290:. Women played dual roles and were expected to deliver with conviction in the aspects in which they were required to perform duties in and outside of the household. Shuttleworth states, "two traditional tropes are here combined: Victorian medical textbooks demonstrated not only woman's biological fitness and adaptation to the sacred role of homemaker, but also her terrifying subjection to the forces of the body. At once angel and demon, woman came to represent both the civilizing power that would cleanse the male from contamination in the brutal world of the economic market and also the rampant, uncontrolled excesses of the material economy."
390:âin the voice of Socratesâsets down the conditions for the training of the guardians, his elite leadership group. Socrates proposes that women should have the same opportunity as men to be trained as guardians. In support of this he offers a strong statement against making sex differences the basis for discrimination: if the difference consists only in women bearing and men begetting children, this does not amount to proof that a woman differs from a man in respect to the sort of education she should receive; and we shall therefore continue to maintain that our guardians and their wives ought to have the same pursuits."
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analysis does not contradict the wide body of empirical evidence for gendered divisions of labor in foraging societies". The sexual division of labour may have arisen to allow humans to acquire food and other resources more efficiently. More recent evidence compiled by researchers such as Sarah Lacy and Cara
Ocobock has found a lack of conclusive preferences for their role among both modern hunter gatherers, where "79 percent of the 63 foraging societies with clear descriptions of their hunting strategies feature women hunters," and among prehistoric societies such as those in
398:"Socrates proposes the same education for boys and girls, freeing guardian women from housework and child-care. But this female equality of opportunity will serve a larger purpose: the destruction of the family. Plato's aim is to abolish private property, the private family, and with it self-interest in his leadership group, for he sees clearly that private property engenders class antagonism and disharmony. Therefore men and women are to have a common way of life. . . âcommon education, common children; and they are to watch over the citizens in common."
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224:) is more likely to be done by men, while work related to care and interpersonal relations is generally more likely to be done by women. The borders of the division are not generally stable, with some fields showing a reversal of the proportions, such as doctors. Some fields see an increasing segregation, positively correlated with the levels of
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foraging based on specialized skill, and (4) sexâdifferentiated comparative advantage in tasks. These combined conditions are rare in nonhuman vertebrates but common to currently-existing populations of human foragers, which, thus, gives rise to a potential factor for the evolutionary divergence of social behaviors in
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technology, and, as a result, male specialization in hunting prowess would have spurred the selection for increased spatial and navigational ability. Similarly, the ability to remember the locations of underground storage organs and other vegetation would have led to an increase in overall efficiency
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Optimal foraging theory (OFT) states that organisms forage in such a way as to maximize their energy intake per unit time. In other words, animals behave in such a way as to find, capture, and consume food containing the most calories while expending the least amount of time possible in doing so. The
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in 1968, it argued, based on evidence now thought to be incomplete, that contemporary foragers displayed a clear division of labour between women and men. However, an attempted verification of this study found "that multiple methodological failures all bias their results in the same direction...their
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societies, males and females are responsible for the acquisition of different types of foods and shared them with each other for a mutual or familial benefit. In some species, males and females eat slightly different foods, while in other species, males and females will routinely share food; but only
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that benefits the household; thus, foraging behavior of males will appear optimal at the level of the family. If a hunter-gatherer man does not rely on resources from others and passes up a food item with caloric value, it can be assumed that he is foraging at an optimal level. But, if he passes up
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Based on the contemporary theories and research on the sexual division of labour, four critical aspects of hunterâgatherer socioecology led to the evolutionary origin of the SDL in humans: longâterm dependency on highâcost offspring, optimal dietary mix of mutually exclusive foods, (3) efficient
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functions mainly to provide an honest signal of the underlying genetic quality of hunters, which later yields a mating advantage or social deference. Women tend to target the foods that are most reliable, while men tend to target difficult-to-acquire foods to "signal" their abilities and genetic
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differences. Those differences disappear with a short training or when given a favorable image of woman ability. Furthermore, differences between individuals are greater than average differences, therefore such differences are not a valid prediction of male or female cognitive ability. This
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effort because they are certain which offspring are theirs and have relatively few reproductive opportunities, each of which is relatively costly and risky. In contrast, males are less certain of paternity, but may have many more mating opportunities bearing relatively low costs and risks.
329:. On the contrary, men do not gather because their physical dominance allows them to scrounge cooked foods from women. Thus, women's foraging and food preparation efforts allow men to participate in the high-risk, high-reward activities of hunting. Females, in turn, become increasingly
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sexual division of labour provides an appropriate explanation as to why males forgo the opportunity to gather any items with caloric value- a strategy that would seem suboptimal from an energetic standpoint. The OFT suggests that the sexual division of labour is an
363:. However, recent research suggests that the sexual division of labour developed relatively recently and that gender roles were not always the same in early-human cultures, contradicting the theory that each sex is naturally predisposed to different types of work.
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may have created problems of food theft from women while food was being cooked. As a result, females would recruit male partners to protect them and their resources from others. This concept, known as the theft hypothesis, accommodates an explanation as to why the
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the opportunity because it is a food that women routinely gather, then as long as men and women share their spoils, it will be optimal for men to forgo the collection and continue searching for different resources to complement the resources gathered by women.
274:. Recent studies on the Hadza have revealed that men hunt mainly to distribute food to their own families rather than sharing it with other members of the community. This conclusion suggests evidence against hunting for signaling purposes.
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and decrease in total energy expenditure since the time spent searching for food would decrease. Natural selection based on behaviors that increase hunting success and energetic efficiency would bear a positive influence on
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model has been a stable characteristic. The division is more pronounced in some fields of work than in others, generally, work outside, dangerous work and work in highly technical disciplines (typically
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He continues to add that with the same set of established resources such as education, training and teaching, it creates an atmosphere of equity which helps to further the cause of gender equality.
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of cooking is strongly associated with the status of women. Women are forced to gather and cook foods because they will not acquire food otherwise and access to resources is critical for their
196:
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Hurtado, A. M., Hill, K., Kaplan, H., & Hurtado, I. (1992). Trade-offs between female food acquisition and child care among Hiwi and Ache foragers. Human Nature. 3.3. (1992): 185 â 216.
989:
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Halperin, R. "Ecology and Mode of
Production: Seasonal Variation and the Division of Labor by Sex Among Hunter-Gatherers." Journal of Anthropological Research. 36 (1980): 379-399. Web.
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suggests that the origin of the division of labour between males and females may have originated with the invention of cooking, which is estimated to have happened simultaneously with
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models that can help explain the origin of the sexual division of labour. Many studies on the sexual division of labour have been conducted on hunter-gatherer populations, such as the
723:
Biesele, Megan; Barclay, Steve (March 2001). "Ju/'Hoan Women's
Tracking Knowledge And Its Contribution To Their Husbands' Hunting Success". African Study Monographs Suppl.26: 67â84
378:. It also identifies how men and women are capable of performing the same job descriptions with the exception of when it calls for anatomical differences, such as giving birth.
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71:. In modern day society, sex differences in occupation is seen across cultures, with the tendency that men do technical work and women tend to do work related to care.
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1291:"ERIC - Manual Training of Mental Rotation in Children, Learning and Instruction, 2008-Feb â Experiment of Wiedenbauer, Gunnar; Jansen-Osmann, Petra (2008)"
792:
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David C. Geary. Sexual selection, the division of labor, and the evolution of sex differences. Behavioral and Brain
Sciences. 21. (1998): 444-447. Web.
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Many studies investigating the spatial abilities of men and women have found no significant differences, though meta studies show a male advantage in
253:, while males will target foods that females do not gather, which increases variance in daily consumption and provides a broader diet for the family.
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Marlowe, F. "A critical period for provisioning by Hadza men: Implications for pair bonding." Evolution and Human
Behavior. 24. (2003): 217-29. Web.
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176:
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Hawkes, K, and Bird Bliege. "Showing off, handicap signaling, and the evolution of men's work." Evolutionary
Anthropology. 11. (2002): 58-67. Web.
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Su, Rong; Rounds, James; Armstrong, Patrick Ian (Nov 2009). "Men and things, women and people: a meta-analysis of sex differences in interests".
1266:"Article by Claude Steele, "A Threat in the Air - How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance" in 1997, "American Psychologist""
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The signaling hypothesis proposes that men hunt to gain social attention and mating benefits by widely sharing game. This model proposes that
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Female
Circulation: Medical Discourse and Popular Advertising in the Mid-Victorian Era." *Body/Politics: Women and the Discourses of Science
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602:"Female foragers sometimes hunt, yet gendered divisions of labor are real: a comment on Anderson et al. (2023) The Myth of Man the Hunter"
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Bird, R. "Cooperation and conflict: the behavioral ecology of the sexual division of labor." Evolutionary
Anthropology. 8.2 (1999): 65-75.
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Marlowe, Frank. "Hunting and
Gathering: The Human Sexual Division of Foraging Labor." Cross-Cultural Research. 41.2 (2007): 170-95. Web.
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Lee and I. Devore, "What hunters do for a living, or How to make out on scare resources," in Man the Hunter. pp. 30-48. Chicago:Aldine
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Both men and women have the option of investing resources either to provision children or to have additional offspring. According to
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Marlowe, F. "Hunting and
Gathering: The Human Sexual Division of Foraging Labor." Cross-Cultural Research. 41.2 (2007): 170-95. Web.
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Wood, B., and K Hill. "A Test of the "Showing-Off" Hypothesis with Ache Hunters." Current Anthropology. 10.99 (2000): 124-25. Web.
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Notable hunter-gatherer groups in the recent or contemporary eras known to lack a distinct sexual division of labour include the
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hypothesis argues that males needed the ability to follow prey over long distances and to accurately target their game with
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Stefan Lovgren. "Sex-Based Roles Gave Modern Humans an Edge, Study Says". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
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Wrangham, R, J.D. Jones, G Laden, and D Pilbeam. "The Raw and the Stolen." Current Anthropology 40.5 (1999): 567-94. Web.
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specialization in particular food groups should increase skill level and thus foraging success rates for targeted foods.
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990:"Women are well-represented in health and long-term care professions, but often in jobs with poor working conditions"
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Zihlman, A., and NM Tanner. "Gathering and the hominid adaptation." Anthropology Origins. 10.99 (2001): 163-194. Web.
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Developmental Influences on Adult Intelligence : The Seattle Longitudinal Study: The Seattle Longitudinal Study
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Wrangham, R, J.D. Jones, G Laden, and D Pilbeam. "The Raw and the Stolen." Current Anthropology 40.5 (1999): 567-94.
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is more likely to favor male reproductive strategies that stress mating effort and female strategies that emphasize
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in humans are these two attributes combined. The few remaining hunter-gatherer populations in the world serve as
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1012:"The proportion of female doctors has increased in all OECD countries over the past two decades Data - OECD"
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and underground storage organs that are rich in energy to provide for themselves and offspring. In the book
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The traditional explanation of the sexual division of labour finds that males and females cooperate within
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Porter, C. (2007). "How Marginal are forager habitats?." Journal of Archeological. 34. (2007): 59-68. Web.
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Julia A. Sherman. 1978. Sex-Related Cognitive Differences: An Essay on Theory and Evidence Springfield.
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by targeting different foods so that everyone in the household benefits. Females may target foods that
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Ellis, Lee, Sex differences: summarizing more than a century of scientific research, CRC Press, 2008,
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Hawkes, K. "Why do men hunt? Some benefits for risky strategies.." E. Cashdan. (1990): 145-166. Web.
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Marlowe, Frank. (2010). The Hadza: the Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania. University of California Press.
136:. Archaeological research done in 2006 by the anthropologist and archaeologist Steven Kuhn from the
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quality. Hunting is thus viewed as a form of mating or male-male status competition, not familial
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99:; however, trade-off differences do exist between sexes. Females are likely to benefit most from
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Sexual division of labour is observed globally, and across most cultures. In many societies the
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Familial Resemblance for the Identical Blocks Test of Spatial Ability: No Evidence of X Linkage
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679:"What's a Mother to Do? The Division of Labor among Neandertals and Modern Humans in Eurasia"
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95:, males and females monitor costs and benefits of each alternative to maximize reproductive
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406:, argue that available evidence does not support a biological basis for gender roles.
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From the 1970s onward, the dominant paleontological perspective of gendered roles in
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Halpern, Diane F., Sex differences in cognitive abilities, Psychology Press, 2000,
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964:"STEM Jobs See Uneven Progress in Increasing Gender, Racial and Ethnic Diversity"
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Sexual division of labour continues to be a debated topic within anthropology.
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Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference
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349:. The sexual division of labour has been proposed as an explanation for these
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852:"The Human Advantage: A New Understanding of How Our Brain Became Remarkable"
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793:"Invention of cooking drove evolution of the human species, new book argues"
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Catherine Vidal (2012). "The Sexed Brain: Between Science and Ideology".
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The Theory That Men Evolved to Hunt and Women Evolved to Gather Is Wrong
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and assessing horizontality and verticality, and a female advantage in
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suggests that the sexual division of labour did not exist prior to the
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http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/12/061207-sex-humans.html
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as a means to exploit male interest in investing in her protection.
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International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
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Wiedenbauer, Gunnar; Jansen-Osmann, Petra (February 2008).
941:(1 ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. p. chapter 11.
1411:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. Chapter 10.
1192:
Chrisler, Joan C; Donald R. McCreary (11 February 2012).
1372:"Sex-Based Roles Gave Modern Humans an Edge, Study Says"
962:
Fry, Richard; Kennedy, Brian; Funk, Cary (April 2021).
170:. As a result, women do the low-risk task of gathering
27:
Delegation of different tasks between males and females
829:"Review of "Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human""
659:
This Prehistoric Peruvian Woman Was a Big-Game Hunter
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and developed relatively recently in human history.
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3369:(archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)
1426:
1404:
374:to argue that the idea of defined gender roles is
904:Reskin, B.F. (2001). "Sex Segregation at Work".
251:do not conflict with reproduction and child care
677:Kuhn, Steven L.; Stiner, Mary C. (2006-12-01).
939:Subjectivity, Citizenship and Belonging in Law
833:The Councilor: A Journal of the Social Studies
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1506:
191:. A similar idea was proposed far earlier by
8:
1154:. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 68.
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220:jobs with the exception of those related to
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1194:Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology
1125:Corley, DeFries, Kuse, Vandenberg. 1980.
600:Venkataraman, et al. (May 7, 2024).
308:Cooking and the sexual division of labour
3774:Human evolutionary developmental biology
2677:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
768:Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human
228:policies of the countries, known as the
177:Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human
162:Anthropologist Rebecca Bird argued that
860:10.7551/mitpress/9780262034258.001.0001
850:Herculano-Houzel, Suzana (2016-04-29).
484:
1072:. New York: Routledge. pp. 47â70.
886:
875:
809:
798:
739:. Yale University Press. p. 120.
3559:Evolutionary models of human drug use
2169:Psychological effects of Internet use
791:Bradt, Steve; Sciences (2009-06-01).
7:
3799:
2149:Digital media use and mental health
1148:University, K.W.S.P.P.P.S. (2005).
236:Hypotheses for evolutionary origins
1780:Automatic and controlled processes
1307:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.09.009
626:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2024.04.014
118:Man the Hunter, Woman the Gatherer
67:, a hunter-gatherer population of
25:
2189:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
1444:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001005.g001
1181:Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
75:Behavioral ecological perspective
3810:
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3787:
3786:
2840:
2827:
2815:
2814:
2214:Mobile phones and driving safety
580:Sarah Lacy & Cara Ocobock. "
2117:Computer-mediated communication
294:SDL and optimal foraging theory
43:of different tasks between the
2394:Empathisingâsystemising theory
1697:female intrasexual competition
1634:Evolutionarily stable strategy
914:10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/03994-2
189:humans gaining control of fire
1:
2754:Standard social science model
1807:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
937:MAIR, JANE (4 October 2016).
827:Rehg, Jennifer (2018-04-11).
286:has been closely examined by
261:Show-Off/Signaling hypothesis
2602:Missing heritability problem
2194:Social aspects of television
1817:Evolution of nervous systems
1785:Computational theory of mind
1068:Shuttleworth, Sally (1990).
606:Evolution and Human Behavior
444:Compatibility with childcare
337:Evolution of sex differences
51:members of a species. Among
3817:Evolutionary biology Portal
2848:Evolutionary biology portal
3890:
2809:Evolutionary psychologists
2682:TriversâWillard hypothesis
2597:Humanâanimal communication
2309:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
2159:Imprinted brain hypothesis
2127:Humanâcomputer interaction
1407:The Creation of Patriarchy
766:Wrangham, Richard (2009).
402:Some researchers, such as
197:unfinished essay from 1876
84:
78:
3782:
3762:Evolutionary anthropology
3147:
2954:
2803:
2729:Environmental determinism
2700:Cultural selection theory
2587:Evolutionary epistemology
2501:evolutionary neuroscience
2174:Rank theory of depression
1676:Parentâoffspring conflict
1528:
1340:10.1007/s12152-011-9121-9
1301:(1). eric.ed.gov: 30â41.
114:hunter-gatherer societies
33:Sexual division of labour
2622:Cultural group selection
2506:Biocultural anthropology
2199:Societal impacts of cars
2132:Media naturalness theory
1822:Fight-or-flight response
1376:National Geographic News
1295:Learning and Instruction
449:Economy-of-effort theory
410:Evolutionary perspective
18:Sexual division of labor
3668:Origin of modern humans
2822:Evolutionary psychology
2786:Sociocultural evolution
2627:Dual inheritance theory
2084:Personality development
1545:Theoretical foundations
1522:Evolutionary psychology
885:Cite magazine requires
808:Cite magazine requires
370:quotes the philosopher
230:gender-equality paradox
203:In modern human society
116:was of a model termed "
2744:Social constructionism
2739:Psychological nativism
2714:Biological determinism
2662:Recent human evolution
2657:Punctuated equilibrium
2480:Behavioral epigenetics
2475:evolutionary economics
2444:Variability hypothesis
2389:Emotional intelligence
2122:Engineering psychology
1812:Evolution of the brain
1403:Lerner, Gerda (1986).
400:
392:
241:Provisioning household
3676:Recent African origin
2914:Last common ancestors
2771:Multilineal evolution
2734:Nature versus nurture
2693:Theoretical positions
2541:Functional psychology
2536:Evolutionary medicine
2511:Biological psychiatry
2219:Texting while driving
2209:Leadâcrime hypothesis
2069:Cognitive development
2054:Caregiver deprivation
1565:Gene selection theory
733:Dahlberg, F. (1983).
396:
380:
138:University of Arizona
3869:Production economics
3691:Behavioral modernity
3681:Multiregional origin
3461:archaic Homo sapiens
3456:Homo heidelbergensis
3401:Red Deer Cave people
2724:Cultural determinism
2531:Evolutionary biology
2516:Cognitive psychology
2464:Academic disciplines
2112:Cognitive ergonomics
2079:Language acquisition
2059:Childhood attachment
1872:Wason selection task
1766:Behavioral modernity
1555:Cognitive revolution
1538:Evolutionary thought
1382:on December 10, 2006
1129:. Behavior Genetics.
683:Current Anthropology
664:Smithsonian Magazine
361:reproductive success
327:reproductive success
278:The Victorian Period
108:Hunting vs gathering
3328:H. neanderthalensis
3248:H. e. tautavelensis
2791:Unilineal evolution
2556:Population genetics
2341:Sexy son hypothesis
2279:Hormonal motivation
2259:Concealed ovulation
1800:Dual process theory
1671:Parental investment
618:2024EHumB..4506586V
587:Scientific American
331:sexually attractive
168:parental investment
125:Richard Borshay Lee
93:life history theory
87:Women in prehistory
3859:Industrial history
3515:Self-domestication
3306:H. heidelbergensis
3255:H. e. yuanmouensis
3220:H. e. lantianensis
2947:Australopithecines
2749:Social determinism
2632:Fisher's principle
2592:Great ape language
2582:Cultural evolution
2551:Philosophy of mind
2384:Division of labour
2346:Westermarck effect
2294:Mating preferences
2204:Distracted driving
1938:Literary criticism
1795:Domain specificity
1775:modularity of mind
1196:. Springer, 2010.
992:. OECD. March 2019
736:Woman the Gatherer
667:, 5 November 2020.
645:2011-06-04 at the
590:, 1 November 2023.
464:Male expendability
429:Division of labour
288:Sally Shuttleworth
3826:
3825:
3767:Paleoanthropology
3709:
3708:
3686:Archaic admixture
3564:Stoned ape theory
3500:Endurance running
3417:
3416:
3413:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3264:
3263:
3227:H. e. nankinensis
3183:H. tsaichangensis
3119:
3118:
2857:
2856:
2835:Psychology portal
2799:
2798:
2642:Hologenome theory
2612:Unit of selection
2607:Primate cognition
2521:Cognitive science
2452:
2451:
2323:Sexual attraction
2299:Mating strategies
2064:Cinderella effect
1994:Moral foundations
1898:Visual perception
1790:Domain generality
1759:Facial expression
1707:Sexual dimorphism
1666:Natural selection
1612:Hamiltonian spite
1454:978-0-393-06838-2
1254:978-0-8058-2792-7
1230:978-0-8058-5959-1
948:978-1-317-30814-0
869:978-0-262-03425-8
854:. The MIT Press.
777:978-0-465-01362-3
469:Natural selection
312:The emergence of
164:natural selection
142:Upper Paleolithic
16:(Redirected from
3881:
3854:Labour economics
3814:
3802:
3801:
3790:
3789:
3726:Human prehistory
3701:Recent evolution
3696:Early migrations
3638:Thermoregulation
3539:Expensive tissue
3510:Sexual selection
3480:
3352:
3234:H. e. pekinensis
3145:
3138:
3053:A. bahrelghazali
3022:Australopithecus
2952:
2922:Chimpanzeeâhuman
2910:
2884:
2877:
2870:
2861:
2844:
2831:
2818:
2817:
2461:
2457:Related subjects
2244:Adult attachment
1771:Cognitive module
1727:
1714:Social selection
1688:Costly signaling
1683:Sexual selection
1570:Modern synthesis
1515:
1508:
1501:
1492:
1486:
1483:
1477:
1474:
1468:
1465:
1459:
1458:
1446:
1432:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1400:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1378:. Archived from
1370:Stefan Lovgren.
1367:
1361:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1313:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1277:
1276:
1271:. users.nber.org
1270:
1262:
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567:
564:
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533:10.1037/a0017364
516:
510:
507:
501:
498:
492:
489:
193:Friedrich Engels
185:Richard Wrangham
21:
3889:
3888:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3829:
3828:
3827:
3822:
3778:
3735:
3721:Human evolution
3705:
3662:
3606:
3600:
3579:Cooperative eye
3524:Specific models
3519:
3471:
3450:Homo antecessor
3405:
3341:
3335:H. rhodesiensis
3299:H. floresiensis
3260:
3241:H. e. soloensis
3213:H. e. georgicus
3189:
3153:H. gautengensis
3128:
3126:
3115:
3079:
3015:
2986:
2941:
2932:Orangutanâhuman
2901:
2893:
2891:Human evolution
2888:
2858:
2853:
2795:
2781:Neoevolutionism
2688:
2672:Species complex
2637:Group selection
2575:Research topics
2570:
2546:Neuropsychology
2448:
2434:Substance abuse
2356:Sex differences
2350:
2264:Coolidge effect
2225:
2137:Neuroergonomics
2102:
2093:
2017:
1919:
1853:Folk psychology
1734:
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968:pewresearch.org
961:
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908:: 13962â13965.
903:
902:
898:
887:|magazine=
884:
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849:
848:
844:
826:
825:
821:
810:|magazine=
807:
797:
790:
789:
785:
778:
770:. Basic Books.
765:
764:
760:
751:
749:
747:
732:
731:
727:
722:
718:
676:
675:
671:
657:Livia Gershon.
656:
652:
647:Wayback Machine
637:
633:
599:
598:
594:
579:
570:
565:
556:
518:
517:
513:
508:
504:
499:
495:
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486:
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454:Strength theory
434:Hunter-gatherer
425:
412:
343:mental rotation
339:
310:
296:
280:
263:
243:
238:
205:
122:anthropologists
110:
89:
83:
77:
56:hunter-gatherer
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3887:
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3731:Human timeline
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3554:Drunken monkey
3548:
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3521:
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3486:
3484:
3483:General models
3477:
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3295:
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3282:
3274:
3272:
3270:Archaic humans
3266:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3258:
3251:
3244:
3237:
3230:
3223:
3216:
3209:
3201:
3199:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3187:
3179:
3175:H. rudolfensis
3171:
3164:
3157:
3148:
3142:
3135:
3121:
3120:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3106:
3099:
3096:P. aethiopicus
3091:
3089:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3070:
3063:
3056:
3049:
3042:
3035:
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3017:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3006:
2998:
2996:
2988:
2987:
2985:
2984:
2977:
2974:Sahelanthropus
2970:
2963:
2960:Nakalipithecus
2955:
2949:
2943:
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2929:
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2221:
2216:
2211:
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2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2164:Mind-blindness
2161:
2156:
2151:
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2141:
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2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2108:
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2019:
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1859:
1857:theory of mind
1850:
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1624:Baldwin effect
1621:
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1487:
1478:
1469:
1460:
1453:
1423:Fine, Cordelia
1414:
1392:
1362:
1353:
1334:(3): 295â303.
1318:
1281:
1257:
1233:
1209:
1202:
1184:
1173:
1160:
1140:
1131:
1118:
1102:
1093:
1084:
1075:
1060:
1051:
1042:
1033:
1021:
1003:
981:
970:. pew research
954:
947:
929:
922:
896:
868:
842:
819:
783:
776:
758:
745:
725:
716:
695:10.1086/507197
689:(6): 953â981.
669:
650:
631:
592:
568:
554:
527:(6): 859â884.
511:
502:
493:
483:
481:
478:
477:
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466:
461:
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451:
446:
441:
436:
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424:
421:
411:
408:
382:"In Book V of
347:spatial memory
338:
335:
309:
306:
295:
292:
279:
276:
262:
259:
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239:
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204:
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76:
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26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3864:Manufacturing
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3839:Labor history
3837:
3836:
3834:
3819:
3818:
3813:
3809:
3807:
3806:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3785:
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3616:
3614:
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3603:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3585:Life history
3584:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3571:
3569:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
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3506:
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3468:
3467:
3462:
3458:
3457:
3452:
3451:
3446:
3445:
3440:
3439:
3438:Homo ergaster
3434:
3433:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3367:H. s. sapiens
3364:
3363:
3361:
3359:
3358:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3347:Modern humans
3344:
3337:
3336:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3325:
3323:
3322:
3321:H. luzonensis
3318:
3315:
3314:
3310:
3308:
3307:
3303:
3301:
3300:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3280:
3279:H. antecessor
3276:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3257:
3256:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3245:
3243:
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3060:A. deyiremeda
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2981:Kenyanthropus
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2961:
2957:
2956:
2953:
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2927:Gorillaâhuman
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2777:
2776:Neo-Darwinism
2774:
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2769:
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2761:Functionalism
2759:
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2745:
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2730:
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2725:
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2720:
2719:Connectionism
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2710:
2709:indeterminism
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2249:Age disparity
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2099:Human factors
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2089:Socialization
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1913:NaĂŻve physics
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1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1900:
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1879:Motor control
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1837:Ophidiophobia
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1827:Arachnophobia
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1550:Adaptationism
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878:cite magazine
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830:
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820:
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801:cite magazine
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291:
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284:Victorian era
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182:primatologist
179:
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143:
139:
135:
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126:
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105:
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70:
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3874:Gender roles
3849:Anthropology
3844:Sociobiology
3815:
3803:
3791:
3658:Gender roles
3653:Intelligence
3466:Homo sapiens
3464:
3460:
3454:
3448:
3444:Homo erectus
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3432:Homo habilis
3430:
3391:Manot people
3380:H. s. idaltu
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3374:Jebel Irhoud
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3357:Homo sapiens
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3333:
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3297:
3289:
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3196:Homo erectus
3194:
3181:
3173:
3166:
3159:
3151:
3141:Proto-humans
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3127:proto-humans
3108:
3101:
3094:
3086:Paranthropus
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3072:
3065:
3058:
3051:
3046:A. anamensis
3044:
3039:A. africanus
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3032:A. afarensis
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3020:
3008:
3001:
2993:Ardipithecus
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2979:
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2937:Gibbonâhuman
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2820:
2807:
2566:Sociobiology
2424:Neuroscience
2404:Intelligence
2383:
1950:Anthropology
1903:Color vision
1888:Multitasking
1867:Flynn effect
1862:Intelligence
1844:Folk biology
1587:Evolutionary
1481:
1472:
1463:
1435:W. W. Norton
1428:
1417:
1406:
1384:. Retrieved
1380:the original
1375:
1365:
1356:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1310:. Retrieved
1298:
1294:
1284:
1273:. Retrieved
1260:
1236:
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1187:
1176:
1165:. Retrieved
1150:
1143:
1134:
1126:
1121:
1096:
1087:
1078:
1069:
1063:
1054:
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1036:
1016:www.oecd.org
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1006:
996:13 September
994:. Retrieved
984:
974:13 September
972:. Retrieved
967:
957:
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932:
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832:
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750:. Retrieved
735:
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686:
682:
672:
662:
653:
634:
609:
605:
595:
585:
524:
521:Psychol Bull
520:
514:
505:
496:
487:
474:Gender roles
416:
413:
401:
397:
393:
384:the Republic
381:
368:Gerda Lerner
365:
340:
311:
297:
281:
272:provisioning
264:
244:
206:
175:
161:
146:
129:Irven DeVore
111:
90:
81:Women's work
61:evolutionary
36:
32:
31:
29:
3589:Grandmother
3544:Shore-based
3505:Aquatic ape
3396:Tam Pa Ling
3291:H. ergaster
3110:P. robustus
2705:Determinism
2617:Coevolution
2561:Primatology
2399:Gender role
2304:Orientation
2184:Screen time
2041:Affectional
2023:Development
1702:Mate choice
1629:By-products
1597:Adaptations
1560:Cognitivism
1328:Neuroethics
376:patriarchal
226:egalitarian
222:health care
209:breadwinner
3833:Categories
3628:Skin color
3613:Bipedalism
3574:Killer ape
3386:Cro-Magnon
3285:Denisovans
3161:H. habilis
3125:Humans and
3010:A. ramidus
3003:A. kadabba
2652:Population
2647:Lamarckism
2493:behavioral
2471:Behavioral
2419:Narcissism
2364:Aggression
2154:Hypophobia
2144:Depression
2031:Attachment
2013:Universals
1977:Psychology
1955:Biological
1943:Musicology
1933:Aesthetics
1832:Basophobia
1639:Exaptation
1617:Reciprocal
1386:2008-02-03
1312:2015-07-12
1275:2015-07-12
1167:2015-07-12
752:2015-07-12
480:References
459:Adaptation
356:projectile
301:adaptation
247:pair bonds
172:vegetation
157:Ju'/hoansi
85:See also:
79:See also:
41:delegation
3747:Theorists
3714:Timelines
3594:Patriarch
3570:Behavior
3495:Gathering
3423:Ancestors
3168:H. naledi
3103:P. boisei
3074:A. sediba
2497:cognitive
2489:Affective
2374:Cognition
2328:Sexuality
2314:Pair bond
2074:Education
1731:Cognition
1649:Inclusive
1589:processes
1577:Criticism
1348:145584327
703:0011-3204
439:Evolution
351:cognitive
316:in early
213:homemaker
39:) is the
3793:Category
3648:Language
3618:Skeleton
3313:H. longi
3067:A. garhi
2904:Hominins
2899:Taxonomy
2766:Memetics
2526:Ethology
2484:genetics
2319:Physical
2284:Jealousy
2239:Activity
2045:maternal
2001:Religion
1989:Morality
1967:Language
1848:taxonomy
1661:Mismatch
1607:Cheating
1602:Altruism
1425:(2010).
711:42981328
643:Archived
549:31839733
541:19883140
423:See also
372:Socrates
255:Foraging
180:British
69:Tanzania
3805:Commons
3757:Fossils
3623:Muscles
3534:Cooking
3490:Hunting
2967:Orrorin
2667:Species
2439:Suicide
2274:Fantasy
2254:Arousal
2036:Bonding
1925:Culture
1749:Display
1736:Emotion
1644:Fitness
1533:History
1018:. OECD.
614:Bibcode
314:cooking
267:hunting
211:–
97:fitness
3740:Others
3643:Speech
3605:Topics
3550:Drugs
3476:Models
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2409:Memory
2369:Autism
2336:female
2269:Desire
2006:Origin
1982:Speech
1972:Origin
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1962:Crime
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1883:skill
1723:Areas
1344:S2CID
1269:(PDF)
707:S2CID
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388:Plato
65:Hadza
53:human
3633:Hair
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2332:male
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891:help
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814:help
772:ISBN
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699:ISSN
537:PMID
417:Homo
318:Homo
282:The
218:STEM
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