246:
as a cathode material. Recent studies have found that doping LSM with scandium to form LSMS promotes mobility of oxide ions in the cathode, increasing reduction kinetics at the interface with the electrolyte and thus leading to higher performance at low temperatures than traditional LSM cells. However, further development of the sintering process parameters is required to prevent precipitation of scandium oxide into the LSM lattice. These precipitate particles are problematic because they can impede electron and ion conduction. In particular, the processing temperature and concentration of scandium in the LSM lattice are being researched to optimize the properties of the LSMS cathode. New materials are being researched such as lanthanum strontium manganese chromate (LSCM), which has proven to be more stable under electrolysis conditions. LSCM has high redox stability, which is crucial especially at the interface with the electrolyte. Scandium-doped LCSM (LSCMS) is also being researched as a cathode material due to its high ionic conductivity. However, the rare-earth element introduces a significant materials cost and was found to cause a slight decrease in overall mixed conductivity. Nonetheless, LCSMS materials have demonstrated high efficiency at temperatures as low as 700 °C.
1569:. In exothermic mode, the stack temperature increases during operation due to heat accumulation, and this heat is used for inlet gas preheating. Therefore, an external heat source is not needed while the electrical energy consumption increases. In the endothermic stack operation mode, there is an increase in heat energy consumption and a reduction in electrical energy consumption and hydrogen production because the average current density also decreases. The third mode is thermoneutral in which the heat generated through irreversible losses is equal to the heat required by the reaction. As there are some thermal losses, an external heat source is needed. This mode consumes more electricity than endothermic operation mode.
237:
Despite the material similarity to solid oxide fuel cells, the operating conditions are different, leading to issues such as high steam concentrations at the fuel electrode and high oxygen partial pressures at the electrolyte/oxygen electrode interface. A recent study found that periodic cycling a cell between electrolyzer and fuel cell modes reduced the oxygen partial pressure build up and drastically increased the lifetime of the electrolyzer cell.
20:
316:
Fuel cells operated in electrolysis mode have been observed to degrade primarily due to anode delamination from the electrolyte. The delamination is a result of high oxygen partial pressure build up at the electrolyte-anode interface. Pores in the electrolyte-anode material act to confine high oxygen
183:
and oxygen ions. The hydrogen gas then diffuses back up through the cathode and is collected at its surface as hydrogen fuel, while the oxygen ions are conducted through the dense electrolyte. The electrolyte must be dense enough that the steam and hydrogen gas cannot diffuse through and lead to the
245:
The most common fuel electrode material is a Ni doped YSZ. However, high steam partial pressures and low hydrogen partial pressures at the Ni-YSZ interface causes oxidation of the nickel which results in catalyst degradation. Perovskite-type lanthanum strontium manganese (LSM) is also commonly used
236:
from the tetragonal to the monoclinic phase on rapid cooling, which can lead to cracks and decrease the conductive properties of the electrolyte by causing scattering. Some other common choices for SOEC are
Scandia stabilized zirconia (ScSZ), ceria based electrolytes or lanthanum gallate materials.
263:
as an anode material provided 1.7 times the current density of typical LSM anodes when integrated into a commercial SOEC and operated at 700 °C, and approximately 4 times the current density when operated at 800 °C. The increased performance is postulated to be due to higher
254:
Lanthanum strontium manganate (LSM) is the most common oxygen electrode material. LSM offers high performance under electrolysis conditions due to generation of oxygen vacancies under anodic polarization that aid oxygen diffusion. In addition, impregnating LSM electrode with Gd-doped
1516:
Delamination of the anode from the electrolyte increases the resistance of the cell and necessitates higher operating voltages in order to maintain a stable current. Higher applied voltages increases the internal oxygen partial pressure, further exacerbating the degradation.
295:
is usually optimized for operating in one mode and may not be built in such a way that it can be operated in reverse. Fuel cells operated backwards may not make very efficient systems unless they are constructed to do so such as in the case of solid oxide electrolyzer cells,
1603:
Zheng, Yun; Wang, Jianchen; Yu, Bo; Zhang, Wenqiang; Chen, Jing; Qiao, Jinli; Zhang, Jiujun (2017). "A review of high temperature co-electrolysis of H O and CO to produce sustainable fuels using solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs): advanced materials and technology".
462:
Virkar et al. created a model to calculate the internal oxygen partial pressure from the oxygen partial pressure exposed to the electrodes and the electrolyte resistive properties. The internal pressure of oxygen at the electrolyte- anode interface was modelled as:
146:
Electrolysis of water at 298 K (25 °C) requires 285.83 kJ of energy per mole in order to occur, and the reaction is increasingly endothermic with increasing temperature. However, the energy demand may be reduced due to the
259:(GDC) nanoparticles was found to increase cell lifetime by preventing delamination at the electrode/electrolyte interface. The exact mechanism by how this happen needs to be explore further. In a 2010 study, it was found that
1552:
as a means to produce oxygen for both human sustenance and liquid oxygen rocket propellant. In April 2021, NASA claimed it has successfully produced 1 gallon of earth-equivalent oxygen (4 and 5 grams of oxygen on Mars) from
317:
partial pressures inducing stress concentration in the surrounding material. The maximum stress induced can be expressed in terms of the internal oxygen pressure using the following equation from fracture mechanics:
1949:
Chen, S.; Xie, K.; Dong, D.; Li, H.; Qin, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Wu, Y. (2015). "A composite cathode based on scandium-doped chromate for direct high-temperature steam electrolysis in a symmetric solid oxide electrolyzer".
401:
2252:
2269:
1511:
63:) and oxygen. The production of pure hydrogen is compelling because it is a clean fuel that can be stored, making it a potential alternative to batteries, methane, and other energy sources (see
1656:
Ni M, Leung MKH, Leung DYC, Sumathy K. A review and recent developments in photocatalytic water-splitting using TiO2 for hydrogen production. Renewable
Sustainable Energy Rev 2007;11(3):401–25.
1895:
Yue, X.; Yan, A.; Zhang, M.; Liu, L.; Dong, Y.; Cheng, M. (2008). "Investigation on scandium-doped manganate La0.8Sr0.2Mn1-xScxO3-cathode for
Intermediate Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells".
676:
1434:
1525:
SOECs have possible application in fuel production, carbon dioxide recycling, and chemicals synthesis. In addition to the production of hydrogen and oxygen, an SOEC could be used to create
196:
Solid oxide electrolyzer cells follow the same construction of a solid-oxide fuel cell, consisting of a fuel electrode (cathode), an oxygen electrode (anode) and a solid-oxide electrolyte.
862:
1529:
by electrolyzing water vapor and carbon dioxide. Mega-watt scale SOEC have been installed in
Rotterdam, using industrial waste heat to reach its operating temperature of 850°C .
2012:
Chen, K.; Ai, N.; Jiang, S.P. (2010). "Development of (Gd,Ce)O[sub 2]-Impregnated (La,Sr)MnO[sub 3] Anodes of High
Temperature Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells".
457:
1513:. The internal oxygen partial pressure is minimized by increasing the electronic resistance at the anode interface and decreasing the ionic resistance at anode interface.
1319:
903:
1349:
1281:
1165:
1105:
1922:
Yang, X.; Irvine, J.T.S. (2008). "(La0.75Sr0.25)0.95Mn0.5Cr0.5O3 as the cathode of solid oxide electrolysis cells for high temperature hydrogen production from steam".
1376:
1192:
1132:
967:
935:
1246:
1219:
1075:
1048:
1021:
994:
424:
1844:
Graves, C.; Ebbesen, S. D.; Jensen, S. H.; Simonsen, S. B.; Mogensen, M. B. "Eliminating degradation in solid oxide electrochemical cells by reversible operation.
2249:
1773:
Bocanegra-Bernal, M. H.; De la Torre, S. D. (2002). "Phase transitions in zirconium dioxide and related materials for high performance engineering ceramics".
276:. Additional advantages include long-term stability, fuel flexibility, low emissions, and low operating costs. However, the greatest disadvantage is the high
2741:
2039:
Chauveau, F.; Mougin, J.; Bassat, J. M.; Mauvy, F.; Grenier, J. C. (2010). "A new anode material for solid oxide electrolyser: The neodymium nickelate".
179:. Steam is fed into the porous cathode. When a voltage is applied, the steam moves to the cathode-electrolyte interface and is reduced to form pure H
71:
from water due to high efficiency of conversion and relatively low required energy input when compared to thermochemical and photocatalytic methods.
2901:
188:
and O. At the electrolyte-anode interface, the oxygen ions are oxidized to form pure oxygen gas, which is collected at the surface of the anode.
280:, which results in long start-up times and break-in times. The high operating temperature also leads to mechanical compatibility issues such as
2688:
308:. However, current research is being conducted to investigate systems in which a solid oxide cell may be run in either direction efficiently.
1746:
Ni, M.; Leung, M. K. H.; Leung, D. Y. C. (2008). "Technological development of hydrogen production by solid oxide electrolyzer cell (SOEC)".
1666:
Ni, M.; Leung, M. K. H.; Leung, D. Y. C. (2008). "Technological development of hydrogen production by solid oxide electrolyzer cell (SOEC)".
2426:
2311:
1641:
291:
In principle, the process of any fuel cell could be reversed, due to the inherent reversibility of chemical reactions. However, a given
2077:
2464:
2371:"Design and optimization of a combined solar thermophotovoltaic power generation and solid oxide electrolyser for hydrogen production"
323:
220:
is used because of its high strength, high melting temperature (approximately 2700 °C) and excellent corrosion resistance.
2607:
301:
2562:
1439:
80:
1808:
Laguna-Bercero, M. A. (2012). "Recent advances in high temperature electrolysis using solid oxide fuel cells: A review".
2791:
2702:
2485:
2812:
2756:
2726:
459:
exceeds the theoretical strength of the material, the crack will propagate, macroscopically resulting in delamination.
264:"overstoichimoetry" of oxygen in the neodymium nickelate, making it a successful conductor of both ions and electrons.
2845:
2655:
2572:
2515:
1578:
1542:
469:
1381:
2716:
2681:
2592:
2454:
297:
2666:
204:
The most common electrolyte, again similar to solid-oxide fuel cells, is a dense ionic conductor consisting of ZrO
2582:
2500:
2459:
2587:
2495:
2419:
2337:
2270:"Hot hydrogen | World's largest solid-oxide electrolyser successfully installed at Rotterdam biofuels refinery"
2102:
Brozek, Celestyn M. (1996). "Simple and attractive demonstration of the reversibility of chemical reactions".
272:
Advantages of solid oxide-based regenerative fuel cells include high efficiencies, as they are not limited by
2784:
2577:
2510:
2490:
682:
2597:
2536:
1985:
Wan, W.; Jiang, S.P. (2006). "La0.75Sr0.25Cr0.5Mn0.5O3−δ+Cu composite anode running on H2 and CH4 fuels".
305:
40:
19:
2779:
2746:
2674:
2505:
2469:
1583:
1566:
277:
88:
84:
44:
36:
2520:
2215:
Gazzarri, J.I.; Kesler, O. (2007). "Non-destructive delamination detection in solid oxide fuel cells".
2224:
2188:
Virkar, A.V. (2010). "Mechanism of oxygen electrode delamination in solid oxide electrolyzer cells".
2161:
Virkar, A.V. (2010). "Mechanism of oxygen electrode delamination in solid oxide electrolyzer cells".
2111:
1959:
1716:
1546:
2927:
2731:
2541:
2412:
1134:
are the electric potentials at the anode surface and the anode electrolyte interface respectively.
429:
260:
68:
1703:
2835:
2766:
2761:
2449:
2390:
1790:
1286:
870:
221:
155:
process at high temperatures. Research is ongoing to add heat from external heat sources such as
2066:
Intermediate temperature solid oxide electrolysis cell using LaGaO3 based perovskite electrolyte
1692:
1324:
1251:
1140:
1080:
171:
The general function of the electrolyzer cell is to split water in the form of steam into pure H
1354:
1170:
1110:
940:
908:
2830:
2345:
1638:
1621:
281:
273:
217:
2065:
2891:
2870:
2796:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2382:
2232:
2197:
2170:
2119:
2048:
2021:
1994:
1967:
1931:
1904:
1875:
1867:
1825:
1817:
1782:
1755:
1728:
1675:
1613:
233:
160:
64:
1224:
1197:
1053:
1026:
999:
972:
409:
2721:
2256:
1645:
152:
60:
2081:
2228:
2115:
1963:
2771:
2751:
2137:
A Proposed Method for High
Efficiency Electrical Energy Storage Using Solid Oxide Cells
2921:
2815:
2557:
2394:
1794:
148:
2698:
2567:
2386:
2236:
2201:
2174:
2052:
1971:
1908:
1871:
1821:
1759:
1732:
1679:
56:
2370:
1077:
are the overall electronic and ionic area specific resistances respectively, and
2906:
2896:
156:
92:
91:. The net cell reaction yields hydrogen and oxygen gases. The reactions for one
52:
1565:
SOEC modules can operate in three different modes: exothermic, endothermic and
2736:
1998:
1786:
2349:
2287:
2860:
2855:
2435:
292:
285:
96:
1625:
2136:
2840:
2825:
2619:
2123:
1717:"Can high temperature steam electrolysis function with geothermal heat?"
905:
is the oxygen partial pressure exposed to the oxygen electrode (anode),
2850:
2820:
1880:
1830:
1617:
108:
48:
2025:
2865:
2312:"MIT to send oxygen-creating instrument on Mars 2020 mission by NASA"
1935:
1526:
1639:
Durability of solid oxide electrolysis cells for hydrogen production
937:
is the area specific electronic resistance at the anode interface,
79:
Solid oxide electrolyzer cells operate at temperatures which allow
104:
100:
18:
2875:
2670:
2408:
1693:
A reversible planar solid oxide fuel-assisted electrolysis cell
396:{\displaystyle \sigma _{max}=2P_{O2}({\frac {c}{\rho }})^{1/2}}
1538:
969:
is the area specific ionic resistance at the anode interface,
2404:
1715:
Sigurvinsson, J; Mansilla, C; Lovera, P; Werkoff, F (2007).
67:). Electrolysis is currently the most promising method of
1506:{\displaystyle {\frac {(E_{a}-E_{N})r_{i}^{a}}{R_{i}}}}
83:
to occur, typically between 500 and 850 °C. These
151:
of an electrolysis cell, which may be utilized in the
1442:
1384:
1357:
1327:
1289:
1254:
1227:
1200:
1173:
1143:
1113:
1083:
1056:
1029:
1002:
975:
943:
911:
873:
685:
472:
432:
412:
326:
426:
is the radius of curvature of the crack or pore. If
2884:
2805:
2709:
2618:
2550:
2529:
2478:
2442:
47:(and/or carbon dioxide) by using a solid oxide, or
2338:"NASA's MOXIE Experiment Is Making Oxygen on Mars"
1505:
1428:
1370:
1343:
1313:
1275:
1240:
1213:
1186:
1159:
1126:
1099:
1069:
1042:
1015:
988:
961:
929:
897:
856:
670:
451:
418:
395:
216:(also known as YSZ, ytrium-stabilized zirconia).
2292:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
671:{\displaystyle P_{O2}^{a}=P_{O2}^{Ox}\exp \left}
1429:{\displaystyle {\frac {E_{a}r_{e}^{a}}{R_{e}}}}
406:where c is the length of the crack or pore and
284:mismatch and chemical stability issues such as
2369:Daneshpour, Raheleh; Mehrpooya, Mehdi (2018).
2682:
2420:
8:
2689:
2675:
2667:
2427:
2413:
2405:
2250:Ceramatec Solid Oxide Co-Electrolysis Cell
1879:
1829:
1495:
1484:
1479:
1466:
1453:
1443:
1441:
1418:
1407:
1402:
1392:
1385:
1383:
1362:
1356:
1332:
1326:
1302:
1294:
1288:
1267:
1259:
1253:
1232:
1226:
1205:
1199:
1178:
1172:
1148:
1142:
1118:
1112:
1088:
1082:
1061:
1055:
1034:
1028:
1007:
1001:
980:
974:
953:
948:
942:
921:
916:
910:
886:
878:
872:
836:
825:
820:
807:
794:
784:
772:
756:
724:
701:
693:
684:
650:
639:
634:
621:
608:
598:
587:
576:
571:
561:
554:
529:
506:
498:
485:
477:
471:
437:
431:
411:
383:
379:
365:
353:
331:
325:
2902:Standard electrode potential (data page)
2190:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
2163:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1748:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1721:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1668:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1595:
288:between layers of material in the cell
1541:successfully tested a devices used in
857:{\displaystyle =P_{O2}^{Ox}\exp \left}
157:concentrating solar thermal collectors
87:are similar to those conditions for a
7:
1858:Laguna-Bercero (2012). "A review".
2806:Materials produced by electrolysis
2465:Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
14:
1848:2014, advance online publication.
2375:Energy Conversion and Management
2268:Collins, Leigh (11 April 2023).
2149:Mechanical Behavior of Materials
302:unitized regenerative fuel cells
2608:Unitized regenerative fuel cell
2151:. Groveland, IL: Waveland Press
99:of oxide ions occurring at the
95:of water are shown below, with
2742:Electrolysis of carbon dioxide
2387:10.1016/j.enconman.2018.09.033
2237:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.02.042
2202:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.06.058
2175:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.06.058
2053:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.08.003
1972:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.10.103
1909:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.08.038
1872:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.12.019
1822:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.12.019
1760:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.02.048
1733:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2006.11.026
1680:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.02.048
1472:
1446:
813:
787:
778:
749:
627:
601:
376:
362:
1:
2603:Solid oxide electrolyzer cell
2104:Journal of Chemical Education
452:{\displaystyle \sigma _{max}}
81:high-temperature electrolysis
29:solid oxide electrolyzer cell
2792:Electrochemical fluorination
2703:Standard electrode potential
2486:Direct borohydride fuel cell
1775:Journal of Materials Science
2846:Hydrogen evolution reaction
2573:Membrane electrode assembly
2516:Reformed methanol fuel cell
1579:Glossary of fuel cell terms
1543:Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment
1314:{\displaystyle P_{O2}^{Ox}}
898:{\displaystyle P_{O2}^{Ox}}
298:high pressure electrolyzers
232:) is added to mitigate the
2944:
2717:Betts electrolytic process
2593:Protonic ceramic fuel cell
2563:Electro-galvanic fuel cell
2455:Molten carbonate fuel cell
1344:{\displaystyle \phi ^{Ox}}
1276:{\displaystyle P_{O2}^{a}}
1160:{\displaystyle \phi ^{Ox}}
1100:{\displaystyle \phi ^{Ox}}
107:of water occurring at the
2651:
2583:Photoelectrochemical cell
2501:Direct methanol fuel cell
2460:Phosphoric acid fuel cell
2288:"Going to the Red Planet"
1999:10.1016/j.ssi.2006.04.046
1371:{\displaystyle \phi ^{a}}
1187:{\displaystyle \phi ^{a}}
1127:{\displaystyle \phi ^{a}}
1023:is the Nernst potential,
962:{\displaystyle r_{i}^{a}}
930:{\displaystyle r_{e}^{a}}
208:doped with 8 mol-% Y
2588:Proton-exchange membrane
2496:Direct-ethanol fuel cell
2217:Journal of Power Sources
2078:"Solid oxide fuel cells"
2041:Journal of Power Sources
1952:Journal of Power Sources
1897:Journal of Power Sources
1860:Journal of Power Sources
1810:Journal of Power Sources
1557:in the Mars atmosphere.
1321:is dictated by whether (
996:is the applied voltage,
250:Oxygen Electrode (Anode)
241:Fuel Electrode (Cathode)
2727:Castner–Kellner process
2578:Membraneless Fuel Cells
2511:Metal hydride fuel cell
2491:Direct carbon fuel cell
1787:10.1023/A:1021099308957
306:regenerative fuel cells
2710:Electrolytic processes
2598:Regenerative fuel cell
2537:Enzymatic biofuel cell
2147:Courtney, T.N. (2000)
1507:
1430:
1372:
1345:
1315:
1277:
1242:
1215:
1188:
1161:
1128:
1101:
1071:
1044:
1017:
990:
963:
931:
899:
858:
672:
453:
420:
397:
184:recombination of the H
85:operating temperatures
24:
2747:Electrolysis of water
2506:Formic acid fuel cell
2470:Solid oxide fuel cell
1704:Electrolysis of Water
1584:Hydrogen technologies
1508:
1431:
1373:
1346:
1316:
1278:
1243:
1241:{\displaystyle E_{N}}
1216:
1214:{\displaystyle E_{a}}
1189:
1162:
1137:In electrolysis mode
1129:
1102:
1072:
1070:{\displaystyle R_{i}}
1045:
1043:{\displaystyle R_{e}}
1018:
1016:{\displaystyle E_{N}}
991:
989:{\displaystyle E_{a}}
964:
932:
900:
859:
673:
454:
421:
419:{\displaystyle \rho }
398:
278:operating temperature
89:solid oxide fuel cell
45:electrolysis of water
37:solid oxide fuel cell
22:
2757:Hall–Héroult process
2697:Articles related to
1993:(13–14): 1361–1369.
1561:Operating conditions
1440:
1382:
1355:
1325:
1287:
1252:
1225:
1198:
1171:
1141:
1111:
1081:
1054:
1027:
1000:
973:
941:
909:
871:
683:
470:
430:
410:
324:
2732:Chloralkali process
2542:Microbial fuel cell
2229:2007JPS...167..430G
2124:10.1021/ed073p837.1
2116:1996JChEd..73..837B
2014:J. Electrochem. Soc
1964:2015JPS...274..718C
1489:
1412:
1310:
1272:
958:
926:
894:
830:
709:
644:
581:
514:
490:
261:neodymium nickelate
69:hydrogen production
23:SOEC 60 cell stack.
2836:Electrolysed water
2767:Kolbe electrolysis
2762:Hofmann voltameter
2450:Alkaline fuel cell
2255:2011-06-08 at the
1987:Solid State Ionics
1644:2009-07-11 at the
1618:10.1039/C6CS00403B
1503:
1475:
1426:
1398:
1368:
1341:
1311:
1290:
1273:
1255:
1238:
1211:
1184:
1157:
1124:
1097:
1067:
1040:
1013:
986:
959:
944:
927:
912:
895:
874:
854:
816:
689:
668:
630:
567:
494:
473:
449:
416:
393:
222:Yttrium(III) oxide
25:
2915:
2914:
2664:
2663:
2196:(18): 9527–9543.
2169:(18): 9527–9543.
2026:10.1149/1.3481436
1930:(20): 2349–2354.
1781:(23): 4947–4971.
1501:
1424:
842:
742:
656:
593:
547:
373:
282:thermal expansion
274:Carnot efficiency
218:Zirconium dioxide
132:Net Reaction: 2 H
41:regenerative mode
16:Type of fuel cell
2935:
2892:Electrochemistry
2871:Sodium hydroxide
2797:Wohlwill process
2691:
2684:
2677:
2668:
2521:Zinc–air battery
2429:
2422:
2415:
2406:
2399:
2398:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2356:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2323:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2298:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2274:rechargenews.com
2265:
2259:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2158:
2152:
2145:
2139:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2080:. Archived from
2074:
2068:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2009:
2003:
2002:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1936:10.1039/b800163d
1919:
1913:
1912:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1855:
1849:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1770:
1764:
1763:
1754:(9): 2337–2354.
1743:
1737:
1736:
1727:(9): 1174–1182.
1712:
1706:
1701:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1674:(9): 2337–2354.
1663:
1657:
1654:
1648:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1612:(5): 1427–1463.
1600:
1512:
1510:
1509:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1490:
1488:
1483:
1471:
1470:
1458:
1457:
1444:
1436:is greater than
1435:
1433:
1432:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1413:
1411:
1406:
1397:
1396:
1386:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1369:
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1366:
1350:
1348:
1347:
1342:
1340:
1339:
1320:
1318:
1317:
1312:
1309:
1301:
1283:is greater than
1282:
1280:
1279:
1274:
1271:
1266:
1247:
1245:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1236:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1212:
1210:
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1190:
1185:
1183:
1182:
1166:
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1133:
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1130:
1125:
1123:
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1103:
1098:
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1076:
1074:
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1068:
1066:
1065:
1049:
1047:
1046:
1041:
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1038:
1022:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1012:
1011:
995:
993:
992:
987:
985:
984:
968:
966:
965:
960:
957:
952:
936:
934:
933:
928:
925:
920:
904:
902:
901:
896:
893:
885:
863:
861:
860:
855:
853:
849:
848:
844:
843:
841:
840:
831:
829:
824:
812:
811:
799:
798:
785:
777:
776:
764:
763:
743:
741:
733:
725:
708:
700:
677:
675:
674:
669:
667:
663:
662:
658:
657:
655:
654:
645:
643:
638:
626:
625:
613:
612:
599:
594:
592:
591:
582:
580:
575:
566:
565:
555:
548:
546:
538:
530:
513:
505:
489:
484:
458:
456:
455:
450:
448:
447:
425:
423:
422:
417:
402:
400:
399:
394:
392:
391:
387:
374:
366:
361:
360:
342:
341:
234:phase transition
65:hydrogen economy
2943:
2942:
2938:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2880:
2861:Potassium metal
2856:Magnesium metal
2801:
2722:Castner process
2705:
2695:
2665:
2660:
2647:
2614:
2546:
2525:
2474:
2438:
2433:
2403:
2402:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2354:
2352:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2321:
2319:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2296:
2294:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2257:Wayback Machine
2248:
2244:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2131:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2087:
2085:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2060:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2020:(11): P89–P94.
2011:
2010:
2006:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1843:
1839:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1687:
1665:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1646:Wayback Machine
1637:
1633:
1602:
1601:
1597:
1592:
1575:
1563:
1556:
1535:
1523:
1491:
1462:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1437:
1414:
1388:
1387:
1380:
1379:
1358:
1353:
1352:
1328:
1323:
1322:
1285:
1284:
1250:
1249:
1228:
1223:
1222:
1201:
1196:
1195:
1174:
1169:
1168:
1144:
1139:
1138:
1114:
1109:
1108:
1084:
1079:
1078:
1057:
1052:
1051:
1030:
1025:
1024:
1003:
998:
997:
976:
971:
970:
939:
938:
907:
906:
869:
868:
832:
803:
790:
786:
768:
752:
748:
744:
734:
726:
720:
716:
681:
680:
646:
617:
604:
600:
583:
557:
556:
553:
549:
539:
531:
525:
521:
468:
467:
433:
428:
427:
408:
407:
375:
349:
327:
322:
321:
314:
270:
258:
252:
243:
231:
227:
215:
211:
207:
202:
194:
187:
182:
178:
174:
169:
153:water splitting
143:
139:
135:
128:
124:
117:
77:
61:carbon monoxide
43:to achieve the
17:
12:
11:
5:
2941:
2939:
2931:
2930:
2920:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2802:
2800:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2782:
2774:
2772:Hoopes process
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2752:Electrowinning
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2713:
2711:
2707:
2706:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2686:
2679:
2671:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2624:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2605:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2539:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2443:By electrolyte
2440:
2439:
2434:
2432:
2431:
2424:
2417:
2409:
2401:
2400:
2361:
2336:Niiler, Eric.
2328:
2303:
2279:
2260:
2242:
2223:(2): 430–441.
2207:
2180:
2153:
2140:
2129:
2094:
2069:
2058:
2047:(3): 744–749.
2031:
2004:
1977:
1941:
1924:J. Mater. Chem
1914:
1903:(2): 691–697.
1887:
1850:
1837:
1800:
1765:
1738:
1707:
1696:
1685:
1658:
1649:
1631:
1606:Chem. Soc. Rev
1594:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1581:
1574:
1571:
1562:
1559:
1554:
1534:
1531:
1522:
1519:
1498:
1494:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1421:
1417:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1391:
1365:
1361:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1308:
1305:
1300:
1297:
1293:
1270:
1265:
1262:
1258:
1235:
1231:
1208:
1204:
1181:
1177:
1154:
1151:
1147:
1121:
1117:
1094:
1091:
1087:
1064:
1060:
1037:
1033:
1010:
1006:
983:
979:
956:
951:
947:
924:
919:
915:
892:
889:
884:
881:
877:
865:
864:
852:
847:
839:
835:
828:
823:
819:
815:
810:
806:
802:
797:
793:
789:
783:
780:
775:
771:
767:
762:
759:
755:
751:
747:
740:
737:
732:
729:
723:
719:
715:
712:
707:
704:
699:
696:
692:
688:
678:
666:
661:
653:
649:
642:
637:
633:
629:
624:
620:
616:
611:
607:
603:
597:
590:
586:
579:
574:
570:
564:
560:
552:
545:
542:
537:
534:
528:
524:
520:
517:
512:
509:
504:
501:
497:
493:
488:
483:
480:
476:
446:
443:
440:
436:
415:
404:
403:
390:
386:
382:
378:
372:
369:
364:
359:
356:
352:
348:
345:
340:
337:
334:
330:
313:
310:
269:
268:Considerations
266:
256:
251:
248:
242:
239:
229:
225:
213:
209:
205:
201:
198:
193:
190:
185:
180:
176:
172:
168:
165:
141:
137:
133:
126:
122:
115:
114:Anode: 2 O → O
76:
73:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2940:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2851:Lithium metal
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2821:Calcium metal
2819:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2804:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2692:
2687:
2685:
2680:
2678:
2673:
2672:
2669:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2650:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2532:
2530:Biofuel cells
2528:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2430:
2425:
2423:
2418:
2416:
2411:
2410:
2407:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2362:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2332:
2329:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2304:
2293:
2289:
2283:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2246:
2243:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2211:
2208:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2184:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2133:
2130:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2098:
2095:
2084:on 2014-11-05
2083:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2062:
2059:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2035:
2032:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2008:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1945:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1918:
1915:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1891:
1888:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1838:
1832:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1804:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1766:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1742:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1689:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1659:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1643:
1640:
1635:
1632:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1599:
1596:
1589:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1567:thermoneutral
1560:
1558:
1551:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1419:
1415:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1393:
1389:
1363:
1359:
1336:
1333:
1329:
1306:
1303:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1268:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1233:
1229:
1206:
1202:
1179:
1175:
1152:
1149:
1145:
1135:
1119:
1115:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1062:
1058:
1035:
1031:
1008:
1004:
981:
977:
954:
949:
945:
922:
917:
913:
890:
887:
882:
879:
875:
850:
845:
837:
833:
826:
821:
817:
808:
804:
800:
795:
791:
781:
773:
769:
765:
760:
757:
753:
745:
738:
735:
730:
727:
721:
717:
713:
710:
705:
702:
697:
694:
690:
686:
679:
664:
659:
651:
647:
640:
635:
631:
622:
618:
614:
609:
605:
595:
588:
584:
577:
572:
568:
562:
558:
550:
543:
540:
535:
532:
526:
522:
518:
515:
510:
507:
502:
499:
495:
491:
486:
481:
478:
474:
466:
465:
464:
460:
444:
441:
438:
434:
413:
388:
384:
380:
370:
367:
357:
354:
350:
346:
343:
338:
335:
332:
328:
320:
319:
318:
311:
309:
307:
303:
299:
294:
289:
287:
283:
279:
275:
267:
265:
262:
249:
247:
240:
238:
235:
223:
219:
199:
197:
191:
189:
166:
164:
162:
158:
154:
150:
149:Joule heating
144:
130:
119:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
74:
72:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
39:that runs in
38:
34:
30:
21:
2866:Sodium metal
2816:(extraction)
2776:Dow process
2699:electrolysis
2602:
2568:Flow battery
2378:
2374:
2364:
2353:. Retrieved
2341:
2331:
2320:. Retrieved
2318:. 2014-08-04
2315:
2306:
2295:. Retrieved
2291:
2282:
2273:
2263:
2245:
2220:
2216:
2210:
2193:
2189:
2183:
2166:
2162:
2156:
2148:
2143:
2132:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2086:. Retrieved
2082:the original
2072:
2061:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2017:
2013:
2007:
1990:
1986:
1980:
1955:
1951:
1944:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1900:
1896:
1890:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1845:
1840:
1813:
1809:
1803:
1778:
1774:
1768:
1751:
1747:
1741:
1724:
1720:
1710:
1699:
1688:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1652:
1634:
1609:
1605:
1598:
1564:
1548:Perseverance
1547:
1536:
1524:
1521:Applications
1515:
1136:
866:
461:
405:
315:
312:Delamination
290:
271:
253:
244:
203:
195:
170:
145:
131:
120:
113:
78:
57:hydrogen gas
32:
28:
26:
2907:Electrology
2897:Gas cracker
2558:Blue energy
2381:: 274–286.
1958:: 718–729.
1881:10261/53764
1831:10261/53764
200:Electrolyte
125:O + 2 e → H
55:to produce
53:electrolyte
2928:Fuel cells
2737:Downs cell
2436:Fuel cells
2355:2021-11-26
2322:2021-11-26
2297:2021-11-26
2110:(9): 837.
2088:2011-05-27
1590:References
1248:. Whether
161:geothermal
121:Cathode: H
2813:Aluminium
2785:Magnesium
2395:105113929
2350:1059-1028
2316:Firstpost
1846:Nat Mater
1795:135220897
1460:−
1360:ϕ
1330:ϕ
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