Coastal management - Knowledge (XXG)

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shoreline is protected by the beach material held behind the barriers, as the revetments trap some of the material. They may be watertight, covering the slope completely, or porous, to allow water to filter through after the wave energy has been dissipated. Most revetments do not significantly interfere with transport of longshore drift. Since the wall absorbs energy instead of reflecting, the surf progressively erodes and destroys the revetment; therefore, maintenance is ongoing, as determined by the structural material and product quality.

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parameters. The main advantage of video analysis lies in the ability to reliably quantify these parameters with high resolution space and time coverage. This highlights their potential as an effective coastal monitoring system and an aid to coastal zone management. Interesting case studies have been carried out using video analysis. One group used a video-based ARGUS coastal imaging system to monitor and quantify the regional-scale coastal response to sand nourishment and construction of the world-first

44: 625: 4134: 548:, including salt marshes and sand dunes. This normally results in protecting the land behind the halosere, as wave energy dissipates throughout the accumulated sediment and additional vegetation in the new habitat. Although the halosere is not strictly man-made, as many natural processes contribute to the succession, anthropogenic factors are partially responsible for the formation, since an initial factor was needed to help start the process of succession. 739: 4141: 4603: 1078:, ...) and the vegetation it supports – trees, root mats, etc. – retain large amounts of water (surface water, snowmelt, rain, groundwater) and then slowly releases them back, decreasing the likeliness of floods. Mangrove forests protect coastal shorelines from tidal erosion or erosion by currents; a process that was studied after the 1999 cyclone that hit India. Villages that were surrounded with 81:, with an average density three times higher than the global average for population. With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025, human activities originating from this small land area will impose heavy pressure on coasts. Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities. 562: 318: 95: 1479:. It can be used to obtain inter-tidal topographies and sub-tidal bathymetries and measure coastal zone resilience . Video-based depth estimations were applied in micro/meso tidal environments at DUCK, NC and highly energetic wave climates with a macro tidal regime at Porthtowan in the United Kingdom. The latter showed the application of video-based depth estimations during extreme storms. 3516: 371: 532:

close to the shoreline will be unable to accommodate erosion. They will experience a so-called "coastal squeeze" whereby ecological or geomorphological zones that would normally retreat landwards encounter solid structures and can migrate no further. Wetlands, salt marshes, mangroves and adjacent fresh water wetlands are particularly vulnerable to such a squeeze.

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the loss of it will cause more erosion. To prevent this, noticeboards, leaflets, and beach wardens explain to visitors how to avoid damaging the area. Also, beach areas can be closed to the public to reduce damage. Another option is fences which allow sand traps to create blowouts and increase windblown sand capture.

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Defining the shoreline is a difficult task due to its dynamic nature and the intended application. The relevant mapping scale is dependent on the context of the investigation. Generally, the coast comprises the interface between land and sea, and the shoreline is represented by the margin between the

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A useful side effect of the system is that collected seawater is relatively pure because of sand's filtration effect. Such water may be discharged or be used to oxygenate stagnant inland lagoons/marinas or used as feed for heat pumps, desalination plants, land-based aquaculture, aquariums or swimming

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for compilation of shoreline change maps. Aerial photographs are the most commonly used data source because many coastal areas have extensive aerial photo coverage.Aerial photographs generally provide good spatial coverage. However, temporal coverage is site specific. The interpretation of shoreline

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A variety of data sources are available for examining shoreline position. However, the availability of historical data is limited at many coastal sites and so the choice of data source is largely limited to what is available for the site at a given time. Shoreline mapping techniques have become more

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Sand dunes are vulnerable to human activities. Therefore, they need as little human interaction as possible for their protection. Human coastal activities has led to the erosion and loss of plant life on sand dunes. Plant life has been established as an important stabilizing factor of sand dunes and

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Rock armour is large rocks placed at the sea edge using local material. This is generally used to absorb wave energy and hold beach material. Although effective, this solution is unpopular for aesthetic reasons. Longshore drift is not hindered. Rock armour has a limited lifespan, is not effective in

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is predominantly in one direction, creating a wider and a more plentiful beach, thereby protecting the coast because the sand material filters and absorbs wave energy. However, there is a corresponding loss of beach material on the updrift side, requiring another groyne there. Groynes do not protect

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There is an obvious downside to this strategy. Coastal erosion is already widespread, and there are many coasts where exceptional high tides or storm surges result in encroachment on the shore, impinging on human activity. If the sea rises, many coasts that are developed with infrastructure along or

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analysis provides quantitative, cost-effective, continuous and long-term monitoring beaches. The advancement of coastal video systems in the twenty-first century enabled the extraction of large amounts of geophysical data from images. The data describes coastal morphology, surface currents and wave

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movement. This affects the accuracy of computed historic shoreline position and predictions. HWL is most commonly used as a shoreline indicator. Many errors are associated with using the wet/dry line as a proxy for the HWL and shoreline. The errors of largest concern are the short-term migration of

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Stabilizing sand dunes with plants is a common practice and can be implemented on private and public beaches. When implementing the stabilization sand dunes on privately owned beaches with multiple owners, coming to a consensual agreement tends to be complicated. Some owners may prefer to leave the

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Training walls are built to constrain a river or creek as it discharges across a sandy coastline. The walls stabilise and deepen the channel which benefits navigation, flood management, river erosion and water quality, but can cause coastal erosion by interrupting longshore drift. One solution is a

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Walls of concrete and masonry are used to protect a settlement against erosion or flooding. They are typically about 3–5 metres (10–16 ft) high. Older-style vertical seawalls reflected all the energy of the waves back out to sea, and for this purpose were often given recurved crest walls which

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The obtrusiveness and cost of these structures led in the late 1940s and early 1950s, to a more dynamic approach. Projects attempted to replicate the protective characteristics of natural beach and dune systems. The resultant use of artificial beaches and stabilized dunes as an engineering approach

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Revetments are slanted or upright blockades, built parallel to the coast, usually towards the back of the beach to protect the area beyond. The most basic revetments consist of timber slants with a possible rock infill. Waves break against the revetments, which dissipate and absorb the energy. The

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Remote sensing techniques can be cost effective, reduce manual error and reduce the subjectivity of conventional field techniques. Remote sensing is a relatively new concept, limiting extensive historical observations. Coastal morphology observations must be quantified by coupling remotely sensed

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photograph. Unfortunately this is often not the case and virtually all aerial photographs experience tilt up to 3°. In this situation the scale of the image is larger on the upward side of the tilt axis and smaller on the downward side. Many coastal researchers do not consider this in their work.

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toe, dune crest and cliff or the bluff crest and toe. Alternatively, non-morphological features may be used such as water level (high water line (HWL), mean high water line) wet/dry boundary and the physical water line. Figure 1 provides a sketch of the spatial relationships between commonly used

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Beach replenishment/nourishment involves importing sand from elsewhere and adding it to the existing beach. The imported sand should be of a similar quality to the existing beach material so it can meld with the natural local processes and without adverse effects. Beach nourishment can be used in

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Geotextile tubes or geotubes are large geotextile bags placed at the sea edge filled with locally available sand slurry. This is generally used to absorb wave energy and hold beach material as riprap does. Often referred to as titan tubes as manufactured by Flint Technical Geosolutions. Longshore

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may cause the wet/dry line to migrate. Field investigations have shown that these changes can be minimised by using only summertime data.; Furthermore, the error bar can be significantly reduced by using the longest record of reliable data to calculate erosion rates. Errors may arise due to the

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The shoreline location and its changing position over time is of fundamental importance to coastal scientists, engineers and managers. Shoreline monitoring campaigns provide information about historic shoreline location and movement, and about predictions of future change. More specifically the

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Boulders and rocks are wired into mesh cages and placed in front of areas vulnerable to erosion: sometimes at cliffs edges or at right angles to the beach. When the ocean lands on the gabion, the water drains through leaving sediment, while the structure absorbs a moderate amount of wave energy.

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Beach watertables have an important bearing on deposition/erosion across the foreshore. In one study a high watertable coincided with accelerated beach erosion, while a low watertable coincided with pronounced aggradation of the foreshore. A lower watertable (unsaturated beach face) facilitates

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from a series of discrete beach profiles. The distance between the profiles is usually quite large, limiting the accuracy of the interpolating. Survey data is limited to smaller lengths of shoreline generally less than ten kilometres. Beach profiling data is commonly available in from regional

1310:. This situation causes objects above sea level to be displaced outward from the centre of the photograph and objects below ground level to be displaced toward the centre of the image (Figure 2). The severity of the displacement is negatively associated with decreases in flight altitude and as 970:

Sand dunes are a common feature of beaches and provide a habitat for many organisms. They are useful when preventing the erosion of beaches, and can catch windblown sand which over time increases the natural formation of the beach. To stabilize sand dunes, foredune flora and backdune flora are

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The main cost is generally the purchase of land to be abandoned. Relocation compensation may be needed. Human-made structures that will be engulfed by the sea may need to be removed. In some cases, armouring is used to protect land beyond the area to be flooded. Costs may be lowest if existing

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or sand-trapping structures such as groynes. During the 1920s and '30s, private or local community interests protected many coastal areas using these techniques on an ad hoc basis. In certain resort areas, structures proliferated to such an extent that the protection impeded recreational uses.

999:. After these plants have taken root, the shrub stage begins. Since the previously established plants have stabilized the dunes, during the shrub stage larger plants with bigger root systems are able to grow. This allows for further stabilization of sand dunes. These larger plants, along with 1392:

Beach profiling surveys are typically repeated at regular intervals along the coast in order to measure short-term (daily to annual) variations in shoreline position and beach volume. Beach profiling is a very accurate source of information. However, measurements are generally subject to the

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The Group of Specialists originated in 1995, pursuant to a decision by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe. It emphasized the need for integrated management and planning, but that coastal areas continued to deteriorate. The Group claimed that this was due to difficulties in

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Limited knowledge of coastal sediment transport processes often resulted in inappropriate measures of coastal erosion mitigation. In many cases, measures worked locally, but exacerbated problems at other locations -up to tens of kilometers away- or generated other environmental problems.

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defences are left to fail naturally, but the realignment project may be more actively managed, for example by creating an artificial breach in existing defences to allow the sea in at a particular place in a controlled fashion, or by pre-forming drainage channels for created salt-marsh.

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In the event that a study requires the shoreline position from before aerial photographs, or if the location has poor photographic coverage, historical maps provide an alternative. Many errors are associated with early maps and charts. Such errors may be associated with scale,

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dunes bare, while others would rather plant more visually appealing plants. In comparison, when implementing dune stabilization on publicly owned beaches, there are less parties to confer with. Therefore, agreements about implementation can be reached in a quicker fashion.

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However, no case studies provide indisputable evidence of positive results, although in some cases overall positive performance was reported. Long-term monitoring was not undertaken at a frequency high enough to discriminate the response to high energy erosive events.

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was one of the few populated coastal areas with continuous prosperity and development where written reports document the evolution of coastal protection works. In other words, this is one of the first accounts of the use of a sea wall to protect a coastal settlement.

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Beach drainage systems have been installed in many locations around the world to halt and reverse erosion trends in sand beaches. Twenty four beach drainage systems have been installed since 1981 in Denmark, USA, UK, Japan, Spain, Sweden, France, Italy and Malaysia.

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of view increases distortion. This is a significant source of error in earlier aerial photography. Such a distortion is impossible to correct for without knowing the details of the lens used to capture the image. Overlapping images can be used to resolve errors.

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The dynamic nature of coasts compromises shoreline mapping. This uncertainty arises because at any given time the position of the shoreline is influenced by the immediate tidal effects and a variety of long-term effects such as relative sea-level rise and along

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Armour Units – Random Mass or Disciplined Array, – C.T.Brown ASCE Coastal Structures Specialty Conference, Washington, March 1979; The Design & Construction of Prince St. Seawall, Cronulla, EHW Hirst & D.N.Foster – 8th CCOE, Nov 1987, Launceston,

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of the images. This technique creates a focus for the centre of each photograph where distortion is minimised. This error is not common in shoreline mapping as the relief is fairly constant. It is however important to consider when mapping cliffs.

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Coastal and estuarine ecosystems act as buffer zones against natural hazards and environmental disturbances, such as floods, cyclones, tidal surges and storms. The role they play is to " a portion of the impact and thus its effect on the land".

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Smit, M. W. J.; Aarninkhof, S. G. J.; Wijnberg, K. M.; Gonzalez, M. M; Kingstong, K. S.; Ruessink, B. G.; Holman, R. A.; Segle, E.; Davidson, M.; Medina, R. (2007). "The role of video imagery in predicting daily to monthly coastal evolution".

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limitations of conventional surveying techniques. Shoreline data derived from beach profiling is often spatially and temporally limited due to the high cost associated with that labour-intensive activity. Shorelines are generally derived by

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Concrete blocks and/or boulders are sunk offshore to alter wave direction and to filter wave and tide energy. The waves break further offshore and therefore lose erosive power. This leads to wider beaches, which further absorb wave energy.

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The HWL (H in Figure 1) is the most commonly used shoreline indicator because it is visible in the field, and can be interpreted on both colour and grey scale aerial photographs. The HWL represents the landward extent of the most recent

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deposition by reducing flow velocities during backwash and prolonging laminar flow. With the beach in a saturated state, backwash velocity is accelerated by the addition of groundwater seepage out of the beach within the effluent zone.

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Groynes are cost-effective, require little maintenance and are one of the most common defences. However, groynes are increasingly viewed as detrimental to the aesthetics of the coastline and face opposition in many coastal communities.

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Coastal zones occupy less than 15% of the Earth's land area, while they host more than 40% of the world population. Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 kilometres (62 mi) of a coastline and 100 metres (328 ft) of

190:, 5, 12). Other types of port structure such as rubble mounds and arched breakwaters built by means of timber floating caissons were used also. Romans were the first dredgers in the Netherlands to maintain the harbour at 492:

Alternatively, soft engineering techniques supporting natural processes and relying on natural elements such as dunes and vegetation can prevent erosive forces from reaching the back-shore. These techniques include

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Ysebaert T., Walles B., Haner J., Hancock B. (2019) "Habitat Modification and Coastal Protection by Ecosystem-Engineering Reef-Building Bivalves". In: Smaal A., Ferreira J., Grant J., Petersen J., Strand Ø. (eds)

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Limited intervention is an action taken whereby the management only addresses the problem to a certain extent, usually in areas of low economic significance. Limited intervention often includes the succession of

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the beach against storm-driven waves and if placed too close together create currents that carry material offshore. Shapes of groynes can be straight, outwardly curved away in opposite direction from downdrift.

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Modern seawalls aim to re-direct most of the incident energy in the form of sloping revetments, resulting in low reflected waves and much reduced turbulence. Designs use porous designs of rock, concrete armour

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errors. The severity of these errors depends on the accuracy of the map and the physical changes that occurred after it was made. The oldest reliable source of shoreline data in the United States dates is the

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Coastal managers must compensate for error and uncertainty in the information regarding the erosive processes. Video-based monitoring can collect data continuously and produce analyses of shoreline processes.

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and prevent damage from storm surges or any other type of natural disaster that could harm the area they protect. They are habitually open and allow free passage, but close under threat of a storm surge. The

439:. The technique is used when the land adjacent to the sea is low in value. A decision is made to allow the land to erode and flood, creating new shoreline habitats. This process may continue over many years. 1375:

the wet/dry line, interpretation of the wet/dry line on a photograph and measurement of the interpreted line position. Systematic errors such as the migration of the wet/dry line arise from tidal and

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and is characterised by a change in sand colour due to repeated, periodic inundation by high tides. The HWL is portrayed on aerial photographs by the most landward change in colour or grey tone.

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The choice of strategy is site-specific, depending on pattern of sea-level change, geomorphological setting, sediment availability and erosion, as well as social, economic and political factors.

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Attack from the sea caused many coastal towns and their harbours to be abandoned. Other harbours were lost due to natural causes such as rapid silting, shoreline advance or retreat, etc. The

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to gradually create a beach and for it ongoing protection by eliminating coastal erosion, often made of greenharts, concrete, rock or wood. Material builds up on the downdrift side, where

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Figure 2. An example of relief displacement. All objects above ground level are displaced outwards from the centre of the photograph. The displacement becomes more evident near the edges.

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Breakwaters, Coastal Structures and Coastlines: Proceedings of the International Conference Organized by the Institution of Civil Engineers and Held in London, UK on 26-28 September 2001

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has replaced the use of concrete blocks because it is more resistant to wave action and requires less concrete to produce a superior result. Similar concrete objects like Dolos are

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automated. The frequent changes in technology prevented the emergence of one standard mapping approach. Each data source and associated method have capabilities and shortcomings.

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The location of a seawall, must consider the swept prism of the beach profile, the consequences of long-term beach recession and amenity crest level, including cost implications.

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difficulty of measuring a single line on a photograph. For example, where the pen line is 0.13 mm thick this translates to an error of ±2.6 m on a 1:20000 scale photograph.

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Managed retreat is an alternative to constructing or maintaining coastal structures. Managed retreat allows an area to erode. Managed retreat is often a response to a change in

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position of the shoreline in the past, at present and where it is predicted to be in the future is useful for in the design of coastal protection, to calibrate and verify

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planted. Foredune flora are typically plants with a tolerance for salt spray, strong winds and are capable surviving being buried underneath blown sand. Some examples are

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distortion varies as a function of radial distance from the iso-centre of the photograph meaning that the centre of the image is relatively distortion free, but as the

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video observations for short-term predictions of near shore hydrodynamic and morphological processes, at temporal scales of meters to kilometres and days to seasons.

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Conditions outside of the camera can cause objects in an image to appear displaced from their true ground position. Such conditions may include ground relief, camera

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protect coastlines and help to restore the natural dynamism, although they require repeated applications. Maintenance costs can eventually require a strategy change.

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and its lagoon is an example of measures not related to ports. Protection of the shore in Italy, England and the Netherlands began in the 6th century or earlier.

1934: 73:. Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems are expected to rise at an increasing rate, causing coastal sediments to be disturbed by tidal energy. 3186:

Turner, Ian L.; Aarninkhof, S. G. J.; Dronkers, T. D. T.; McGrath, J. (1 July 2004). "CZM Applications of Argus Coastal Imaging at the Gold Coast, Australia".

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position is subjective given the dynamic nature of the coastal environment. This combined with various distortions inherent in aerial photographs can lead to

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T-sheets and dates to the early-to-mid-19th century. In the United Kingdom, many pre-1750 maps and charts were deemed to be inaccurate. The founding of the

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warnings, can be used to minimize the human impact of catastrophic events that cause coastal erosion. Storm surge warnings can help determine when to close

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Maiti, S.; Bhattacharya, A. K. (2009). "Shoreline change analysis & its application to prediction: A remote sensing and statistics based approach".

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Smith, George L.; Zarillo, Gary A. (1990). "Calculating Long-Term Shoreline Recession Rates Using Aerial Photographic and Beach Profiling Techniques".

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Sea walls typically cost £10,000 per metre (depending on material, height and width), £10,000,000 per km (depending on material, height and width).

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Managed retreat has become more of a necessary strategy due to climate change, as adaptation strategies can only do so much to stop sea level rise.

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Campos c, Adolfo; Hernández, María E.; Moreno-Casasola, Patricia; Cejudo Espinosa, Eduardo; Robledo r, Alezandra; Infante Mata, Dulce (2011).

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Holding the line typically involves shoreline hardening techniques, e.g., using permanent concrete and rock constructions. These techniques--

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Managed retreat or realignment, which plans for retreat and adopts engineering solutions that accommodate natural processes of adjustment

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Plant, N. G.; Holland, K. T.; Haller, M. C. (1 September 2008). "Ocean Wavenumber Estimation From Wave-Resolving Time Series Imagery".

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in 1999. This document was prepared by the Group of Specialists on Coastal Protection and underlies national legislation and practice.

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Modern examples can be found at Cronulla (NSW, 1985–6), Blackpool (1986–2001), Lincolnshire (1992–1997) and Wallasey (1983–1993). At

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through her colonies, and other influences, all contributed to the revitalization of sea trade and a renewed interest in port works.

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even if submerged remains are sometimes still visible under water. Although most coastal efforts were directed to port structures,

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increased local turbulence, and thus increased entrainment of sand and sediment. During storms, sea walls help longshore drift.

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Van Koningsveld, M.; Davidson, M.; Huntly, D.; Medina, R.; Aarninkhof, S.; Jimenez, J. A.; Ridgewell, J.; de Kruif, A. (2007).

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from bringing material to other nearby places. This is a problem along the Hampshire and Sussex coastline in the UK; e.g., at

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can be accomplished through drainage of excess rainwater of through terracing, planting and wiring to hold cliffs in place.

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Crowell, M.; Leatherman, S. P.; Buckley, M. K. (1991). "Historical Shoreline Change: Error Analysis and Mapping Accuracy".

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Reefs provide coastal protection through erosion control and shoreline stabilization, and modify the physical landscape by

65:, and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands. Protection against rising sea levels in the 21st century is crucial, as 4627: 4345: 4272: 4177: 2648:

Anders, F. J.; Byrnes, M. R. (1991). "Accuracy of Shoreline change rates as determined from maps and aerial photographs".

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approaches may be used to prevent development in erosion- or flood-prone areas, reducing the need to address the changes.

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An upside to the strategy is that moving seaward (and upward) can create land of high value which can bring investment.

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The choice of shoreline indicator is a primary consideration. Indicators must be easily identified in the field and on

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Sea walls can cause beaches to dissipate. Their presence also alters the landscape that they are trying to protect.

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This article is about Coastal management aimed to prevent erosion and flooding. For broader management issues, see

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Historically coastal strategies were heavily based on static structures, while coastal areas otherwise reflect a

3225:"A critical review of the CoastView project: Recent and future developments in coastal management video systems" 194:. Silting problems there were solved when the previously sealed solid piers were replaced with new "open"-piled 4290: 3736: 1970:

Mablethorpe to Skegness, Model tests of three design options, P Holmes et al., Imperial College, September 1987

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the Seabee seawall is buried at the back of the beach under the shingle with crest level at road kerb level.

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Masselink, Gerd; Scott, Tim; Poate, Tim; Russell, Paul; Davidson, Mark; Conley, Daniel (15 March 2016).

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from the centre of the photograph increases. This distortion can be minimised by photographing multiple

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Figure 1. A diagram representing the spatial relationship between many of the commonly used indicators.

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In some cases a seaward strategy can be adopted. Examples from erosion include: Koge Bay (Dk), Western

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combination with groynes. The scheme requires repeated applications on an annual or multi-year cycle.

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Groyne construction creates a problem known as terminal groyne syndrome. The terminal groyne prevents

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Castelle, B.; Marieu, V.; Bujana, S.; Splinter, K. D.; Robinet, A.; Snchal, N.; Ferreira, S. (2015).

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data with other sources of information detailing historic shoreline position from archived sources.

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two. Investigators adopt the use of shoreline indicators to represent the true shoreline position.

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introduced many innovations in harbour design. They built walls underwater and constructed solid

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Leatherman, S. P. (2003). "Shoreline Change Mapping and Management Along the U.S. East Coast".

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A. de Graauw (2022) “Ancient Port Structures, Parallels between the ancient and the modern”

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changes, distortions from uneven shrinkage, stretching, creases, tears and folds, different

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forests encountered less damages than other villages that weren't protected by mangroves.

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Little improvement took place beyond the Roman approach to harbour construction after the

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techniques can provide additional, mappable data. Remotely sensed data sources include:

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Prior to the 1950s, the general practice was to use hard structures to protect against

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Blackpool South Shore Physical Model Studies, ABP Research Report R 526, December 1985

198:. Ancient harbour works are still visible, but most of them disappeared following the 4621: 4573: 4556: 4506: 4447: 4422: 4285: 4212: 3884: 3240: 3224: 3215: 3149: 3067:

Pajak, M.J.; Leatherman, S. P. (2002). "The High Water Line as Shoreline Indicator".

2819: 2662: 2616: 2084: 1821:"Australian Coastal Councils Association – Representing Australia's Coastal Councils" 1422: 1418: 1394: 1368: 1331: 1296: 996: 643: 248: 3117: 2747: 2704: 2640: 2196: 4437: 4325: 4197: 4192: 4091: 4081: 4026: 2810: 2785: 1645: 1509: 1327: 525: 264:

Erosion continued, but the structures remained, resulting in a loss of beach area.

232: 3331: 3038: 2755:

Camfield, F. E.; Morang, A. (1996). "Defining and interpreting shoreline change".

2068: 1935:"£47.3m project to protect Bournemouth's beaches from erosion over next 100 years" 3277: 3249: 2962: 2686: 2187: 2170: 2002: 1834: 292:

implementing the concept of "integrated management". The Group proposed that the

4588: 4402: 4375: 4370: 4250: 4232: 4222: 4217: 4172: 4167: 4157: 4106: 4096: 3819: 2617:"Detection, measurement and prediction of shoreline recession in Acccra, Ghana'" 1315: 1138: 1028: 561: 317: 228: 94: 3054:

Morton, R. A. (1991). "Accurate shoreline mapping: past, present, and future".

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Molnar, Michelle; Clarke-Murray, Cathryn; Whitworth, John; Tam, Jordan (2009).

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Groynes can be considered a "soft" solution because of the beach enhancement.

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LIVING WITH COASTAL EROSION IN EUROPE SEDIMENT AND SPACE FOR SUSTAINABILITY

1287: 17: 370: 4385: 4380: 4207: 4122: 3981: 3806: 2663:"Video-based nearshore bathymetry estimation in macro-tidal environments" 2661:

Bergsma, E. W. J.; Conley, D. C.; Davidson, M. A.; O'Hare, T. J. (2016).

2344: 2342: 2340: 2019: 1376: 1371: 1271: 1079: 984: 933: 670: 545: 58: 3008: 2933: 2840: 2695: 1165: 4521: 4395: 4240: 4116: 4111: 4021: 4016: 4006: 3926: 3642: 3532: 3178: 2907: 2882: 2327: 2325: 1744: 1720: 1630: 1380: 1067: 918: 682: 586: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 521: 478: 474: 342: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 256: 195: 159: 62: 2730: 2713: 1979:

M. N. Bell, P. C. Barber and D. G. E. Smith. The Wallasey Embankment.

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Video analysis gives coastal zone managers the opportunity to obtain

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error levels. The minimisation of further errors is discussed below.

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and other harbour works were built by hand, often in a grand scale.

3767: 1788: 1759:"Why Roman concrete still stands strong while modern version decays" 873:

sand bypassing system to pump sand under/around the training walls.

642:

Groynes are ert or walls perpendicular to the coastline to trap the

162:

began with the origin of maritime traffic, perhaps before 3500 B.C.

2863:"Influence of the Water Table on Beach Aggradation And Degradation" 2501: 4427: 4390: 4149: 4051: 4001: 3986: 3976: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3879: 3874: 3824: 3667: 3662: 3617: 3597: 3592: 3567: 3542: 1820: 1618: 1613: 1593: 1568: 1489: 1456: 1440: 1365: 1351: 1286: 1216: 1164: 937: 907: 830: 826: 818: 623: 451: 369: 252: 235:, the search for new lands and trade routes, the expansion of the 42: 2554: 2552: 1306:

Relief displacement is prominent when photographing a variety of

1177:. Shoreline indicators may be morphological features such as the 4561: 4551: 4526: 4036: 3966: 3914: 3909: 3627: 3404:

Free Educational Videos about Coastal Policy and Zone Management

2883:"cBathy: A robust algorithm for estimating nearshore bathymetry" 1465: 1186: 1178: 442:

The earliest managed retreat in the UK was an area of 0.8 ha at

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drainage design, materials selection & installation methods

4041: 3844: 2531: 2312: 2310: 2308: 555: 311: 88: 3384:

Social & Economic Benefits of Coastal Resource Management

3353: 2850:"National Ocean Service Shoreline – Past, Present and Future" 3428:'What is Remote Sensing', n.d. Retrieved 1 April 2010 from 3358: 2597: 2024:. M. L. Martínez, Norbert P. Psuty. Berlin: Springer. 2004. 1266:

Aerial photographs began to be used in the 1920s to provide

1112:

regional economic considerations (local capabilities /costs)

489:—represent more than 70% of protected shorelines in Europe. 3368: 2881:

Holman, Rob; Plant, Nathaniel; Holland, Todd (1 May 2013).

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Gabions need to be securely tied to protect the structure.

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Armoring by constructing seawalls and other hard structures

268:

was economically viable and more environmentally friendly.

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The Rock Manual: The Use of Rock in Hydraulic Engineering

3200:

10.2112/1551-5036(2004)20[739:CAOACI]2.0.CO;2

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Five generic strategies are involved in coastal defense:

2331: 1721:"A Global Analysis of Human Settlement in Coastal Zones" 1100:

soil conditions (presence of rock or impermeable strata)

3359:

Deltaworks Online - Coastal Defenses in the Netherlands

1468:

in Australia. Another assessed the added value of high

802:

Downsides include wear rates and visual intrusiveness.

458:(Spain) coastal authorities planned a managed retreat. 2615:

Appeaning Addo, K.; Walkden, M.; Mills, J. P. (2008).

186:

described three methods for building port structures (

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The costs of installation and operation vary due to:

3390:

Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island

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discharge arrangement /filtered seawater utilization

454:, where the sea walls were breached in 1995. In the 231:. Then in the early 19th century, the advent of the 4499: 4466: 4271: 4231: 4148: 3805: 3719: 3676: 3523: 3471: 1835:"The Tollesbury and Orplands Managed Retreat Sites" 1027:Beach drainage or beach face dewatering lowers the 394:

Adapting vertically by elevating land and buildings

280:The essential source on coastal engineering is the 3082:IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 2712:Boak, Elizabeth H.; Turner, Ian L. (1 July 2005). 2558: 2543: 2067:Rust, Izak C.; Illenberger, Werner K. (May 1996). 1858:MMA 2005, Sitges, Meeting on Coastal Engineering; 766:storm conditions and reduces recreational values. 3364:Coastal Zone Management Policy and Politics Class 2474: 2225: 1871:Glavovic, Bruce; Hanna, Christina; White, Iain. 1719:Small, Christopher; Nicholls, Robert J. (2003). 1109:geographical considerations (location logistics) 1097:pump flow rates (sand permeability, power costs) 742:Cement beach reinforcements in on the coast of 704:, etc.) with flights of steps for beach access. 2316: 1441:Airborne light detection and ranging technology 1245:standards, different publication standards and 3410:The Future of Coastal Policy textbook overview 2714:"Shoreline Definition and Detection: A Review" 2621:Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 2515:"Argus video monitoring system - Coastal Wiki" 2411: 1219:width, volume and rates of historical change. 3783: 3449: 3386:from "NOAA Socioeconomics" website initiative 2021:Coastal dunes : ecology and conservation 1148:Wireless sensor networks can aid monitoring. 34:. For military defence of coastal areas, see 27:Preventing flooding and erosion of shorelines 8: 2426: 2387: 1326:Ideally aerial photographs are taken so the 1031:locally beneath the beach face. This causes 123:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3790: 3776: 3768: 3456: 3442: 3434: 3375:and climate change in the North Sea region 2848:Graham, D.; Sault, M.; Bailey, J. (2003). 2299: 2279: 2254: 1334:to the ground surface, thereby creating a 748:coastline that is vulnerable to subsidence 374:Five general coastal management strategies 282:European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones 3139: 3007: 2997: 2906: 2809: 2729: 2694: 2266: 2186: 1588:Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation 602:Learn how and when to remove this message 358:Learn how and when to remove this message 143:Learn how and when to remove this message 2349:Appeaning Addo, Walkden & Mills 2008 1624:List of countries by length of coastline 1094:system length (non-linear cost elements) 737: 3318:Turner, I.L.; Leatherman, S.P. (1997). 2887:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 2138:"Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services" 1697: 391:Construct defenses seaward of the coast 2399: 2332:Crowell, Leatherman & Buckley 1991 2045: 1797: 1795: 446:flooded in 1991. This was followed by 2977:Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 2375: 2123: 2014: 2012: 2010: 1995:Goods and Services of Marine Bivalves 7: 1115:study requirements /consent process. 584:adding citations to reliable sources 340:adding citations to reliable sources 302:United Nations Environment Programme 121:adding citations to reliable sources 3690: 3251:Coasts: Form, Process and Evolution 1258:in 1791 improved mapping accuracy. 1035:of sand above the drainage system. 900:is an example of such a structure. 255:damages. These structures included 178:. These structures were made using 4486:Integrated coastal zone management 3496:Integrated coastal zone management 2069:"Coastal dunes: sensitive or not?" 1517:Integrated coastal zone management 403:integrated coastal zone management 32:Integrated coastal zone management 25: 2209:Badol, Ruchi & Hussain, S.A. 1775:« Vitruvius’ Methods » 298:Coastal & Marine Union (EUCC) 36:Coastal defence and fortification 4602: 4601: 4139: 4132: 3514: 3241:10.1016/j.coastaleng.2007.01.006 3150:10.1016/j.coastaleng.2007.01.009 2559:Holman, Plant & Holland 2013 2544:Plant, Holland & Haller 2008 1981:Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs 1975 (58) 914:Ecosystem services delivered by 560: 316: 200:fall of the Western Roman Empire 93: 3303:. Thomas Telford. p. 198. 2641:10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2008.04.001 2226:Graham, Sault & Bailey 2003 1614:Restoration of saltwater swamps 1133:Event warning systems, such as 746:to prevent further erosion of 571:needs additional citations for 327:needs additional citations for 4584:Region of freshwater influence 3330:(4): 1050–1063. Archived from 3254:. Cambridge University Press. 3027:"Shoreline Mapping Techniques" 2811:10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.03.006 1011:help to catch windblown sand. 1: 4346:Large-scale coastal behaviour 4178:Beaches in estuaries and bays 2777:10.1016/S0964-5691(96)00059-2 2475:Maiti & Bhattacharya 2009 2175:Hydrological Sciences Journal 1522:Coastal and oceanic landforms 3037:(1): 111–124. Archived from 2963:10.1016/j.margeo.2008.10.006 2757:Ocean and Coastal Management 2687:10.1016/j.margeo.2016.02.001 2188:10.1080/02626667.2011.629786 2107:"| Shoregro.com |" 2085:10.1016/0169-2046(95)00232-4 2073:Landscape and Urban Planning 2003:10.1007/978-3-319-96776-9_13 1897:European Commission (2004). 1803:"Shoreline Management Guide" 1777:www.ancientportsantiques.com 891:, were introduced after the 3752:Modern recession of beaches 3324:Journal of Coastal Research 3188:Journal of Coastal Research 3159:Journal of Coastal Research 3069:Journal of Coastal Research 3031:Journal of Coastal Research 2926:Journal of Coastal Research 2854:Journal of Coastal Research 2829:Journal of Coastal Research 2718:Journal of Coastal Research 2502:Van Koningsveld et al. 2007 2317:Pajak & Leatherman 2002 1725:Journal of Coastal Research 1619:Restoration of salt marshes 1527:Coastal development hazards 1505:Modern recession of beaches 1490:Beach erosion and accretion 1330:of the camera is perfectly 417:required by new residents. 4659: 2870:Journal of Marine Research 2412:Camfield & Morang 1996 2214:Environmental Conservation 1283:Object space displacements 1270:data. They provide a good 1252:United States Coast Survey 1202:Importance and application 1058: 963: 948: 880: 865: 848: 809: 788: 773: 758: 727: 680: 635: 528:(Fr) and Ebro delta (Sp). 424: 50:sea wall, the Netherlands. 29: 4597: 4130: 3512: 3297:Allsop, N. W. H. (2002). 3248:Woodroffe, C. D. (2002). 1435:Global positioning system 1398:councils in New Zealand. 887:Storm surge barriers, or 4291:Coastal biogeomorphology 3737:Geotechnical engineering 3102:10.1109/TGRS.2008.919821 2427:Smith & Zarillo 1990 2388:Anders & Byrnes 1991 904:Soft engineering methods 615:Hard engineering methods 276:European Code of Conduct 3706:Sand dune stabilization 1678:Sand dune stabilization 1668:Coastal sediment supply 1594:Human impacts on coasts 1388:Beach profiling surveys 966:Sand dune stabilization 960:Sand Dune Stabilization 893:North Sea Flood of 1953 862:Entrance training walls 781:drift is not hindered. 552:Construction techniques 499:sand dune stabilization 409:can be a challenge for 4188:Coastal morphodynamics 3371:Knowledge exchange on 2440:"CHA Vol 3 Appendix A" 2280:Boak & Turner 2005 2255:Boak & Turner 2005 2052:: CS1 maint: others ( 1583:Coastal morphodynamics 1343:Radial lens distortion 1301:atmospheric refraction 1292: 1190:shoreline indicators. 1170: 941: 812:Breakwater (structure) 751: 633: 375: 51: 4579:Physical oceanography 2861:Grant, U. S. (1948). 2586:Masselink et al. 2016 2113:on 28 September 2007. 1663:Deposition (sediment) 1406:A range of airborne, 1359:Shoreline delineation 1290: 1168: 1129:Event warning systems 1059:Further information: 932:benthic communities, 926:ecosystem engineering 911: 741: 627: 413:who must provide the 373: 296:, cooperate with the 46: 4628:Coastal construction 4408:Submergent coastline 4361:Marine transgression 4316:Discordant coastline 4301:Concordant coastline 3658:Van der Meer formula 3041:on 10 September 2017 2598:Castelle et al. 2015 1604:Mangrove restoration 580:improve this article 539:Limited intervention 336:improve this article 117:improve this section 4633:Coastal engineering 4512:Coastal engineering 3747:Longshore transport 3563:Cliff stabilization 3486:Coastal engineering 3379:Encora Coastal Wiki 3229:Coastal Engineering 3128:Coastal Engineering 3094:2008ITGRS..46.2644P 2990:2016ESPL...41..378M 2955:2009MGeol.257...11M 2899:2013JGRC..118.2595H 2802:2015Geomo.238..135C 2769:1996OCM....32..129C 2679:2016MGeol.374...31B 2633:2008JPRS...63..543A 2574:Bergsma et al. 2016 1673:Longshore transport 1554:Coastal engineering 1464:artificial surfing 1181:crest, scarp edge, 1161:Shoreline indicator 977:Honckenya peploides 951:Beach replenishment 945:Beach replenishment 856:Cliff stabilization 851:Cliff stabilization 845:Cliff stabilization 806:Offshore breakwater 506:dynamic equilibrium 308:Planning approaches 156:Coastal engineering 69:accelerates due to 57:is defence against 48:Oosterscheldekering 4481:Coastal management 4321:Emergent coastline 3992:Intertidal wetland 3895:Continental margin 3757:Stream restoration 3608:Honeycomb sea wall 3491:Coastal management 3465:Coastal management 3025:Moore, J. (2000). 2908:10.1002/jgrc.20199 2490:Turner et al. 2004 2456:on 17 October 2007 1293: 1262:Aerial photographs 1175:aerial photography 1171: 1061:Ecosystem services 1001:wooden sand fences 989:Hudsonia tomentosa 985:Spartina coarctata 973:Ammophila arenaria 942: 752: 634: 376: 55:Coastal management 52: 4643:Civil engineering 4638:Coastal geography 4615: 4614: 4443:Wave-cut platform 4356:Marine regression 3900:Continental shelf 3890:Coastal waterfall 3799:Coastal geography 3765: 3764: 3701:Living shorelines 3696:Dynamic revetment 3686:Beach nourishment 3613:Hudson's equation 3310:978-0-7277-3042-8 3289:978-0-86017-683-1 3261:978-0-521-01183-9 3056:Coastal Sediments 2731:10.2112/03-0071.1 1839:archive.uea.ac.uk 1651:Wave-cut platform 1537:Coastal geography 1500:Beach nourishment 1152:Shoreline mapping 744:Alexandria, Egypt 612: 611: 604: 510:beach nourishment 495:beach nourishment 411:local authorities 407:Growth management 368: 367: 360: 294:Council of Europe 243:Twentieth century 153: 152: 145: 16:(Redirected from 4650: 4605: 4604: 4366:Raised shoreline 4341:Ingression coast 4336:Graded shoreline 4311:Cuspate foreland 4143: 4136: 4087:Submarine canyon 3947:Freshwater marsh 3792: 3785: 3778: 3769: 3742:Land reclamation 3711:Soft engineering 3678:Soft engineering 3603:Hard engineering 3525:Hard engineering 3518: 3458: 3451: 3444: 3435: 3411: 3373:coastal flooding 3343: 3341: 3339: 3314: 3293: 3265: 3244: 3235:(6–7): 567–576. 3219: 3182: 3153: 3143: 3134:(6–7): 539–553. 3121: 3088:(9): 2644–2658. 3076: 3063: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3021: 3011: 3001: 2999:10.1002/esp.3836 2966: 2937: 2920: 2910: 2893:(5): 2595–2609. 2877: 2867: 2857: 2844: 2823: 2813: 2780: 2751: 2733: 2708: 2698: 2657: 2644: 2601: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2571: 2562: 2556: 2547: 2541: 2535: 2532:Smit et al. 2007 2529: 2523: 2522: 2511: 2505: 2499: 2493: 2487: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2455: 2449:. Archived from 2444: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2385: 2379: 2373: 2352: 2346: 2335: 2329: 2320: 2314: 2303: 2297: 2282: 2276: 2270: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2229: 2223: 2217: 2207: 2201: 2200: 2190: 2181:(8): 1388–1406. 2166: 2160: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2149: 2143:. Archived from 2142: 2133: 2127: 2121: 2115: 2114: 2109:. Archived from 2103: 2097: 2096: 2079:(3–4): 165–169. 2064: 2058: 2057: 2051: 2043: 2016: 2005: 1990: 1984: 1977: 1971: 1968: 1962: 1959: 1953: 1949: 1943: 1942: 1939:Bournemouth Echo 1931: 1925: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1905: 1894: 1888: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1877:The Conversation 1868: 1862: 1860:EUROSION project 1856: 1850: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1817: 1811: 1810: 1799: 1790: 1785: 1779: 1773: 1767: 1766: 1755: 1749: 1748: 1716: 1710: 1709: 1702: 1576:Soft engineering 1559:Hard engineering 1542:Cuspate foreland 1209:numerical models 1135:tsunami warnings 1072:saltwater swamps 868:Training (civil) 770:Geotextile tubes 607: 600: 596: 593: 587: 564: 556: 450:and Orplands in 363: 356: 352: 349: 343: 320: 312: 286:European Council 148: 141: 137: 134: 128: 97: 89: 21: 4658: 4657: 4653: 4652: 4651: 4649: 4648: 4647: 4618: 4617: 4616: 4611: 4593: 4569:Intertidal zone 4495: 4462: 4351:Longshore drift 4296:Coastal erosion 4267: 4227: 4163:Beach evolution 4144: 4138: 4137: 4128: 3815:Anchialine pool 3801: 3796: 3766: 3761: 3732:Coastal erosion 3727:Beach evolution 3715: 3672: 3548:Artificial reef 3519: 3510: 3501:Managed retreat 3467: 3462: 3409: 3350: 3337: 3335: 3317: 3311: 3296: 3290: 3282:. CIRIA. 2007. 3276: 3273: 3271:Further reading 3268: 3262: 3247: 3222: 3185: 3156: 3141:10.1.1.475.4132 3124: 3079: 3066: 3053: 3044: 3042: 3024: 2969: 2940: 2923: 2880: 2865: 2860: 2847: 2826: 2783: 2754: 2711: 2660: 2650:Shore and Beach 2647: 2614: 2610: 2605: 2604: 2596: 2592: 2584: 2580: 2572: 2565: 2557: 2550: 2542: 2538: 2530: 2526: 2519:coastalwiki.org 2513: 2512: 2508: 2500: 2496: 2488: 2481: 2473: 2469: 2459: 2457: 2453: 2442: 2438: 2437: 2433: 2425: 2418: 2410: 2406: 2398: 2394: 2386: 2382: 2374: 2355: 2347: 2338: 2330: 2323: 2315: 2306: 2300:Leatherman 2003 2298: 2285: 2277: 2273: 2265: 2261: 2253: 2232: 2224: 2220: 2216:, February 2005 2208: 2204: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2153: 2151: 2150:on 3 March 2016 2147: 2140: 2135: 2134: 2130: 2122: 2118: 2105: 2104: 2100: 2066: 2065: 2061: 2044: 2032: 2018: 2017: 2008: 1991: 1987: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1965: 1960: 1956: 1950: 1946: 1933: 1932: 1928: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1903: 1896: 1895: 1891: 1881: 1879: 1870: 1869: 1865: 1857: 1853: 1843: 1841: 1833: 1832: 1828: 1819: 1818: 1814: 1801: 1800: 1793: 1786: 1782: 1774: 1770: 1757: 1756: 1752: 1718: 1717: 1713: 1706:"Coastal Zones" 1704: 1703: 1699: 1694: 1689: 1658:Longshore drift 1547:Detention basin 1532:Coastal erosion 1495:Beach evolution 1485: 1454: 1410:and land based 1404: 1390: 1361: 1345: 1318:and creating a 1312:radial distance 1285: 1264: 1256:Ordnance Survey 1234: 1232:Historical maps 1225: 1204: 1163: 1154: 1131: 1122: 1088: 1070:(which include 1063: 1057: 1025: 993:spartina patens 981:Cakile maritima 968: 962: 953: 947: 923: 906: 885: 879: 870: 864: 853: 847: 814: 808: 793: 787: 778: 772: 763: 757: 732: 726: 685: 679: 667:longshore drift 648:longshore drift 640: 622: 617: 608: 597: 591: 588: 577: 565: 554: 541: 518: 471: 433:sediment budget 429: 427:Managed retreat 423: 421:Managed retreat 401:Alternatively, 364: 353: 347: 344: 333: 321: 310: 278: 245: 225: 216:Venetian Lagoon 212: 188:De Architectura 149: 138: 132: 129: 114: 98: 87: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 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3912: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3862: 3860:Brackish marsh 3857: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3840:Barrier island 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3811: 3809: 3803: 3802: 3797: 3795: 3794: 3787: 3780: 3772: 3763: 3762: 3760: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3723: 3721: 3720:Related topics 3717: 3716: 3714: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3691:Beach drainage 3688: 3682: 3680: 3674: 3673: 3671: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3529: 3527: 3521: 3520: 3513: 3511: 3509: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3477: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3463: 3461: 3460: 3453: 3446: 3438: 3432: 3431: 3425: 3424: 3422: 3418: 3417: 3406: 3400: 3399: 3397: 3393: 3392: 3387: 3381: 3376: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3349: 3348:External links 3346: 3345: 3344: 3334:on 31 May 2019 3315: 3309: 3294: 3288: 3272: 3269: 3267: 3266: 3260: 3245: 3220: 3183: 3165:(1): 111–120. 3154: 3122: 3077: 3064: 3051: 3022: 2984:(3): 378–391. 2967: 2949:(1–4): 11–23. 2943:Marine Geology 2938: 2921: 2878: 2858: 2845: 2824: 2781: 2763:(3): 129–151. 2752: 2709: 2673:(374): 31–41. 2667:Marine Geology 2658: 2645: 2627:(5): 543–558. 2611: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2602: 2590: 2578: 2563: 2548: 2536: 2524: 2506: 2494: 2479: 2467: 2431: 2416: 2404: 2392: 2380: 2353: 2336: 2321: 2304: 2283: 2271: 2267:Woodroffe 2002 2259: 2230: 2218: 2202: 2161: 2128: 2116: 2098: 2059: 2030: 2006: 1985: 1972: 1963: 1954: 1944: 1926: 1912: 1889: 1863: 1851: 1826: 1812: 1791: 1780: 1768: 1765:. 4 July 2017. 1750: 1731:(3): 584–599. 1711: 1696: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1687: 1686: 1685: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1655: 1654: 1653: 1648: 1643: 1638: 1628: 1627: 1626: 1621: 1616: 1611: 1609:Natural hazard 1606: 1601: 1599:Sea level rise 1596: 1591: 1585: 1580: 1579: 1578: 1573: 1572: 1571: 1566: 1551: 1550: 1549: 1544: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1514: 1513: 1512: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1453: 1452:Video analysis 1450: 1445: 1444: 1438: 1432: 1426: 1412:remote sensing 1403: 1402:Remote sensing 1400: 1389: 1386: 1360: 1357: 1344: 1341: 1284: 1281: 1263: 1260: 1233: 1230: 1224: 1221: 1213:sea level rise 1203: 1200: 1162: 1159: 1153: 1150: 1130: 1127: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1087: 1084: 1056: 1053: 1024: 1023:Beach drainage 1021: 964:Main article: 961: 958: 949:Main article: 946: 943: 912: 905: 902: 898:Thames Barrier 881:Main article: 878: 875: 866:Main article: 863: 860: 849:Main article: 846: 843: 810:Main article: 807: 804: 789:Main article: 786: 783: 774:Main article: 771: 768: 759:Main article: 756: 753: 728:Main article: 725: 722: 715:Sandwich, Kent 681:Main article: 678: 675: 652:littoral drift 636:Main article: 621: 618: 616: 613: 610: 609: 568: 566: 559: 553: 550: 540: 537: 524:estuary (Nl), 517: 514: 470: 467: 444:Northey Island 437:sea level rise 425:Main article: 422: 419: 415:infrastructure 396: 395: 392: 389: 386: 383: 366: 365: 324: 322: 315: 309: 306: 284:issued by the 277: 274: 244: 241: 237:British Empire 224: 221: 211: 208: 180:Roman concrete 151: 150: 101: 99: 92: 86: 83: 71:climate change 67:sea level rise 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4655: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4625: 4623: 4608: 4600: 4599: 4596: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4574:Littoral zone 4572: 4570: 4567: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4519: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4507:Bulkhead line 4505: 4504: 4502: 4498: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4465: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4448:Wave shoaling 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4423:Surge channel 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4397: 4394: 4393: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4286:Cliffed coast 4284: 4282: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4270: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4253: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4230: 4224: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4213:Shingle beach 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4147: 4142: 4135: 4125: 4124: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3921: 3918: 3917: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3885:Coastal plain 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3793: 3788: 3786: 3781: 3779: 3774: 3773: 3770: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3724: 3722: 3718: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3675: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3653:Training wall 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3531: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3459: 3454: 3452: 3447: 3445: 3440: 3439: 3436: 3430: 3427: 3426: 3423: 3420: 3419: 3416: 3412: 3407: 3405: 3402: 3401: 3398: 3395: 3394: 3391: 3388: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3370: 3367: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3351: 3347: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3306: 3302: 3301: 3295: 3291: 3285: 3281: 3280: 3275: 3274: 3270: 3263: 3257: 3253: 3252: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3078: 3075:(2): 329–337. 3074: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3052: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2978: 2973: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2876:(3): 655–660. 2875: 2871: 2864: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2790:Geomorphology 2787: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2697: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2613: 2612: 2607: 2599: 2594: 2591: 2587: 2582: 2579: 2575: 2570: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2555: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2537: 2533: 2528: 2525: 2520: 2516: 2510: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2495: 2491: 2486: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2471: 2468: 2452: 2448: 2441: 2435: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2393: 2389: 2384: 2381: 2377: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2328: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2288: 2284: 2281: 2278:Adapted from 2275: 2272: 2268: 2263: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2249: 2247: 2245: 2243: 2241: 2239: 2237: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2203: 2198: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2165: 2162: 2146: 2139: 2132: 2129: 2125: 2120: 2117: 2112: 2108: 2102: 2099: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2063: 2060: 2055: 2049: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2031:3-540-40829-0 2027: 2023: 2022: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2007: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1989: 1986: 1982: 1976: 1973: 1967: 1964: 1958: 1955: 1948: 1945: 1940: 1936: 1930: 1927: 1915: 1913:92-894-7496-3 1909: 1902: 1901: 1893: 1890: 1878: 1874: 1867: 1864: 1861: 1855: 1852: 1840: 1836: 1830: 1827: 1822: 1816: 1813: 1808: 1804: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1789: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1772: 1769: 1764: 1760: 1754: 1751: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1715: 1712: 1707: 1701: 1698: 1691: 1684: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1660: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1649: 1647: 1644: 1642: 1639: 1637: 1634: 1633: 1632: 1629: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1577: 1574: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1539: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1519: 1518: 1515: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1492: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1482: 1480: 1478: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1458: 1451: 1449: 1442: 1439: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1427: 1424: 1423:hyperspectral 1420: 1419:Multispectral 1417: 1416: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1395:interpolating 1387: 1385: 1382: 1378: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1349: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1333: 1332:perpendicular 1329: 1324: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1289: 1282: 1280: 1278: 1273: 1269: 1268:topographical 1261: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1231: 1229: 1222: 1220: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1201: 1199: 1197: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1167: 1160: 1158: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1128: 1126: 1119: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1091: 1085: 1083: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1062: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1005:Dutch ladders 1003:, footpaths, 1002: 998: 997:Iva imbricata 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 967: 959: 957: 952: 944: 939: 935: 931: 927: 922: 920: 917: 910: 903: 901: 899: 894: 890: 884: 876: 874: 869: 861: 859: 857: 852: 844: 842: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 813: 805: 803: 800: 797: 792: 784: 782: 777: 769: 767: 762: 754: 749: 745: 740: 736: 731: 723: 721: 718: 716: 711: 708: 705: 703: 699: 695: 689: 684: 676: 674: 672: 668: 663: 660: 656: 653: 649: 645: 644:sedimentation 639: 632:, Norfolk, UK 631: 626: 619: 614: 606: 603: 595: 592:February 2010 585: 581: 575: 574: 569:This section 567: 563: 558: 557: 551: 549: 547: 538: 536: 533: 529: 527: 523: 515: 513: 511: 507: 502: 500: 496: 490: 488: 484: 480: 476: 469:Hold the line 468: 466: 463: 459: 457: 453: 449: 445: 440: 438: 434: 428: 420: 418: 416: 412: 408: 404: 399: 393: 390: 387: 384: 381: 380: 379: 372: 362: 359: 351: 348:February 2010 341: 337: 331: 330: 325:This section 323: 319: 314: 313: 307: 305: 303: 299: 295: 289: 287: 283: 275: 273: 269: 265: 262: 258: 254: 250: 249:beach erosion 242: 240: 238: 234: 230: 222: 220: 217: 209: 207: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 147: 144: 136: 133:February 2010 126: 122: 118: 112: 111: 107: 102:This section 100: 96: 91: 90: 84: 82: 80: 74: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 4480: 4467: 4438:Volcanic arc 4326:Feeder bluff 4233:River mouths 4198:Raised beach 4193:Pocket beach 4121: 4092:Tidal island 4082:Strand plain 4027:Natural arch 3490: 3472: 3464: 3354:Coastal Wiki 3336:. Retrieved 3332:the original 3327: 3323: 3299: 3278: 3250: 3232: 3228: 3191: 3187: 3162: 3158: 3131: 3127: 3085: 3081: 3072: 3068: 3059: 3055: 3043:. Retrieved 3039:the original 3034: 3030: 3009:10026.1/4432 2981: 2975: 2946: 2942: 2928:(38): 5–13. 2925: 2890: 2886: 2873: 2869: 2856:(38): 14–32. 2853: 2832: 2828: 2793: 2789: 2760: 2756: 2721: 2717: 2696:10026.1/6286 2670: 2666: 2653: 2649: 2624: 2620: 2593: 2581: 2539: 2527: 2518: 2509: 2497: 2470: 2458:. Retrieved 2451:the original 2447:hbrc.govt.nz 2446: 2434: 2407: 2395: 2383: 2274: 2262: 2221: 2213: 2205: 2178: 2174: 2164: 2152:. Retrieved 2145:the original 2131: 2119: 2111:the original 2101: 2076: 2072: 2062: 2020: 1997:. Springer. 1994: 1988: 1983:pp. 569—590. 1975: 1966: 1957: 1947: 1938: 1929: 1917:. Retrieved 1899: 1892: 1880:. Retrieved 1876: 1866: 1854: 1842:. Retrieved 1838: 1829: 1815: 1807:eurosion.org 1806: 1783: 1771: 1763:The Guardian 1762: 1753: 1728: 1724: 1714: 1700: 1646:Natural arch 1510:Raised beach 1474: 1455: 1446: 1405: 1391: 1362: 1346: 1328:optical axis 1325: 1305: 1294: 1265: 1235: 1226: 1223:Data sources 1205: 1192: 1172: 1155: 1147: 1132: 1123: 1089: 1076:salt marshes 1064: 1055:Buffer zones 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1026: 1017: 1013: 969: 954: 913: 886: 871: 854: 815: 801: 798: 794: 779: 764: 733: 719: 712: 709: 706: 690: 686: 664: 661: 657: 641: 598: 589: 578:Please help 573:verification 570: 542: 534: 530: 526:Chatelaillon 519: 516:Move seaward 503: 491: 472: 464: 460: 441: 430: 400: 397: 377: 354: 345: 334:Please help 329:verification 326: 290: 281: 279: 270: 266: 246: 233:steam engine 226: 213: 154: 139: 130: 115:Please help 103: 75: 54: 53: 40: 4589:River plume 4403:Steep coast 4376:Rocky shore 4371:Rip current 4251:River delta 4223:Wash margin 4218:Storm beach 4208:Shell beach 4173:Beach wrack 4168:Beach ridge 4158:Beach cusps 4107:Tied island 4097:Tidal marsh 3820:Archipelago 3338:21 February 3194:: 739–752. 3062:: 997–1010. 3045:21 February 2835:(3): 5–13. 2796:: 135–148. 2724:: 688–703. 2656:(1): 17–26. 2400:Morton 1991 1919:12 November 1844:19 February 1277:significant 1139:storm surge 1029:water table 755:Rock armour 483:breakwaters 481:, detached 382:Abandonment 229:Renaissance 210:Middle Ages 176:breakwaters 168:breakwaters 18:Sea defence 4622:Categories 4517:Grain size 4491:Submersion 4468:Management 4453:Wind fetch 4413:Surf break 4331:Flat coast 4261:regressive 4047:Salt marsh 3905:Coral reef 3573:Flood wall 3558:Breakwater 3506:Submersion 3473:Management 2460:13 January 2376:Moore 2000 2154:1 December 2124:Grant 1948 1692:References 1683:Submersion 1636:Bioerosion 1477:bathymetry 1470:resolution 1462:Gold Coast 1308:elevations 1247:projection 1211:to assess 1183:vegetation 1143:floodgates 1120:Monitoring 1009:boardwalks 934:seagrasses 930:tidal flat 916:epibenthic 889:floodgates 877:Floodgates 730:Revetments 724:Revetments 628:Groyne at 487:revetments 456:Ebro Delta 448:Tollesbury 261:revetments 223:Modern Age 172:The Romans 4476:Accretion 4458:Wind wave 4418:Surf zone 4273:Processes 4246:Mouth bar 4203:Recession 4183:Beachrock 4102:Tide pool 4032:Peninsula 3920:cliff-top 3807:Landforms 3633:Revetment 3578:Floodgate 3553:Breachway 3538:Accropode 3481:Accretion 3369:Safecoast 3216:130099070 3208:0749-0208 3171:0749-0208 3136:CiteSeerX 3110:0196-2892 3018:1096-9837 2917:2169-9291 2820:128876635 2740:0749-0208 2093:0169-2046 2048:cite book 1737:0749-0208 1564:Accropode 1429:Microwave 1408:satellite 1379:changes. 1243:surveying 1196:high tide 1033:accretion 883:Floodgate 839:Accropode 700:, SHEDs, 694:Tetrapods 630:Mundesley 546:haloseres 184:Vitruvius 104:does not 79:sea level 4607:Category 4433:Undertow 4386:Sea foam 4381:Sea cave 4281:Blowhole 4123:Windwatt 3982:Headland 3830:Avulsion 3648:Tetrapod 3118:12789989 2934:25736596 2841:25736596 2748:55611640 2705:12842846 2197:85551159 2040:53306487 1952:Tasmania 1882:18 April 1641:Blowhole 1483:See also 1377:seasonal 1372:sediment 1369:littoral 1336:vertical 1272:database 1080:mangrove 1068:Wetlands 835:Tetrapod 677:Seawalls 671:Worthing 475:seawalls 304:(UNEP). 257:seawalls 160:harbours 59:flooding 4557:shingle 4537:granule 4522:boulder 4500:Related 4396:peresyp 4306:Current 4241:Debouch 4150:Beaches 4117:Waituna 4112:Tombolo 4022:Mudflat 4017:Machair 4007:Isthmus 3927:Estuary 3870:Channel 3643:Seawall 3533:A-Jacks 3415:YouTube 3179:4297648 3090:Bibcode 2986:Bibcode 2951:Bibcode 2895:Bibcode 2798:Bibcode 2765:Bibcode 2675:Bibcode 2629:Bibcode 2608:Sources 1745:4299200 1631:Erosion 1443:(LIDAR) 1431:sensors 1425:imaging 1381:Erosion 1047:pools. 938:marshes 919:bivalve 785:Gabions 698:Seabees 683:Seawall 620:Groynes 522:Scheldt 479:groynes 196:jetties 125:removed 110:sources 85:History 63:erosion 4547:pebble 4542:gravel 4532:cobble 4077:Strait 4057:Skerry 4012:Lagoon 3997:Island 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