kulczycki, Engels & Pölönen 2022 1292:Société d'anthropologie de Lyon 1903 1267: 1138: 939:Policies in favor of multilingualism 3179:Dahler-Larsen, Peter (2018-07-01). 2705:Montgomery, Scott L. (2013-05-06). 2101: 711:Persistence of linguistic diversity 155:as a non-national global standard. 4517:Huttner-Koros, Adam (2015-08-21). 3408:Studies in the Linguistic Sciences 2591:Council of the European Union 2022 2406:Milia, Giralt & Arvanitis 2022 1079:Council of the European Union 2022 907:. A study of the Finnish platform 25: 4271:: 10–13. 1903 – via Persée. 3255:Gordin, Michael D. (2017-09-19). 3053:Aronova, Elena (September 2017). 2686:Gordin, Michael D. (2015-04-13). 883:Multilingualism and social impact 813:Open science and multilingualism 34: 3504:Kaplan, Frederic (2014-08-01). 2932:10.6084/m9.figshare.12032589.v2 2761:Poibeau, Thierry (2019-05-09). 2709:. University of Chicago Press. 2690:. University of Chicago Press. 2643:. Hannover: HIS:Projektbericht. 1777:. February 2012. Archived from 3467:Joseph, Heather (2018-09-05). 3096:Cameron-Pesant, Sarah (2018). 2946:Recommendation on Open Science 2615:(Thesis). Stanford University. 1: 4544:. No. 31. Archived from 4171:. In Karpinska, Laura (ed.). 3916:English for Specific Purposes 3557:10.1126/science.59.1538.554.b 1006:Council of the European Union 786:freely accessible tools like 4633:Helsinki Initiative (2019). 4413:Scholarly Assessment Reports 3997:(S4–S5): S4–S5. 2021-05-26. 2724:Moore, Samuel (2019-05-02). 2671:. Emerald Group Publishing. 2611:Alperin, Juan Pablo (2015). 2298:Ramati & Pinchevski 2018 2176:Ramati & Pinchevski 2018 2153:Ramati & Pinchevski 2018 818:Open science infrastructures 760:use of local DOIs (like the 191:open science infrastructures 4644:10.6084/m9.figshare.7887059 4295:10.3390/publications6020025 3724:Larivière, Vincent (2018). 3590:10.4337/9781800372559.00031 2975:: 131–146. 8 November 1982. 535:National Science Foundation 310:In the years preceding the 4721: 4211:Genomics & Informatics 4012:10.1038/d41586-021-01403-2 3970:10.1007/s11192-022-04403-9 3730:Recherches Sociographiques 3232:10.1057/s41307-022-00268-y 3102:Recherches Sociographiques 2995:10.1515/applirev-2012-0016 2983:Applied Linguistics Review 1910:Zhang & Sivertsen 2020 1612:Wächter & Maiworm 2014 1588:Académie des Sciences 1982 691:English publications". In 436:Christopher Wharton Hanson 287:could follow the work of 4604:Impact of Social Sciences 4501:Garfield, Eugene (1967). 4480:Beigel, Fernanda (2022). 3928:10.1016/j.esp.2021.11.002 3851:10.1177/21582440211009191 3799:10.1007/s11192-010-0202-z 3643:10067/1498050151162165141 3634:10.1007/s11192-018-2711-0 3598:10067/1875400151162165141 3522:10.1525/rep.2014.127.1.57 3156:10.1017/S0261444822000040 2215:Anglaret & Sofio 2021 568:European Physical Journal 470:Georgetown–IBM experiment 4223:10.5808/GI.2020.18.2.e21 4141:10.1177/1461444817726951 3844:(2). 21582440211009191. 3438:European Science Editing 1948:Kramer & Neylon 2022 1684:European Commission 2019 957:balanced multilingualism 566:) merged and become the 370:Internacia Science Revuo 211:Until the 19th century, 115:Until the 19th century, 4670:AmeliCA Ciencia Abierta 4164:Rocco, Goranka (2020). 4129:New Media & Society 3451:10.3897/ese.2021.e59032 3220:Higher Education Policy 2954:Articles & chapters 2799:Wouters, P. F. (1999). 2784:. Lemmens Medien GmbH. 1972:Curry & Lillis 2022 640:English standardization 515:Chemisches Zentralblatt 4068:10.2478/jdis-2020-0024 3197:10.1093/reseval/rvy010 2898:10.5281/zenodo.4153741 2884:10.5281/zenodo.4159838 2831:10.5281/zenodo.4558704 2262:Bowker & Ciro 2019 2250:Bowker & Ciro 2019 2238:Bowker & Ciro 2019 2226:Bowker & Ciro 2019 2200:Bowker & Ciro 2019 2141:Bowker & Ciro 2019 1898:Bowker & Ciro 2019 1648:Bourne & Hahn 2003 1624:Bowker & Ciro 2019 1600:Bowker & Ciro 2019 802: 697:Open Science Barometer 679: 632: 618:Science Citation Index 609:Science Citation Index 577: 564:Zeitschrift für Physik 544:Acta Physica Hungarica 446: 337: 291:and his compatriots." 180:Science Citation Index 98: 3482:10.5860/crln.79.8.426 2940:– via figshare. 2529:Kulczycki et al. 2020 2072:Kulczycki et al. 2018 2060:Kulczycki et al. 2018 2048:Kulczycki et al. 2018 1960:Kulczycki et al. 2020 1833:Kulczycki et al. 2018 800:research publication. 584:after the 1960s. The 527:Académie des Sciences 305:Industrial Revolution 137:Industrial Revolution 88: 3867:Liu, Weishu (2017). 3584:. pp. 350–366. 2802:The citation culture 2433:Pölönen et al. 2021b 2333:Open Journal Systems 2323:"Language Dashboard" 2114:Solovova et al. 2018 832:Open Journal Systems 662:Biological abstracts 102:Scientific languages 4560:Gordin, Michael D. 4489:. OSEC 2022. Paris. 4267:] (in French). 4003:2021Natur.593S...4. 3351:2015Natur.520..429H 3317:10.38126/JSPG180303 3185:Research Evaluation 2971:] (in French). 2567:Pölönen et al. 2021 2469:Cameron-Pesant 2018 2445:Cameron-Pesant 2018 2358:Ficarra et al. 2020 873:diamond open access 774:machine translation 768:Machine translation 598:Machine Translation 560:Portugaliae Physica 556:Journal de Physique 476:Machine translation 458:machine translation 261:Journal des Sçavans 253:linguistic training 213:classical languages 185:The development of 176:machine translation 117:classical languages 106:vehicular languages 18:Scientific language 4700:History of science 4624:Bundy, McGeorge. " 4319:Learned Publishing 4090:Learned Publishing 4034:10.1111/weng.12293 3873:Learned Publishing 2605:Books & theses 2517:Irawan et al. 2021 2505:Linkov et al. 2021 2493:Dahler-Larsen 2018 2391:Bosman et al. 2021 2346:Bosman et al. 2021 2188:Soares et al. 2020 2087:Bosman et al. 2021 2036:Irawan et al. 2021 1811:, pp. 257–258 1797:Bosman et al. 2021 276:Kingdom of England 264:in France and the 99: 53:You can assist by 4374:10.1002/nop2.1115 4182:978-9934-18-553-3 4103:10.1002/leap.1405 3963:(12): 7369–7395. 3885:10.1002/leap.1089 3742:10.7202/1058718ar 3691:10.1002/asi.24336 3685:(11): 1371–1385. 3607:978-1-80037-255-9 3551:(1538): 554–555. 3345:(7548): 429–431. 3144:Language Teaching 3114:10.7202/1058719ar 2869:978-92-79-97238-6 2791:978-3-86856-017-6 2772:978-2-7381-4850-6 2753:978-1-315-47192-1 2716:978-0-226-01004-5 2697:978-0-226-00032-9 2678:978-1-78756-721-4 2659:978-0-262-26175-3 2631:978-90-04-17084-1 2624:. Leiden: Brill. 2579:Henry et al. 2021 2553:Hicks et al. 2015 519:Chemical abstract 328:Roland Grubb Kent 272:Kingdom of France 245:Classical Chinese 133:Classical Chinese 83: 82: 75: 16:(Redirected from 4712: 4654: 4652: 4651: 4646: 4629: 4613: 4611: 4610: 4594: 4592: 4591: 4575: 4573: 4572: 4556: 4554: 4553: 4532: 4530: 4529: 4513: 4510:Current Contents 4507: 4490: 4488: 4476: 4474: 4473: 4452: 4450: 4449: 4436: 4403: 4393: 4352: 4334: 4332:10.1087/20090402 4309: 4307: 4297: 4272: 4252: 4242: 4201: 4192: 4190: 4189: 4170: 4160: 4135:(7): 2550–2565. 4123: 4105: 4080: 4070: 4045: 4016: 4014: 3982: 3972: 3947: 3910: 3908: 3907: 3863: 3853: 3828: 3818: 3777: 3775: 3774: 3753: 3720: 3710: 3669: 3667: 3666: 3645: 3611: 3576: 3539: 3537: 3536: 3500: 3498: 3497: 3484: 3463: 3453: 3428: 3415: 3402: 3400: 3399: 3370: 3329: 3319: 3294: 3276: 3251: 3214: 3212: 3211: 3175: 3141: 3131: 3129: 3128: 3092: 3074: 3049: 3047: 3046: 3024:10.4000/bssg.832 3006: 2976: 2949: 2941: 2939: 2938: 2918: 2916: 2915: 2902: 2900: 2888: 2886: 2873: 2861: 2847: 2845: 2835: 2833: 2813: 2811: 2810: 2795: 2776: 2757: 2738: 2736: 2735: 2720: 2701: 2682: 2663: 2644: 2635: 2616: 2594: 2588: 2582: 2576: 2570: 2564: 2555: 2550: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2526: 2520: 2514: 2508: 2502: 2496: 2490: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2430: 2421: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2394: 2388: 2379: 2378: 2367: 2361: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2336: 2319: 2313: 2307: 2301: 2295: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2271: 2265: 2259: 2253: 2247: 2241: 2235: 2229: 2223: 2217: 2212: 2203: 2197: 2191: 2185: 2179: 2173: 2167: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2144: 2138: 2129: 2123: 2117: 2111: 2105: 2099: 2090: 2084: 2075: 2069: 2063: 2057: 2051: 2045: 2039: 2033: 2027: 2021: 2015: 2009: 2003: 1998: 1987: 1981: 1975: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1951: 1945: 1928: 1922: 1913: 1907: 1901: 1895: 1889: 1883: 1877: 1871: 1865: 1859: 1850: 1849: 1842: 1836: 1830: 1824: 1818: 1812: 1806: 1800: 1794: 1788: 1782: 1767: 1761: 1755: 1749: 1743: 1734: 1728: 1722: 1716: 1710: 1705: 1699: 1693: 1687: 1681: 1675: 1669: 1663: 1657: 1651: 1645: 1639: 1633: 1627: 1621: 1615: 1609: 1603: 1597: 1591: 1585: 1579: 1573: 1567: 1561: 1555: 1549: 1540: 1534: 1523: 1517: 1508: 1502: 1496: 1490: 1484: 1478: 1469: 1463: 1457: 1451: 1445: 1439: 1433: 1427: 1421: 1415: 1409: 1403: 1394: 1388: 1382: 1376: 1370: 1364: 1358: 1352: 1346: 1340: 1334: 1328: 1319: 1313: 1307: 1301: 1295: 1289: 1283: 1277: 1271: 1265: 1259: 1253: 1247: 1241: 1235: 1229: 1223: 1217: 1202: 1196: 1190: 1184: 1178: 1172: 1166: 1160: 1154: 1148: 1142: 1136: 1130: 1124: 1118: 1112: 1106: 1100: 1094: 1088: 1082: 1076: 1065: 1060: 1049: 1048: 1037: 1028: 1022: 983:Leiden Manifesto 953:Gunnar Sivertsen 947:Leiden Manifesto 788:Google Translate 695:, data from the 627:Current Contents 552:Il Nuovo Cimento 548:Anales de Física 320:Dmitri Mendeleev 233:scholastic Latin 168:Second World War 125:Classical Arabic 78: 71: 67: 64: 58: 38: 37: 30: 21: 4720: 4719: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4711: 4710: 4709: 4705:Multilingualism 4690: 4689: 4661: 4649: 4647: 4632: 4623: 4620: 4608: 4606: 4597: 4589: 4587: 4578: 4570: 4568: 4559: 4551: 4549: 4542:Research Trends 4535: 4527: 4525: 4516: 4505: 4500: 4497: 4486: 4479: 4471: 4469: 4462: 4459: 4447: 4445: 4425:10.29024/sar.15 4406: 4355: 4312: 4275: 4255: 4204: 4195: 4187: 4185: 4183: 4168: 4163: 4126: 4083: 4048: 4022:World Englishes 4019: 3985: 3950: 3913: 3905: 3903: 3866: 3831: 3780: 3772: 3770: 3723: 3672: 3664: 3662: 3614: 3608: 3579: 3542: 3534: 3532: 3510:Representations 3503: 3495: 3493: 3466: 3431: 3418: 3405: 3397: 3395: 3359:10.1038/520429a 3332: 3297: 3254: 3217: 3209: 3207: 3178: 3139: 3134: 3126: 3124: 3095: 3052: 3044: 3042: 3009: 2979: 2959: 2956: 2944: 2936: 2934: 2921: 2913: 2911: 2905: 2889: 2876: 2870: 2850: 2843: 2838: 2823: 2820: 2808: 2806: 2798: 2792: 2779: 2773: 2765:. 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COKI 2903: 2874: 2868: 2859:10.2777/836532 2848: 2836: 2819: 2816: 2815: 2814: 2796: 2790: 2777: 2771: 2758: 2752: 2739: 2721: 2715: 2702: 2696: 2683: 2677: 2664: 2658: 2645: 2636: 2630: 2617: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2595: 2583: 2571: 2556: 2545: 2533: 2521: 2509: 2497: 2485: 2473: 2471:, p. 372. 2461: 2449: 2437: 2422: 2418:Larivière 2018 2410: 2395: 2380: 2362: 2350: 2338: 2314: 2302: 2300:, p. 2560 2290: 2278: 2266: 2254: 2242: 2230: 2218: 2204: 2192: 2180: 2178:, p. 2562 2168: 2157: 2155:, p. 2556 2145: 2130: 2118: 2106: 2091: 2076: 2074:, p. 482. 2064: 2062:, p. 481. 2052: 2050:, p. 465. 2040: 2028: 2016: 2012:Larivière 2018 2004: 2001:Sivertsen 2018 1988: 1976: 1964: 1952: 1929: 1925:Larivière 2018 1914: 1902: 1890: 1878: 1866: 1851: 1837: 1835:, p. 476. 1825: 1813: 1809:Andriesse 2008 1801: 1789: 1781:on 2012-03-24. 1762: 1750: 1735: 1723: 1711: 1700: 1688: 1676: 1664: 1652: 1640: 1628: 1616: 1604: 1592: 1590:, p. 133. 1580: 1578:, p. 282. 1568: 1556: 1541: 1524: 1509: 1497: 1485: 1470: 1458: 1446: 1434: 1422: 1410: 1395: 1383: 1371: 1359: 1347: 1335: 1320: 1308: 1296: 1284: 1272: 1260: 1248: 1236: 1224: 1203: 1191: 1179: 1167: 1155: 1143: 1131: 1119: 1107: 1095: 1083: 1066: 1050: 1029: 1016: 1014: 1011: 988: 987: 978: 971: 940: 937: 884: 881: 869:Web of Science 819: 816: 814: 811: 791:of literacy." 769: 766: 753:Web of Science 746:Czech Republic 733:Earth sciences 721:Web of Science 712: 709: 670:Web of Science 646:Web of Science 641: 638: 636: 635:Current trends 633: 602:World Wide Web 493: 490: 417:and used only 410:German science 392: 389: 316:periodic table 283: 280: 208: 205: 203: 200: 110:Michael Gordin 81: 80: 42: 40: 33: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4717: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4697: 4695: 4686: 4683: 4680: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4662: 4658: 4645: 4640: 4636: 4631: 4627: 4622: 4621: 4617: 4605: 4601: 4596: 4586: 4582: 4577: 4567: 4563: 4558: 4548:on 2020-09-20 4547: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4524: 4520: 4515: 4511: 4504: 4499: 4498: 4494: 4485: 4484: 4478: 4468: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4456: 4444: 4440: 4435: 4434:11250/2733873 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4203: 4199: 4194: 4184: 4178: 4174: 4167: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3912: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3779: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3709: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3671: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3609: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3492: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3404: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3216: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3133: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2957: 2953: 2947: 2943: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2920: 2909: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2885: 2880: 2875: 2871: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2849: 2842: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2822: 2821: 2817: 2804: 2803: 2797: 2793: 2787: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2755: 2749: 2746:. 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MIT Press. 2651: 2646: 2642: 2637: 2633: 2627: 2623: 2618: 2614: 2609: 2608: 2604: 2599: 2593:, p. 12. 2592: 2587: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2561: 2557: 2554: 2549: 2546: 2542: 2537: 2534: 2530: 2525: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2510: 2506: 2501: 2498: 2494: 2489: 2486: 2482: 2477: 2474: 2470: 2465: 2462: 2458: 2453: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2420:, p. 350 2419: 2414: 2411: 2408:, p. 13. 2407: 2402: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2372: 2371:"Signatories" 2366: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2339: 2334: 2330: 2329: 2324: 2318: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2303: 2299: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2282: 2279: 2276:, p. 182 2275: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2258: 2255: 2251: 2246: 2243: 2239: 2234: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2211: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2184: 2181: 2177: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2165:Hutchins 2007 2161: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2146: 2142: 2137: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2122: 2119: 2115: 2110: 2107: 2104:, p. 121 2103: 2098: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2065: 2061: 2056: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2017: 2014:, p. 348 2013: 2008: 2005: 2002: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1986:, p. 339 1985: 1980: 1977: 1973: 1968: 1965: 1961: 1956: 1953: 1949: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1930: 1927:, p. 341 1926: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1906: 1903: 1899: 1894: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1879: 1876:, p. 341 1875: 1870: 1867: 1864:, p. 336 1863: 1858: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1841: 1838: 1834: 1829: 1826: 1823:, p. 156 1822: 1817: 1814: 1810: 1805: 1802: 1799:, p. 102 1798: 1793: 1790: 1787:, p. 82. 1786: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1766: 1763: 1759: 1754: 1751: 1747: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1733:, p. 344 1732: 1727: 1724: 1720: 1715: 1712: 1709: 1708:Garfield 1967 1704: 1701: 1698:, p. 309 1697: 1692: 1689: 1685: 1680: 1677: 1674:, p. 308 1673: 1668: 1665: 1661: 1656: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1641: 1638:, p. 299 1637: 1632: 1629: 1625: 1620: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1593: 1589: 1584: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1569: 1565: 1560: 1557: 1554:, p. 335 1553: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1539:, p. 263 1538: 1533: 1531: 1529: 1525: 1522:, p. 246 1521: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1507:, p. 242 1506: 1501: 1498: 1495:, p. 237 1494: 1489: 1486: 1483:, p. 232 1482: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1468:, p. 307 1467: 1462: 1459: 1456:, p. 217 1455: 1450: 1447: 1444:, p. 278 1443: 1438: 1435: 1432:, p. 202 1431: 1426: 1423: 1420:, p. 183 1419: 1414: 1411: 1408:, p. 180 1407: 1402: 1400: 1396: 1393:, p. 176 1392: 1387: 1384: 1381:, p. 337 1380: 1375: 1372: 1369:, p. 145 1368: 1363: 1360: 1357:, p. 127 1356: 1351: 1348: 1345:, p. 124 1344: 1339: 1336: 1333:, p. 218 1332: 1327: 1325: 1321: 1318:, p. 111 1317: 1312: 1309: 1306:, p. 110 1305: 1300: 1297: 1293: 1288: 1285: 1282:, p. 128 1281: 1276: 1273: 1269: 1264: 1261: 1257: 1252: 1249: 1245: 1240: 1237: 1234:, p. 106 1233: 1228: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1212: 1210: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1195: 1192: 1188: 1183: 1180: 1176: 1171: 1168: 1165:, p. 167 1164: 1159: 1156: 1152: 1147: 1144: 1140: 1135: 1132: 1128: 1123: 1120: 1116: 1111: 1108: 1104: 1099: 1096: 1092: 1087: 1084: 1081:, p. 11. 1080: 1075: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1064: 1059: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1046: 1042: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1021: 1018: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1001: 997: 994: 985: 984: 979: 976: 972: 969: 968: 967: 965: 960: 958: 954: 949: 948: 938: 936: 932: 930: 926: 921: 919: 915: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 889: 882: 880: 876: 874: 870: 864: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 837: 833: 828: 826: 817: 812: 810: 806: 801: 796: 792: 789: 783: 780: 779:deep learning 775: 767: 765: 763: 757: 754: 749: 747: 742: 736: 734: 730: 729:Nischenfächer 724: 722: 717: 710: 708: 704: 700: 698: 694: 688: 685: 678: 673: 671: 665: 663: 658: 657:feedback loop 653: 651: 647: 639: 634: 631: 628: 622: 619: 614: 610: 605: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 582:United States 576: 571: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 539: 536: 531: 528: 524: 520: 516: 511: 510:lingua franca 505: 503: 502:globalization 499: 498:lingua franca 491: 489: 486: 481: 477: 473: 471: 467: 463: 462:Warren Weaver 459: 454: 452: 445: 440: 437: 431: 427: 424: 420: 416: 411: 406: 401: 398: 390: 388: 386: 382: 377: 372: 371: 366: 360: 358: 354: 353:Idiom Neutral 350: 346: 342: 336: 331: 329: 324: 321: 317: 313: 308: 306: 301: 297: 292: 290: 281: 279: 277: 273: 269: 268: 263: 262: 256: 254: 248: 246: 241: 236: 234: 228: 226: 222: 218: 214: 206: 201: 199: 196: 192: 188: 183: 181: 177: 173: 172:United States 169: 165: 161: 156: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 113: 111: 107: 103: 96: 92: 87: 77: 74: 66: 56: 50: 48: 43:This article 41: 32: 31: 19: 4648:. 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3665:2022-04-09 3535:2022-04-08 3496:2021-12-12 3444:. e59032. 3398:2022-01-19 3210:2022-06-28 3150:: 87–100. 3127:2022-04-10 3045:2022-01-17 2937:2020-09-24 2914:2022-06-28 2809:2018-09-09 2734:2021-12-11 2024:Rocco 2020 1984:Ammon 2012 1874:Ammon 2012 1862:Ammon 2012 1821:Moore 2019 1731:Ammon 2012 1564:Bundy 1965 1552:Ammon 2012 1379:Ammon 2012 1199:Rocco 2020 1013:References 909:Journal.fi 444:languages. 381:Delegation 363:of Latin, 343:created a 255:in Latin. 158:After the 55:editing it 4443:2689-5870 4382:2054-1058 4341:1741-4857 4288:(2): 25. 4231:1598-866X 4149:1461-4448 4120:236331208 4112:1741-4857 4077:211666815 4042:1467-971X 3979:1588-2861 3944:245558219 3936:0889-4906 3893:1741-4857 3860:2158-2440 3838:SAGE Open 3807:0138-9130 3768:191863500 3760:0034-1282 3699:2330-1643 3652:1588-2861 3573:239785051 3530:0734-6018 3491:116057034 3460:2518-3354 3427:(11): 21. 3377:1476-4687 3326:2372-2193 3291:149105063 3283:0021-1753 3248:247913299 3240:1740-3863 3205:0958-2029 3172:248032636 3164:0261-4448 3122:0034-1282 3089:148831824 3081:0021-1753 3040:245925363 3032:2490-9424 3003:1868-6311 2846:(Report). 1268:Kent 1924 1139:Hock 1983 480:arms race 357:Esperanto 153:Esperanto 4419:(1): 3. 4400:34725950 4349:32697476 4249:32634875 4157:51882659 3922:: 3–16. 3825:20700371 3717:33288998 3565:17818586 3385:25903611 2805:(Thesis) 2730:(Thesis) 2102:Liu 2017 849:LATINDEX 684:Elsevier 274:and the 240:Sanskrit 129:Sanskrit 119:such as 4391:8685880 4240:7362948 3999:Bibcode 3901:7026937 3816:2909426 3708:7687152 3660:4336325 3545:Science 3393:4462115 3347:Bibcode 2818:Reports 2328:Weblate 975:diamond 929:Redalyc 901:Croatia 893:Finland 594:MEDLINE 586:Sputnik 525:of the 451:Sputnik 423:English 349:Volapük 289:Bergman 202:History 149:English 4679:UNESCO 4441: 4398: 4388: 4380: 4347: 4339: 4247: 4237: 4229: 4179: 4155: 4147: 4118: 4110: 4075: 4040: 3991:Nature 3977: 3942: 3934: 3899: 3891: 3858: 3823: 3813: 3805: 3766: 3758: 3715: 3705: 3697: 3658: 3650: 3604: 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