1287:. Although the electrons in the valence band are always moving around, a completely full valence band is inert, not conducting any current. If an electron is taken out of the valence band, then the trajectory that the electron would normally have taken is now missing its charge. For the purposes of electric current, this combination of the full valence band, minus the electron, can be converted into a picture of a completely empty band containing a positively charged particle that moves in the same way as the electron. Combined with the
1844:
1067:
2006:
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72:
42:
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1039:. To get the impure atoms embedded in the silicon wafer, the wafer is first put in a 1,100 degree Celsius chamber. The atoms are injected in and eventually diffuse with the silicon. After the process is completed and the silicon has reached room temperature, the doping process is done and the semiconducting
506:
can display a range of different useful properties, such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance, and having sensitivity to light or heat. Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor material can be modified by doping and by the application
1529:
elements. Group III elements all contain three valence electrons, causing them to function as acceptors when used to dope silicon. When an acceptor atom replaces a silicon atom in the crystal, a vacant state (an electron "hole") is created, which can move around the lattice and function as a charge
1291:
effective mass of the electrons at the top of the valence band, we arrive at a picture of a positively charged particle that responds to electric and magnetic fields just as a normal positively charged particle would do in a vacuum, again with some positive effective mass. This particle is called a
1369:
As the probability that electrons and holes meet together is proportional to the product of their numbers, the product is in the steady-state nearly constant at a given temperature, providing that there is no significant electric field (which might "flush" carriers of both types, or move them from
1746:
as due to the extreme "structure sensitive" behavior of semiconductors, whose properties change dramatically based on tiny amounts of impurities. Commercially pure materials of the 1920s containing varying proportions of trace contaminants produced differing experimental results. This spurred the
1824:
In the years preceding World War II, infrared detection and communications devices prompted research into lead-sulfide and lead-selenide materials. These devices were used for detecting ships and aircraft, for infrared rangefinders, and for voice communication systems. The point-contact crystal
667:. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes between the differently doped semiconducting materials. The n-doped germanium would have an excess of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer occurs until an equilibrium is reached by a process called
912:, and other electronic devices. Semiconductors for ICs are mass-produced. To create an ideal semiconducting material, chemical purity is paramount. Any small imperfection can have a drastic effect on how the semiconducting material behaves due to the scale at which the materials are used.
1168:, containing an electron only part of the time. If the state is always occupied with an electron, then it is inert, blocking the passage of other electrons via that state. The energies of these quantum states are critical since a state is partially filled only if its energy is near the
1579:
The history of the understanding of semiconductors begins with experiments on the electrical properties of materials. The properties of the time-temperature coefficient of resistance, rectification, and light-sensitivity were observed starting in the early 19th century.
927:) interfere with the semiconducting properties of the material. Crystalline faults are a major cause of defective semiconductor devices. The larger the crystal, the more difficult it is to achieve the necessary perfection. Current mass production processes use crystal
1407:
The probability of meeting is increased by carrier traps ā impurities or dislocations which can trap an electron or hole and hold it until a pair is completed. Such carrier traps are sometimes purposely added to reduce the time needed to reach the steady-state.
1445:
A 1 cm specimen of a metal or semiconductor has the order of 10 atoms. In a metal, every atom donates at least one free electron for conduction, thus 1 cm of metal contains on the order of 10 free electrons, whereas a 1 cm sample of pure germanium at
1191:
with few energy states to occupy. Importantly, an insulator can be made to conduct by increasing its temperature: heating provides energy to promote some electrons across the band gap, inducing partially filled states in both the band of states beneath the band gap
1370:
neighbor regions containing more of them to meet together) or externally driven pair generation. The product is a function of the temperature, as the probability of getting enough thermal energy to produce a pair increases with temperature, being approximately
1825:
detector became vital for microwave radio systems since available vacuum tube devices could not serve as detectors above about 4000 MHz; advanced radar systems relied on the fast response of crystal detectors. Considerable research and development of
1226:. When undoped, these have electrical conductivity nearer to that of electrical insulators, however they can be doped (making them as useful as semiconductors). Semi-insulators find niche applications in micro-electronics, such as substrates for
1256:) but they can move around for some time. The actual concentration of electrons is typically very dilute, and so (unlike in metals) it is possible to think of the electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor as a sort of classical
1928:
about 1941 when a specimen was found to be light-sensitive, with a sharp boundary between p-type impurity at one end and n-type at the other. A slice cut from the specimen at the pān boundary developed a voltage when exposed to light.
1764:
in 1883, using a metal plate coated with selenium and a thin layer of gold; the device became commercially useful in photographic light meters in the 1930s. Point-contact microwave detector rectifiers made of lead sulfide were used by
687:
A difference in electric potential on a semiconducting material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium and create a non-equilibrium situation. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process called
596:
A few of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed throughout the mid-19th and first decades of the 20th century. The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the
2135:
1793:
observed similar light emission in 1922, but at the time the effect had no practical use. Power rectifiers, using copper oxide and selenium, were developed in the 1920s and became commercially important as an alternative to
1481:
The materials chosen as suitable dopants depend on the atomic properties of both the dopant and the material to be doped. In general, dopants that produce the desired controlled changes are classified as either electron
550:. Apart from doping, the conductivity of a semiconductor can be improved by increasing its temperature. This is contrary to the behavior of a metal, in which conductivity decreases with an increase in temperature.
2060:
3485:
879:
in a variety of proportions. These compounds share with better-known semiconductors the properties of intermediate conductivity and a rapid variation of conductivity with temperature, as well as occasional
1530:
carrier. Group V elements have five valence electrons, which allows them to act as a donor; substitution of these atoms for silicon creates an extra free electron. Therefore, a silicon crystal doped with
2304:
1143:
Semiconductors are defined by their unique electric conductive behavior, somewhere between that of a conductor and an insulator. The differences between these materials can be understood in terms of the
383:
1203:
A pure semiconductor, however, is not very useful, as it is neither a very good insulator nor a very good conductor. However, one important feature of semiconductors (and some insulators, known as
581:" doping. The semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor device
2253:
821:. Silicon and germanium are used here effectively because they have 4 valence electrons in their outermost shell, which gives them the ability to gain or lose electrons equally at the same time.
1252:
The partial filling of the states at the bottom of the conduction band can be understood as adding electrons to that band. The electrons do not stay indefinitely (due to the natural thermal
1750:
Devices using semiconductors were at first constructed based on empirical knowledge before semiconductor theory provided a guide to the construction of more capable and reliable devices.
692:. Whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the number of holes and electrons changes. Such disruptions can occur as a result of a temperature difference or
1200:). An (intrinsic) semiconductor has a band gap that is smaller than that of an insulator and at room temperature, significant numbers of electrons can be excited to cross the band gap.
2478:
Dong, Renhao; Han, Peng; Arora, Himani; Ballabio, Marco; Karakus, Melike; Zhang, Zhe; Shekhar, Chandra; Adler, Peter; Petkov, Petko St.; Erbe, Artur; Mannsfeld, Stefan C. B. (2018).
2279:
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1956:
made from germanium and silicon, but he failed to build such a working device, before eventually using germanium to invent the point-contact transistor. In France, during the war,
424:
generally falls as its temperature rises; metals behave in the opposite way. In many cases their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by introducing impurities ("
1215:
with electric fields. Doping and gating move either the conduction or valence band much closer to the Fermi level and greatly increase the number of partially filled states.
376:
671:, which causes the migrating electrons from the n-type to come in contact with the migrating holes from the p-type. The result of this process is a narrow strip of immobile
2819:
1866:
Detector and power rectifiers could not amplify a signal. Many efforts were made to develop a solid-state amplifier and were successful in developing a device called the
3471:
1574:
369:
2765:
1912:
in 1938 demonstrated a solid-state amplifier using a structure resembling the control grid of a vacuum tube; although the device displayed power gain, it had a
634:
filled, preventing the entire flow of new electrons. Several developed techniques allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials, such as
1020:
is located on the cathode, which causes it to be hit by the positively charged ions that are released from the plasma. The result is silicon that is etched
1742:
Agreement between theoretical predictions (based on developing quantum mechanics) and experimental results was sometimes poor. This was later explained by
650:. These refer to the excess or shortage of electrons, respectively. A balanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow throughout the material.
2262:
1747:
development of improved material refining techniques, culminating in modern semiconductor refineries producing materials with parts-per-trillion purity.
1719:
stated that conductivity in semiconductors was due to minor concentrations of impurities. By 1931, the band theory of conduction had been established by
1292:
hole, and the collection of holes in the valence band can again be understood in simple classical terms (as with the electrons in the conduction band).
2034:
561:. Doping greatly increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal. When a semiconductor is doped by Group V elements, they will behave like
1698:
classified solid materials like metals, insulators, and "variable conductors" in 1914 although his student Josef Weiss already introduced the term
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708:
In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of producing heat. Controlling the semiconductor composition and
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884:. Such disordered materials lack the rigid crystalline structure of conventional semiconductors such as silicon. They are generally used in
3582:
1311:
1301:
1269:
697:
84:
1268:, and so these electrons respond to forces (electric field, magnetic field, etc.) much as they would in a vacuum, though with a different
1238:, can even be used as insulating materials for some applications, while being treated as wide-gap semiconductors for other applications.
888:
structures, which do not require material of higher electronic quality, being relatively insensitive to impurities and radiation damage.
2631:
1478:(an impurity) donates an extra 10 free electrons in the same volume and the electrical conductivity is increased by a factor of 10,000.
663:
occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined. For example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped
3045:
3314:
3234:
3055:
2640:
2465:
1227:
696:, which can enter the system and create electrons and holes. The processes that create or annihilate electrons and holes are called
3155:"Experimentelle BeitrƤge Zur Elektronentheorie Aus dem Gebiet der ThermoelektrizitƤt, Inaugural-Dissertation ... von J. Weiss, ..."
1732:
1346:
In some states, the generation and recombination of electronāhole pairs are in equipoise. The number of electron-hole pairs in the
1310:
strikes a semiconductor, it may excite an electron out of its energy level and consequently leave a hole. This process is known as
41:
2024:
1687:, by observing a Hall effect with the reverse sign to that in metals, theorized that copper iodide had positive charge carriers.
1542:
729:
59:
1442:. By adding impurity to the pure semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be varied by factors of thousands or millions.
2823:
2184:
1960:
had observed amplification between adjacent point contacts on a germanium base. After the war, MatarƩ's group announced their "
1179:
High conductivity in material comes from it having many partially filled states and much state delocalization. Metals are good
777:
864:
761:
35:
3075:
2744:
3247:
1272:. Because the electrons behave like an ideal gas, one may also think about conduction in very simplistic terms such as the
1916:
of one cycle per second, too low for any practical applications, but an effective application of the available theory. At
1351:
896:
Almost all of today's electronic technology involves the use of semiconductors, with the most important aspect being the
3110:
Busch, G (1989). "Early history of the physics and chemistry of semiconductors-from doubts to fact in a hundred years".
2317:
1212:
1031:. This is the process that gives the semiconducting material its desired semiconducting properties. It is also known as
639:
2085:
852:
2772:
1924:
and A. Holden started investigating solid-state amplifiers in 1938. The first pān junction in silicon was observed by
753:
1173:
1121:
1079:
938:
There is a combination of processes that are used to prepare semiconducting materials for ICs. One process is called
1777:. However, it was somewhat unpredictable in operation and required manual adjustment for best performance. In 1906,
712:
allows for the manipulation of the emitted light's properties. These semiconductors are used in the construction of
1618:
1545:, dopants can be diffused into the semiconductor body by contact with gaseous compounds of the desired element, or
1219:
2958:
1649:
1557:
Some materials, when rapidly cooled to a glassy amorphous state, have semiconducting properties. These include B,
1838:
1770:
1684:
1617:
decreases when they are heated. This is contrary to the behavior of metallic substances such as copper. In 1839,
1521:
has four valence electrons that bond each silicon atom to its neighbors. In silicon, the most common dopants are
1483:
1261:
1153:
1149:
1071:
1057:
598:
574:
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1937:
1867:
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found that a copper oxide layer on wires had rectification properties that ceased when the wires are cleaned.
507:
of electrical fields or light, devices made from semiconductors can be used for amplification, switching, and
1735:. By 1938, Boris Davydov had developed a theory of the copper-oxide rectifier, identifying the effect of the
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1953:
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The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a small amount (of the order of 1 in 10) of pentavalent (
413:
50:
2937:
2029:
1945:
1487:
1417:
1359:
1324:
1208:
1032:
1028:
635:
562:
433:
425:
351:
1688:
1514:, which exists due to thermal excitation at a much lower concentration compared to the majority carrier.
915:
A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required, since faults in the crystal structure (such as
1766:
1753:
1606:
1602:
841:
765:
3014:
1605:
was the first to notice that semiconductors exhibit special feature such that experiment concerning an
2850:
2480:"High-mobility band-like charge transport in a semiconducting two-dimensional metalāorganic framework"
1621:
reported observation of a voltage between a solid and a liquid electrolyte, when struck by light, the
977:
The etching is the next process that is required. The part of the silicon that was not covered by the
3608:
3306:
3119:
2979:
Hulls, K.; McMillan, P. W. (May 22, 1972). "Amorphous semiconductors: a review of current theories".
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2491:
1802:
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1657:
1637:
1595:
1587:
1570:
1180:
1161:
737:
713:
503:
405:
326:
31:
2797:
2374:
Arik, Mehmet, and
Stanton Weaver. "Chip-scale thermal management of high-brightness LED packages."
1987:
1979:
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1728:
1720:
1664:
1622:
1265:
1040:
1017:
932:
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between 100 and 300 mm (3.9 and 11.8 in) in diameter, grown as cylinders and sliced into
881:
689:
602:
477:
1843:
3549:
3135:
2996:
2678:
2523:
2415:
2011:
1879:
1724:
1693:
1668:
1390:
1307:
1283:
For partial filling at the top of the valence band, it is helpful to introduce the concept of an
994:
897:
610:
546:) atoms. This process is known as doping, and the resulting semiconductors are known as doped or
512:
497:
493:
981:
layer from the previous step can now be etched. The main process typically used today is called
1907:
1891:
1709:
1436:(pure) semiconductor varies its level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are referred to as
1422:
The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their
3603:
3495:
3444:
3426:
3407:
3388:
3365:
3339:
3310:
3300:
3230:
3051:
2915:
2722:
2701:
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2566:
2515:
2507:
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2405:
2350:
2219:
2091:
1957:
1913:
1558:
1355:
1277:
1075:
967:
939:
860:
831:, groups 12 and 16, groups 14 and 16, and between different group-14 elements, e.g.
806:
558:
511:. The term semiconductor is also used to describe materials used in high capacity, medium- to
508:
429:
134:
27:
Material that has electrical conductivity intermediate to that of a conductor and an insulator
2111:
1736:
1036:
728:
Semiconductors with high thermal conductivity can be used for heat dissipation and improving
586:
3127:
2988:
2670:
2604:
2499:
2433:
2397:
2039:
1975:
1972:
1949:
1921:
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1814:
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1626:
1591:
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1511:
1507:
1235:
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733:
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627:
473:
341:
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316:
107:
98:
3463:
2341:
Wang, Yangang; Dai, Xiaoping; Liu, Guoyou; Wu, Yibo; Jones, Yun Li and Steve (2016-10-05),
3168:
1991:
1855:
1782:
1760:
over a beam of light in 1880. A working solar cell, of low efficiency, was constructed by
1708:
published a theory of the movement of electrons through atomic lattices in 1928. In 1930,
1653:
1610:
1423:
1197:
1164:(extending through the material), however in order to transport electrons a state must be
1002:
951:
943:
905:
832:
824:
590:
554:
356:
46:
2542:
1671:
demonstrated the deflection of flowing charge carriers by an applied magnetic field, the
484:. After silicon, gallium arsenide is the second-most common semiconductor and is used in
143:
125:
116:
3123:
2666:
2600:
2587:
Cutler, M.; Mott, N. (1969). "Observation of
Anderson Localization in an Electron Gas".
2495:
3613:
3381:
2872:
2626:
1761:
1714:
1648:, although this effect had been discovered much earlier by Peter Munck af Rosenschƶld (
1614:
1317:
986:
982:
924:
810:
676:
659:
481:
437:
336:
179:
173:
167:
161:
155:
149:
17:
966:. This process is what creates the patterns on the circuit in the integrated circuit.
3628:
3587:
3358:
3139:
3131:
3000:
2893:
2419:
1506:. The n and p type designations indicate which charge carrier acts as the material's
1284:
1247:
1145:
1125:
794:
573:" doping. When a semiconductor is doped by Group III elements, they will behave like
449:
251:
242:
233:
224:
215:
206:
197:
188:
2992:
2527:
2479:
2401:
2192:
1066:
801:
A large number of elements and compounds have semiconducting properties, including:
2682:
1941:
1896:
1847:
1743:
1680:
1347:
1193:
741:
631:
296:
278:
269:
260:
3453:
2216:
Electrons and holes in semiconductors: with applications to transistor electronics
1609:
emerged with much stronger result when applying semiconductors, in 1821. In 1833,
589:
between these regions are responsible for the useful electronic behavior. Using a
3154:
3086:
1327:
demands that these recombination events, in which an electron loses an amount of
2343:"Status and Trend of Power Semiconductor Module Packaging for Electric Vehicles"
1961:
1925:
1795:
1705:
1672:
1522:
1273:
1169:
1120:; however, in semiconductors the bands are near enough to the Fermi level to be
1099:
978:
971:
916:
717:
485:
461:
2544:
Charge transport in two-dimensional materials and their electronic applications
2389:
2005:
1187:, by contrast, have few partially filled states, their Fermi levels sit within
974:
layer to create a chemical change that generates the patterns for the circuit.
605:
receivers. Developments in quantum physics led in turn to the invention of the
2700:(9th ed.). India: Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. pp. 7ā10.
2503:
2001:
1965:
1933:
1902:
1871:
1829:
materials occurred during the war to develop detectors of consistent quality.
1790:
1778:
1757:
1583:
1535:
1021:
909:
606:
527:
489:
457:
311:
71:
3302:
Advanced
Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century
3274:"1954: Morris Tanenbaum fabricates the first silicon transistor at Bell Labs"
2608:
2511:
2394:
2019 IEEE 7th
Workshop on Wide Bandgap Power Devices and Applications (WiPDA)
1426:. The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor is known as
3353:
2342:
2019:
1983:
1917:
1810:
1660:
and
Richard Evans Day observed the photovoltaic effect in selenium in 1876.
1641:
1257:
1183:
and have many partially filled states with energies near their Fermi level.
1095:
959:
885:
876:
818:
664:
593:, one can determine quickly whether a semiconductor sample is p- or n-type.
469:
2519:
2318:"Electrical Property of Semiconductor - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
2087:
Submarine Power Cables: Design, Installation, Repair, Environmental
Aspects
3423:
The
Handbook on Optical Constants of Semiconductors: In Tables and Figures
1731:
developed models of the potential barrier and of the characteristics of a
3566:
1676:
1667:, which developed greatly in the first half of the 20th century. In 1878
1633:
1630:
1332:
1188:
1117:
1035:. The process introduces an impure atom to the system, which creates the
872:
566:
523:
515:
as part of their insulation, and these materials are often plastic XLPE (
441:
553:
The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on
3532:
3336:
Handbook of
Semiconductor Nanostructures and Nanodevices (5-Volume Set)
1826:
1645:
1571:
Semiconductor device Ā§ History of semiconductor device development
1526:
1518:
1475:
1009:
1005:
947:
868:
814:
786:
582:
539:
531:
465:
3198:"1901: Semiconductor Rectifiers Patented as "Cat's Whisker" Detectors"
2168:
1990:
were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a
1773:
using natural galena or other materials became a common device in the
1148:
for electrons, each of which may contain zero or one electron (by the
2674:
1806:
1340:
1336:
1328:
1260:, where the electrons fly around freely without being subject to the
859:
The most common semiconducting materials are crystalline solids, but
693:
543:
409:
79:
626:
Semiconductors in their natural state are poor conductors because a
2390:"Thermal Conductivity of Power SemiconductorsāWhen Does It Matter?"
1994:
basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.
1561:, Ge, Se, and Te, and there are multiple theories to explain them.
1335:, be accompanied by the emission of thermal energy (in the form of
1078:
for a certain energy in the material listed. The shade follows the
782:
3559:
3554:
3537:
1842:
1818:
1683:
in 1897 prompted theories of electron-based conduction in solids.
1531:
1091:
1070:
Filling of the electronic states in various types of materials at
1065:
1013:
998:
955:
928:
827:, particularly between elements in groups 13 and 15, such as
781:
535:
453:
432:. When two differently doped regions exist in the same crystal, a
417:
40:
1704:(a semiconductor in modern meaning) in his Ph.D. thesis in 1910.
1636:
exhibit decreasing resistance when light falls on them. In 1874,
496:, and others. Silicon is a critical element for fabricating most
3404:
1264:. In most semiconductors, the conduction bands have a parabolic
1207:) is that their conductivity can be increased and controlled by
321:
3467:
1358:
mechanisms of generation and recombination are governed by the
3439:
G. B. Abdullayev, T. D. Dzhafarov, S. Torstveit (Translator),
1663:
A unified explanation of these phenomena required a theory of
789:
crystals are the most common semiconducting materials used in
672:
630:
requires the flow of electrons, and semiconductors have their
445:
1781:
observed light emission when electric current passed through
1652:) writing for the Annalen der Physik und Chemie in 1835, and
2653:
J. W. Allen (1960). "Gallium
Arsenide as a semi-insulator".
2458:
Semiconductor Materials: An Introduction to Basic Principles
1739:
and the importance of minority carriers and surface states.
2745:"Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors"
1160:
arises due to the presence of electrons in states that are
3157:
Druck- und Verlags-Gesellschaft – via Google Books.
2347:
Modeling and Simulation for Electric Vehicle Applications
3074:
Lidia Åukasiak & Andrzej Jakubowski (January 2010).
1964:" amplifier only shortly after Bell Labs announced the "
863:
and liquid semiconductors are also known. These include
813:; the most commercially important of these elements are
30:
For devices using semiconductors and their history, see
3083:
Journal of Telecommunication and Information Technology
2376:
Fourth International Conference on Solid State Lighting
1952:
at Bell Labs in 1947. Shockley had earlier theorized a
1320:
as well, in the absence of any external energy source.
1135:
1549:
can be used to accurately position the doped regions.
1534:
creates a p-type semiconductor whereas one doped with
2388:
Boteler, L.; Lelis, A.; Berman, M.; Fish, M. (2019).
1817:
in 1874 and Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose's
1316:. Electron-hole pairs are constantly generated from
3596:
3575:
3525:
3502:
3380:
3357:
3248:"1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor"
1870:which could amplify 20 dB or more. In 1922,
1756:used the light-sensitive property of selenium to
1723:and the concept of band gaps had been developed.
1575:Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
1430:. The amount of impurity, or dopant, added to an
601:, a primitive semiconductor diode used in early
557:to explain the movement of charge carriers in a
3153:Ćberlingen.), Josef Weiss (de (July 22, 1910).
1323:Electron-hole pairs are also apt to recombine.
1016:is what creates the plasma in the chamber. The
2873:"Band strcutre and carrier concentration (Ge)"
838:Certain ternary compounds, oxides, and alloys.
3479:
3441:Atomic Diffusion in Semiconductor Structures,
3227:A History of the World Semiconductor Industry
3047:A History of the World Semiconductor Industry
2585:As in the Mott formula for conductivity, see
1613:reported that the resistance of specimens of
1196:) and the band of states above the band gap (
377:
8:
2696:Louis Nashelsky, Robert L.Boylestad (2006).
2434:"How do thermoelectric coolers (TECs) work?"
1074:. Here, height is energy while width is the
732:of electronics. They play a crucial role in
1230:. An example of a common semi-insulator is
989:pumped in a low-pressure chamber to create
3486:
3472:
3464:
3360:Physics of Semiconductor Devices (2nd ed.)
2305:Light and Optics: Principles and Practices
384:
370:
55:
3069:
3067:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2112:"Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors"
2035:Semiconductor characterization techniques
1878:amplifiers for radio, but he died in the
642:. These modifications have two outcomes:
585:can have many p- and n-type regions; the
3334:A. A. Balandin & K. L. Wang (2006).
2247:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2235:
1582:
1350:at a given temperature is determined by
1152:). These states are associated with the
3443:Gordon & Breach Science Pub., 1987
2051:
1222:materials are sometimes referred to as
1062:Electrical resistivity and conductivity
58:
3402:Yu, Peter Y.; Cardona, Manuel (2004).
2936:Honsberg, Christiana; Bowden, Stuart.
1882:after successful completion. In 1926,
1052:Energy bands and electrical conduction
892:Preparation of semiconductor materials
464:. Some examples of semiconductors are
3383:The Essential Guide to Semiconductors
3044:Morris, Peter Robin (July 22, 1990).
3039:
3037:
3035:
3033:
3031:
3029:
3027:
2981:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
2698:Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory
1510:. The opposite carrier is called the
1242:Charge carriers (electrons and holes)
985:. Plasma etching usually involves an
452:, at these junctions is the basis of
7:
2766:"Lesson 6: Extrinsic semiconductors"
2261:. Elizabeth A. Jones. Archived from
2185:"2.4.7.9 The "hot-probe" experiment"
1517:For example, the pure semiconductor
1302:Carrier generation and recombination
1296:Carrier generation and recombination
3454:Feynman's lecture on Semiconductors
2632:Introduction to Solid State Physics
1785:crystals, the principle behind the
1108:lies inside at least one band. In
805:Certain pure elements are found in
476:, and elements near the so-called "
3338:. American Scientific Publishers.
2059:Tatum, Jeremy (13 December 2016).
25:
2894:"Doping: n- and p-semiconductors"
2255:Semiconductor Physics and Devices
2084:Worzyk, Thomas (11 August 2009).
1474:holes. The addition of 0.001% of
1276:, and introduce concepts such as
700:and recombination, respectively.
2025:Semiconductor device fabrication
2004:
1397:is the absolute temperature and
622:Variable electrical conductivity
404:value falling between that of a
70:
3425:. World Scientific Publishing.
2402:10.1109/WiPDA46397.2019.8998802
1886:patented a device resembling a
1565:Early history of semiconductors
1538:results in an n-type material.
1339:) or radiation (in the form of
778:List of semiconductor materials
762:thermoelectric figures of merit
577:creating free holes, known as "
3299:Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016).
2743:Y., Roshni (5 February 2019).
2563:Fundamentals of Semiconductors
865:hydrogenated amorphous silicon
36:Semiconductor (disambiguation)
1:
3364:. John Wiley and Sons (WIE).
2845:Van Zeghbroeck, Bart (2000).
2820:"Ohm's Law, Microscopic View"
2280:"Electron-Hole Recombination"
1978:fabricated the first silicon
1352:quantum statistical mechanics
1313:electron-hole pair generation
958:. Other processes are called
2798:"General unit cell problems"
2061:"Resistance and Temperature"
1890:, but it was not practical.
1733:metalāsemiconductor junction
1490:. Semiconductors doped with
1133:
1116:the Fermi level is inside a
754:thermoelectric power factors
744:, among other applications.
436:is created. The behavior of
3112:European Journal of Physics
3076:"History of Semiconductors"
2565:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
2170:Feynman Lectures on Physics
1220:wider-bandgap semiconductor
1076:density of available states
1027:The last process is called
3651:
3225:Peter Robin Morris (1990)
3132:10.1088/0143-0807/10/4/002
2396:. IEEE. pp. 265ā271.
2252:Neamen, Donald A. (2003).
2214:Shockley, William (1950).
1836:
1821:crystal detector in 1901.
1619:Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
1568:
1415:
1299:
1245:
1234:. Some materials, such as
1055:
775:
752:Semiconductors have large
400:is a material that has an
29:
3583:Characterization analysis
3280:. Computer History Museum
3254:. Computer History Museum
3060:– via Google Books.
2993:10.1088/0022-3727/5/5/205
2938:"Semiconductor Materials"
2504:10.1038/s41563-018-0189-z
2218:. R. E. Krieger Pub. Co.
1839:History of the transistor
1498:, while those doped with
1262:Pauli exclusion principle
1154:electronic band structure
1150:Pauli exclusion principle
1058:Electronic band structure
1047:Physics of semiconductors
997:, or more commonly known
900:(IC), which are found in
758:thermoelectric generators
748:Thermal energy conversion
724:High thermal conductivity
517:Cross-linked polyethylene
3597:Material characteristics
2961:Amorphous semiconductors
2609:10.1103/PhysRev.181.1336
2378:. Vol. 5530. SPIE, 2004.
1938:point-contact transistor
1874:developed two-terminal,
1868:point contact transistor
1860:point-contact transistor
1640:observed conduction and
1553:Amorphous semiconductors
1502:impurities are known as
1364:conservation of momentum
1130:intrinsic semiconductors
1080:FermiāDirac distribution
853:metalāorganic frameworks
548:extrinsic semiconductors
3494:Fundamental aspects of
3206:Computer History Museum
3177:Computer History Museum
2916:"Silicon and Germanium"
2307:." 2007. March 4, 2016.
1888:field-effect transistor
1884:Julius Edgar Lilienfeld
1675:. The discovery of the
1158:Electrical conductivity
1128:. "intrin." indicates
1090:: no state filled). In
993:. A common etch gas is
402:electrical conductivity
51:monocrystalline silicon
18:Semiconducting material
2723:"Doped Semiconductors"
2541:Arora, Himani (2020).
2284:Engineering LibreTexts
2030:Semiconductor industry
1954:field-effect amplifier
1946:Walter Houser Brattain
1863:
1858:developed the bipolar
1771:cat's-whisker detector
1599:
1494:impurities are called
1418:Doping (semiconductor)
1360:conservation of energy
1325:Conservation of energy
1174:FermiāDirac statistics
1140:
1086:: all states filled,
946:on the surface of the
842:Organic semiconductors
798:
766:thermoelectric coolers
764:making them useful in
756:making them useful in
599:cat's-whisker detector
492:, microwave-frequency
434:semiconductor junction
53:
34:. For other uses, see
3421:Sadao Adachi (2012).
3387:. Prentice Hall PTR.
3307:John Wiley & Sons
2322:www.sciencedirect.com
2303:By Abdul Al-Azzawi. "
1846:
1803:semiconductor devices
1767:Jagadish Chandra Bose
1754:Alexander Graham Bell
1603:Thomas Johann Seebeck
1586:
1181:electrical conductors
1069:
970:is used along with a
785:
714:light-emitting diodes
679:across the junction.
519:) with carbon black.
504:Semiconductor devices
44:
3609:Electronic structure
3526:Classes of materials
3379:Turley, Jim (2002).
2268:on October 27, 2022.
1988:junction transistors
1787:light-emitting diode
1775:development of radio
1658:William Grylls Adams
1638:Karl Ferdinand Braun
1596:semiconductor device
1588:Karl Ferdinand Braun
1211:with impurities and
1043:is almost prepared.
950:. This is used as a
32:Semiconductor device
3124:1989EJPh...10..254B
3085:: 3. Archived from
2847:"Carrier densities"
2778:on January 28, 2023
2667:1960Natur.187..403A
2601:1969PhRv..181.1336C
2496:2018NatMa..17.1027D
1980:junction transistor
1876:negative resistance
1809:, including German
1729:Nevill Francis Mott
1721:Alan Herries Wilson
1689:Johan Koenigsberger
1665:solid-state physics
1623:photovoltaic effect
1466:free electrons and
1266:dispersion relation
1122:thermally populated
882:negative resistance
690:ambipolar diffusion
513:high-voltage cables
498:electronic circuits
494:integrated circuits
478:metalloid staircase
3278:The Silicon Engine
3252:The Silicon Engine
3202:The Silicon Engine
3173:The Silicon Engine
2561:Yu, Peter (2010).
2550:. Dresden: Qucosa.
2167:Feynman, Richard.
2012:Electronics portal
1932:The first working
1880:Siege of Leningrad
1864:
1813:Ferdinand Braun's
1725:Walter H. Schottky
1669:Edwin Herbert Hall
1600:
1450:Ā°C contains about
1391:Boltzmann constant
1356:quantum mechanical
1308:ionizing radiation
1141:
1124:with electrons or
995:chlorofluorocarbon
898:integrated circuit
799:
760:, as well as high
736:, high-brightness
730:thermal management
710:electrical current
675:, which causes an
611:integrated circuit
460:, and most modern
54:
3622:
3621:
3604:Crystal structure
3503:Materials science
3496:materials science
3449:978-2-88124-152-9
3432:978-981-4405-97-3
3413:978-3-540-41323-3
3394:978-0-13-046404-0
3371:978-0-471-05661-4
3345:978-1-58883-073-9
2707:978-81-203-2967-6
2635:, 7th ed. Wiley,
2572:978-3-642-00709-5
2490:(11): 1027ā1032.
2411:978-1-7281-3761-2
2356:978-953-51-2637-9
2225:978-0-88275-382-9
2189:ecee.colorado.edu
2097:978-3-642-01270-9
1986:. However, early
1914:cut-off frequency
1833:Early transistors
1278:electron mobility
1156:of the material.
1138:
968:Ultraviolet light
940:thermal oxidation
846:organic compounds
734:electric vehicles
683:Excited electrons
509:energy conversion
430:crystal structure
394:
393:
16:(Redirected from
3642:
3576:Analysis methods
3488:
3481:
3474:
3465:
3436:
3417:
3398:
3386:
3375:
3363:
3349:
3321:
3320:
3296:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3270:
3264:
3263:
3261:
3259:
3244:
3238:
3223:
3217:
3216:
3214:
3212:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3150:
3144:
3143:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3091:
3080:
3071:
3062:
3061:
3041:
3022:
3021:
3019:
3011:
3005:
3004:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2955:
2949:
2948:
2946:
2944:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2911:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2900:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2879:
2869:
2863:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2849:. Archived from
2842:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2822:. Archived from
2815:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2794:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2777:
2771:. Archived from
2770:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2675:10.1038/187403b0
2661:(4735): 403ā05.
2650:
2644:
2624:
2613:
2612:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2484:Nature Materials
2475:
2469:
2460:, Springer 2003
2454:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2444:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2385:
2379:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2363:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2314:
2308:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2260:
2249:
2230:
2229:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2191:. Archived from
2181:
2175:
2174:
2164:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2147:
2136:"Joshua Halpern"
2132:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2072:
2071:
2056:
2040:Transistor count
2014:
2009:
2008:
1976:Morris Tanenbaum
1973:physical chemist
1950:William Shockley
1922:William Shockley
1911:
1900:
1852:William Shockley
1815:crystal detector
1718:
1697:
1627:Willoughby Smith
1592:crystal detector
1547:ion implantation
1512:minority carrier
1508:majority carrier
1473:
1471:
1465:
1463:
1458:atoms, but only
1457:
1455:
1449:
1384:
1331:larger than the
1236:titanium dioxide
1232:gallium arsenide
1166:partially filled
1134:
964:photolithography
867:and mixtures of
829:gallium arsenide
825:Binary compounds
791:microelectronics
716:and fluorescent
609:in 1947 and the
534:) or trivalent (
474:gallium arsenide
440:, which include
386:
379:
372:
342:Transistor count
295:
277:
268:
259:
250:
241:
232:
223:
214:
205:
196:
187:
142:
133:
124:
115:
106:
97:
74:
56:
21:
3650:
3649:
3645:
3644:
3643:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3625:
3624:
3623:
3618:
3592:
3571:
3521:
3498:
3492:
3462:
3433:
3420:
3414:
3401:
3395:
3378:
3372:
3352:
3346:
3333:
3330:
3328:Further reading
3325:
3324:
3317:
3309:. p. 168.
3298:
3297:
3293:
3283:
3281:
3272:
3271:
3267:
3257:
3255:
3246:
3245:
3241:
3224:
3220:
3210:
3208:
3196:
3195:
3191:
3181:
3179:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3152:
3151:
3147:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3095:
3093:
3089:
3078:
3073:
3072:
3065:
3058:
3043:
3042:
3025:
3017:
3013:
3012:
3008:
2978:
2977:
2973:
2965:
2957:
2956:
2952:
2942:
2940:
2935:
2934:
2930:
2920:
2918:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2898:
2896:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2877:
2875:
2871:
2870:
2866:
2856:
2854:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2829:
2827:
2817:
2816:
2812:
2802:
2800:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2768:
2764:
2763:
2759:
2749:
2747:
2742:
2741:
2737:
2727:
2725:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2708:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2652:
2651:
2647:
2625:
2616:
2589:Physical Review
2586:
2584:
2580:
2573:
2560:
2559:
2555:
2547:
2540:
2539:
2535:
2477:
2476:
2472:
2455:
2451:
2442:
2440:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2412:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2373:
2369:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2340:
2339:
2335:
2326:
2324:
2316:
2315:
2311:
2302:
2298:
2289:
2287:
2278:
2277:
2273:
2265:
2258:
2251:
2250:
2233:
2226:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2198:
2196:
2195:on 6 March 2021
2183:
2182:
2178:
2166:
2165:
2154:
2145:
2143:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2120:
2118:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2098:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2069:
2067:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2010:
2003:
2000:
1992:mass-production
1905:
1894:
1856:Walter Brattain
1841:
1835:
1783:silicon carbide
1712:
1691:
1654:Arthur Schuster
1611:Michael Faraday
1577:
1567:
1555:
1469:
1467:
1461:
1459:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1424:crystal lattice
1420:
1414:
1403:
1378:
1371:
1304:
1298:
1250:
1244:
1224:semi-insulators
1205:semi-insulators
1198:conduction band
1139:
1107:
1064:
1056:Main articles:
1054:
1049:
1022:anisotropically
1003:radio-frequency
944:silicon dioxide
925:stacking faults
894:
851:Semiconducting
833:silicon carbide
780:
774:
750:
726:
706:
685:
660:Heterojunctions
656:
654:Heterojunctions
624:
619:
591:hot-point probe
559:crystal lattice
555:quantum physics
438:charge carriers
390:
361:
357:Nanoelectronics
308:
302:
293:
284:
275:
266:
257:
248:
239:
230:
221:
212:
203:
194:
185:
140:
131:
122:
113:
104:
95:
82:
63:
61:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3648:
3646:
3638:
3637:
3635:Semiconductors
3627:
3626:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3616:
3614:Microstructure
3611:
3606:
3600:
3598:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3590:
3585:
3579:
3577:
3573:
3572:
3570:
3569:
3564:
3563:
3562:
3552:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3543:Semiconductors
3540:
3529:
3527:
3523:
3522:
3520:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3499:
3493:
3491:
3490:
3483:
3476:
3468:
3461:
3460:External links
3458:
3457:
3456:
3451:
3437:
3431:
3418:
3412:
3399:
3393:
3376:
3370:
3350:
3344:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3315:
3291:
3265:
3239:
3218:
3189:
3160:
3145:
3102:
3063:
3056:
3023:
3006:
2971:
2950:
2928:
2906:
2885:
2864:
2853:on May 3, 2021
2837:
2826:on May 3, 2021
2810:
2789:
2757:
2735:
2713:
2706:
2688:
2645:
2627:Charles Kittel
2614:
2578:
2571:
2553:
2533:
2470:
2456:B. G. Yacobi,
2449:
2425:
2410:
2380:
2367:
2355:
2349:, IntechOpen,
2333:
2309:
2296:
2271:
2231:
2224:
2206:
2176:
2152:
2127:
2103:
2096:
2076:
2050:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2016:
2015:
1999:
1996:
1958:Herbert MatarƩ
1837:Main article:
1834:
1831:
1762:Charles Fritts
1758:transmit sound
1629:observed that
1615:silver sulfide
1607:Seebeck effect
1590:developed the
1566:
1563:
1554:
1551:
1416:Main article:
1413:
1410:
1401:
1376:
1354:. The precise
1318:thermal energy
1300:Main article:
1297:
1294:
1270:effective mass
1246:Main article:
1243:
1240:
1146:quantum states
1114:semiconductors
1105:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
983:plasma etching
952:gate insulator
942:, which forms
893:
890:
857:
856:
849:
839:
836:
822:
811:periodic table
776:Main article:
773:
770:
749:
746:
725:
722:
705:
704:Light emission
702:
684:
681:
677:electric field
655:
652:
623:
620:
618:
615:
565:creating free
482:periodic table
450:electron holes
392:
391:
389:
388:
381:
374:
366:
363:
362:
360:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
324:
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285:
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273:
264:
255:
246:
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219:
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192:
183:
177:
171:
165:
159:
153:
147:
138:
129:
120:
111:
102:
92:
89:
88:
80:MOSFET scaling
76:
75:
67:
66:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3647:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3595:
3589:
3588:Phase diagram
3586:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3578:
3574:
3568:
3565:
3561:
3558:
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3501:
3497:
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3455:
3452:
3450:
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3442:
3438:
3434:
3428:
3424:
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3415:
3409:
3405:
3400:
3396:
3390:
3385:
3384:
3377:
3373:
3367:
3362:
3361:
3355:
3354:Sze, Simon M.
3351:
3347:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3331:
3327:
3318:
3316:9780470508923
3312:
3308:
3304:
3303:
3295:
3292:
3279:
3275:
3269:
3266:
3253:
3249:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3235:0-86341-227-0
3232:
3228:
3222:
3219:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3193:
3190:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3164:
3161:
3156:
3149:
3146:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3118:(4): 254ā64.
3117:
3113:
3106:
3103:
3092:on 2013-06-22
3088:
3084:
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3070:
3068:
3064:
3059:
3057:9780863412271
3053:
3049:
3048:
3040:
3038:
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3034:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3016:
3010:
3007:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2987:(5): 865ā82.
2986:
2982:
2975:
2972:
2964:
2962:
2954:
2951:
2939:
2932:
2929:
2917:
2910:
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2841:
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2799:
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2703:
2699:
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2684:
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2668:
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2660:
2656:
2649:
2646:
2642:
2641:0-471-11181-3
2638:
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2621:
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2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
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2474:
2471:
2467:
2466:0-306-47361-5
2463:
2459:
2453:
2450:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2426:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2407:
2403:
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2180:
2177:
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2159:
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2141:
2140:Chemistry 003
2137:
2131:
2128:
2117:
2113:
2107:
2104:
2099:
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2028:
2026:
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2018:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1974:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
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1939:
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1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1797:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1769:in 1904; the
1768:
1763:
1759:
1755:
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1748:
1745:
1740:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1702:
1695:
1690:
1686:
1685:Karl Baedeker
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1642:rectification
1639:
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1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
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1330:
1326:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1314:
1309:
1303:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1285:electron hole
1281:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1254:recombination
1249:
1248:Electron hole
1241:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1199:
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1186:
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1177:
1175:
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1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
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1137:
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1127:
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1111:
1104:
1101:
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1059:
1051:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1018:silicon wafer
1015:
1011:
1007:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
975:
973:
969:
965:
961:
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953:
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936:
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926:
922:
918:
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899:
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870:
866:
862:
854:
850:
847:
843:
840:
837:
834:
830:
826:
823:
820:
816:
812:
808:
807:group 14
804:
803:
802:
796:
795:photovoltaics
792:
788:
784:
779:
771:
769:
767:
763:
759:
755:
747:
745:
743:
742:power modules
739:
735:
731:
723:
721:
719:
715:
711:
703:
701:
699:
695:
691:
682:
680:
678:
674:
670:
669:recombination
666:
662:
661:
653:
651:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
632:valence bands
629:
621:
616:
614:
612:
608:
604:
600:
594:
592:
588:
587:pān junctions
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
551:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
520:
518:
514:
510:
505:
501:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
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467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
398:semiconductor
387:
382:
380:
375:
373:
368:
367:
365:
364:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
347:Semiconductor
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
332:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
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309:
306:
305:
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288:
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280:
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271:
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244:
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220:
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157:
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139:
136:
130:
127:
121:
118:
112:
109:
103:
100:
94:
93:
91:
90:
86:
85:process nodes
81:
78:
77:
73:
69:
68:
65:
60:Semiconductor
57:
52:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
3542:
3440:
3422:
3406:. Springer.
3403:
3382:
3359:
3335:
3301:
3294:
3282:. Retrieved
3277:
3268:
3256:. Retrieved
3251:
3242:
3226:
3221:
3209:. Retrieved
3201:
3192:
3180:. Retrieved
3172:
3163:
3148:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3094:. Retrieved
3087:the original
3082:
3046:
3009:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2960:
2953:
2941:. Retrieved
2931:
2919:. Retrieved
2909:
2897:. Retrieved
2888:
2876:. Retrieved
2867:
2855:. Retrieved
2851:the original
2840:
2828:. Retrieved
2824:the original
2813:
2801:. Retrieved
2792:
2780:. Retrieved
2773:the original
2760:
2748:. Retrieved
2738:
2726:. Retrieved
2716:
2697:
2691:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2630:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2562:
2556:
2543:
2536:
2487:
2483:
2473:
2457:
2452:
2441:. Retrieved
2437:
2428:
2393:
2383:
2375:
2370:
2360:, retrieved
2346:
2336:
2325:. Retrieved
2321:
2312:
2299:
2288:. Retrieved
2286:. 2016-07-28
2283:
2274:
2263:the original
2254:
2215:
2209:
2197:. Retrieved
2193:the original
2188:
2179:
2169:
2144:. Retrieved
2142:. 2015-01-12
2139:
2130:
2119:. Retrieved
2115:
2106:
2090:. Springer.
2086:
2079:
2068:. Retrieved
2064:
2054:
1970:
1942:John Bardeen
1940:invented by
1931:
1865:
1848:John Bardeen
1823:
1800:
1798:rectifiers.
1752:
1749:
1744:John Bardeen
1741:
1737:pān junction
1700:
1699:
1681:J.J. Thomson
1662:
1644:in metallic
1601:
1594:, the first
1578:
1556:
1540:
1516:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1480:
1444:
1438:
1431:
1427:
1421:
1406:
1404:is bandgap.
1398:
1394:
1386:
1380:
1373:
1368:
1348:steady state
1345:
1322:
1312:
1305:
1288:
1282:
1251:
1223:
1217:
1204:
1202:
1194:valence band
1178:
1165:
1142:
1113:
1102:
1087:
1083:
1037:pān junction
1026:
1008:between the
976:
937:
917:dislocations
914:
908:, scanners,
895:
858:
800:
751:
727:
718:quantum dots
707:
686:
658:
657:
647:
643:
625:
595:
569:, known as "
552:
521:
502:
486:laser diodes
428:") into the
397:
395:
346:
299: ~ 2025
281: ā 2022
272: ā 2020
263: ā 2018
254: ā 2016
245: ā 2014
236: ā 2012
227: ā 2010
218: ā 2009
209: ā 2007
200: ā 2005
191: ā 2003
182: ā 2001
176: ā 1999
170: ā 1996
164: ā 1993
158: ā 1990
152: ā 1987
146: ā 1984
137: ā 1981
128: ā 1977
119: ā 1974
110: ā 1971
101: ā 1968
3518:Performance
3237:, pp. 11ā25
2782:January 28,
2595:(3): 1336.
2199:27 November
2116:www.mks.com
1962:Transistron
1926:Russell Ohl
1906: [
1895: [
1796:vacuum tube
1713: [
1706:Felix Bloch
1692: [
1673:Hall effect
1625:. In 1873,
1543:manufacture
1274:Drude model
1170:Fermi level
1162:delocalized
1100:Fermi level
1072:equilibrium
979:photoresist
972:photoresist
956:field oxide
910:cell-phones
490:solar cells
462:electronics
458:transistors
422:resistivity
337:Moore's law
180:130 nm
174:180 nm
168:250 nm
162:350 nm
156:600 nm
150:800 nm
135:1.5 Ī¼m
64:fabrication
3550:Composites
3515:Processing
3512:Properties
3169:"Timeline"
3096:2012-08-03
2468:, pp. 1ā3.
2443:2021-11-08
2362:2024-01-24
2327:2023-12-14
2290:2024-04-01
2146:2024-04-01
2121:2024-04-01
2070:2023-12-22
2065:LibreTexts
2046:References
1966:transistor
1934:transistor
1903:R. W. Pohl
1872:Oleg Losev
1801:The first
1791:Oleg Losev
1779:H.J. Round
1701:Halbleiter
1598:, in 1874.
1569:See also:
1536:phosphorus
1185:Insulators
1110:insulators
1096:semimetals
960:photomasks
844:, made of
698:generation
617:Properties
607:transistor
528:phosphorus
416:, such as
408:, such as
331:multi-gate
312:Half-nodes
252:10 nm
243:14 nm
234:22 nm
225:28 nm
216:32 nm
207:45 nm
198:65 nm
189:90 nm
108:10 Ī¼m
99:20 Ī¼m
3509:Structure
3284:23 August
3258:23 August
3211:23 August
3182:22 August
3140:250888128
3015:"Kirj.ee"
3001:250874071
2914:Nave, R.
2818:Nave, R.
2721:Nave, R.
2512:1476-4660
2438:ii-vi.com
2420:211227341
2020:Deathnium
1984:Bell Labs
1971:In 1954,
1918:Bell Labs
1892:R. Hilsch
1811:physicist
1710:B. Gudden
1634:resistors
1523:group III
1484:acceptors
1439:extrinsic
1433:intrinsic
1258:ideal gas
1189:band gaps
1029:diffusion
1001:. A high
886:thin film
877:tellurium
861:amorphous
819:germanium
772:Materials
665:germanium
613:in 1958.
575:acceptors
567:electrons
480:" on the
470:germanium
442:electrons
414:insulator
412:, and an
406:conductor
297:2 nm
279:3 nm
270:5 nm
261:7 nm
144:1 Ī¼m
126:3 Ī¼m
117:6 Ī¼m
3629:Category
3567:Polymers
3533:Ceramics
3356:(1981).
2528:53027396
2520:30323335
1998:See also
1862:in 1947.
1677:electron
1646:sulfides
1631:selenium
1500:acceptor
1385:, where
1333:band gap
1289:negative
1118:band gap
987:etch gas
902:desktops
873:selenium
524:antimony
352:Industry
3229:, IET,
3120:Bibcode
3050:. IET.
2683:4183332
2663:Bibcode
2629:(1995)
2597:Bibcode
2492:Bibcode
1827:silicon
1541:During
1527:group V
1519:silicon
1476:arsenic
1389:is the
1341:photons
1337:phonons
1010:cathode
1006:voltage
948:silicon
906:laptops
869:arsenic
815:silicon
809:of the
787:Silicon
694:photons
628:current
583:crystal
540:gallium
532:arsenic
466:silicon
317:Density
290:Future
3560:Alloys
3447:
3429:
3410:
3391:
3368:
3342:
3313:
3233:
3138:
3054:
2999:
2943:May 3,
2921:May 3,
2899:May 3,
2878:May 3,
2857:May 3,
2830:May 3,
2803:May 3,
2750:May 3,
2728:May 3,
2704:
2681:
2655:Nature
2639:
2569:
2526:
2518:
2510:
2464:
2418:
2408:
2353:
2222:
2094:
1948:, and
1936:was a
1807:galena
1573:, and
1504:p-type
1496:n-type
1488:donors
1448:
1428:doping
1412:Doping
1329:energy
1213:gating
1209:doping
1092:metals
1033:doping
991:plasma
933:wafers
929:ingots
923:, and
875:, and
648:p-type
644:n-type
640:gating
636:doping
579:p-type
571:n-type
563:donors
544:indium
454:diodes
448:, and
426:doping
420:. Its
410:copper
327:Device
132:
62:device
3555:Metal
3538:Glass
3136:S2CID
3090:(PDF)
3079:(PDF)
3018:(PDF)
2997:S2CID
2966:(PDF)
2963:1968"
2776:(PDF)
2769:(PDF)
2679:S2CID
2548:(PDF)
2524:S2CID
2416:S2CID
2266:(PDF)
2259:(PDF)
1910:]
1899:]
1819:radio
1805:used
1717:]
1696:]
1532:boron
1492:donor
1372:exp(ā
1306:When
1218:Some
1172:(see
1126:holes
1088:white
1084:black
1041:wafer
1014:anode
999:Freon
921:twins
603:radio
536:boron
530:, or
418:glass
47:ingot
3445:ISBN
3427:ISBN
3408:ISBN
3389:ISBN
3366:ISBN
3340:ISBN
3311:ISBN
3286:2019
3260:2019
3231:ISBN
3213:2019
3184:2019
3052:ISBN
2945:2021
2923:2021
2901:2021
2880:2021
2859:2021
2832:2021
2805:2021
2784:2023
2752:2021
2730:2021
2702:ISBN
2637:ISBN
2567:ISBN
2516:PMID
2508:ISSN
2462:ISBN
2406:ISBN
2351:ISBN
2220:ISBN
2201:2020
2092:ISBN
1901:and
1854:and
1727:and
1525:and
1362:and
1228:HEMT
1136:edit
1112:and
1098:the
1094:and
1060:and
1012:and
962:and
954:and
817:and
793:and
740:and
738:LEDs
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