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memorable events should be recalled as occurring recently. Since these memorable events are recalled as occurring more recently, in general people overestimate the recency of events and forward telescoping occurs. For example, when people are asked to estimate the dates of the shooting of Ronald Reagan and Pope John Paul II, which occurred in the same year, they typically estimate that Ronald Reagan's shooting occurred more recently. Ronald Reagan's shooting is usually a more memorable event and was more heavily publicized, so the memory of this event was more accessible to participants, indicating that accessibility plays a role in the dating of events. However, these results are not always replicated, and sometimes the reverse is found. For this reason, other explanations have been presented to explain telescoping.
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information, rather than too little, because they are trying to provide as much useful information as possible, and therefore over-report the frequency of events. Some researchers perceive this over reporting as telescoping because people are including events beyond the given period, but the over reporting could be due to the demand characteristics of the study. Demand characteristics can explain the appearance of forward telescoping, but cannot explain backwards telescoping and can not explain the inaccurate recall of dates when respondents are not led to believe that a certain answer is desirable.
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time since that event. This explanation is one reason for why people perceive time as moving faster as they age, but it does not take into account changes in the amount of telescoping that occurs with age. People are best at accurately identifying dates when they are ages 35–50. Participants age 60 and older show a decrease in the degree of forward telescoping and tend to date events too remotely instead of too recently. The sensation of time speeding up may be derived from the fact that time is subjectively longer and therefore people assume that the time must be going by more quickly.
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between events in this model, if an event is forgotten, previous events are recalled as if they occurred more recently and forward telescoping occurs. Another way of interpreting this theory is that people estimate the dates of events based on the number of personal events that have occurred since the target event. Since people underestimate memory loss over long periods of time, target events are moved closer to the present. Although this model explains forward telescoping, it does not explain backward telescoping.
300:, and drug use. Forward telescoping has been found in reported age of initial use of cigarettes and in reported age of beginning daily smoking. Therefore, people may be misclassified as having late onset of drug use, when in reality, they had early onset. Forward telescoping of risky behaviors can be problematic in monitoring patients for issues associated with early onset drug use because if they are misclassified, they may not be correctly monitored. The same effect of forward telescoping is found for
89:, an infamous kidnapper and murderer in the Netherlands. When he was let out of prison, most of the general population did not believe he had been in prison long enough. Due to forward telescoping, people thought Ferdi Elsas' sentence started more recently than it actually did. Telescoping has important real world applications, especially in survey research. Marketing firms often use surveys to ask when consumers last bought a product, and government agencies often use surveys to discover information about
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prototype event estimates resemble spontaneously estimated events. The associative model does not predict what occurs if a person has never heard of an event and cannot predict what sort of biasing will occur for these responses. Therefore, the associative model, like the boundary effect model, cannot explain all aspects of telescoping but can explain new aspects of telescoping.
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telescope recent memories than younger children. Children's telescoping errors occur for their earliest memories. This finding is significant because it probably occurs for adults as well, and therefore people's earliest memories are reported as more recent than they actually are. This finding indicates that the earliest memories reported in
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telescoping is common. Backward telescoping is also common and leads to respondents overstating their intention to buy a replacement product as they underestimate the likelihood of their product breaking down. Telescoping has a significant effect on market research and therefore should be taken into account in marketing strategies.
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question, this could lead to an over or under estimation of the occurrence of an event, and be perceived as telescoping. This over-reporting is a result of telescoping because telescoping causes participants to include events beyond the period. Therefore, heuristics may be responsible for some of the telescoping errors.
311:, in the 1950s, a telescoping effect was observed with women entering alcohol abuse treatment programs with shorter histories than their male counterparts, but with symptoms of equivalent severity. The forward telescoping of alcohol histories is still prevalent today and has since been observed in opiate abuse and
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Marketing firms often use survey data to estimate when consumers will next buy a product. Telescoping errors may bias these estimates and cause faulty marketing campaigns. Respondents on marketing research surveys are often inaccurate when recalling the time period of their last purchase, and forward
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Brown, Rips, and
Shevell created the accessibility hypothesis. This hypothesis states that dates are estimated, not recalled, and these estimates are based on what is remembered about the event. People use how much detail they recall about an event to infer how long ago the event occurred. Therefore,
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Rubin and
Baddley created the boundary model to explain telescoping. When people date events, they often get information from a bounded period, such as a year or a vacation. This model assumes events are not assigned outside of the boundaries of this period, so dating errors can only move toward the
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The approximate time frame in which events switch from being displaced backward in time to forward in time is three years, with events occurring three years in the past being equally likely to be reported with forward telescoping bias as with backward telescoping bias. Although telescoping occurs in
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Thompson et al. used the conveyor belt model of memory to explain forward telescoping. It assumes that events are stored in the order that they occur. When individuals try to remember the date of an event, they scan serially backward through memory. Since events are only remembered by order or time
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Many older adults claim time speeds up as they get older, which can be explained by forward telescoping. Since forward telescoping leads people to underestimate the amount of time that has occurred since an event, people may feel as if time has passed quickly when they discover the true amount of
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Neter and
Waksberg also developed a procedure called bounded recall to help decrease the effect of telescoping. In preliminary interviews, participants are asked about events, and then, in later interviews, participants are reminded of these events and then asked about additional occurrences. One
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Psychologists have studied the telescoping effect in children because a person's development can have a significant impact on his or her memory. Telescoping occurs at all ages, but to different degrees. Older children have a greater tendency to telescope earlier memories and a weaker tendency to
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Although the prototype model is based on general events and the associative model is based on actual events, both have been supported in experiments. Participants are worse at estimating the dates of events if they have to date events spontaneously, without using context or associated events, and
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Some psychologists suggest telescoping errors are due to the heuristics used to answer dating and frequency questions. When asked questions about frequency, people often answer using phrases like "all the time" and "everyday" and therefore don't account for exceptions. Depending on the events in
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Telescoping is studied in psychology by asking participants to recall dates or to estimate the recency of a personal event. Another procedure that is often used is called the diary procedure, in which participants record personal events in a diary each day for several months. After the diary is
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Other psychologists believe that the telescoping errors that have been reported in studies are not due to a phenomenon of memory, but demand characteristics. Responses to questions about the frequency of behavior can be biased because of demand characteristics. Respondents may provide too much
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of known dates. This approach assumes that the date of an event is determined by using memories from other similar events, that ability to recall relevant information decreases overtime, and that the associated event is more likely to be more recent than the actual event because the ability to
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There is some evidence against the boundary model. A study by Lee and Brown in 2004 looked at how four different groups dated news events under different conditions. They found that the different boundaries had no effect on date estimation, and the existence of a boundary had no effect on date
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Some psychologists have suggested that telescoping occurs because people are guessing the date of an event. According to this theory, if a person is unsure of a date, they minimize their chance of erring by placing events toward the middle of the period. However, telescoping occurs at the same
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Telescoping leads to an over-reporting of the frequency of events. This over-reporting is because participants include events beyond the period, either events that are too recent for the target time period (backward telescoping) or events that are too old for the target time period (forward
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Simon Kemp proposed the associative model to explain telescoping without using boundaries. Kemp argued that people use an association strategy that links target events to other events for which dating information is available. According to Kemp, this association leads to a
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The way a question is phrased is an important factor in minimizing the telescoping effect. If a question clearly defines the time period of interest, telescoping errors will be reduced. Also, if a question is more specific or difficult, it requires more
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A person's temporal framework is also related to the amount of telescoping errors that they make. As a person's temporal framework becomes more elaborate, they have more reference points from which to date events and commit fewer telescoping errors.
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completed, participants are asked to date events and assess how well they remember those events. Their recollections are then compared to the actual dates and details of the events in order to determine if telescoping has occurred.
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Researchers have examined possible reasons that the telescoping effect occurs. They have proposed the following hypotheses and models. The two models that are currently favored are the associative and boundary models.
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both the forward and backward directions, in general the effect is to increase the number of events reported too recently. This net effect in the forward direction is because forces that impair memory, such as lack of
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The telescoping effect is pertinent for behaviors such as smoking and alcohol usage, especially when they are early onset behaviors. Studies of the telescoping effect have examined the reported age of onset of
31:) refers to the temporal displacement of an event whereby people perceive recent events as being more remote than they are and distant events as being more recent than they are. The former is known as
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frequency if events are remembered well or if events are not remembered well. Therefore, guessing is not a complete explanation for telescoping, and another one of these models is likely responsible.
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middle of a boundary and that since recent events are dated more accurately, forward telescoping has a stronger effect. It postulates that, without boundaries, an estimation would be unbiased.
77:. The term telescoping comes from the idea that time seems to shrink toward the present in the way that the distance to objects seems to shrink when they are viewed through a telescope.
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This image explains the boundary model of the telescoping effect. The boundary model states that telescoping is the result of dating errors moving toward the middle of a bounded period.
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and a prototype event could be the assassination of a world leader. People can use associated prototype events to help them recall events in the same way they use normal events.
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This image portrays the conveyor belt model of the telescoping effect, which assumes that when an event is forgotten, earlier events are recalled as occurring more recently.
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model. This model states that prototypes can aid the process of dating events. A prototype event is a general event. For example, a specific event could be the
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Morwitz, Vicki G. (1997). "It Seems Like Only
Yesterday: The Nature and Consequences of Telescoping Errors in Marketing Research".
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Brown, Norman R.; Rips, Lance J.; Shevell, Steven K. (1985). "The subjective dates of natural events in very-long-term memory".
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Crawley, Susan E.; Pring, Linda (2000). "When did Mrs
Thatcher resign? The effects of ageing on the dating of public events".
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304:, alcohol, and hard drug usage. The implications of forward telescoping on these behaviors are similar to those of smoking.
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Prohaska, Vincent; Brown, Norman R.; Belli, Robert F. (July 1998). "Forward
Telescoping: The Question Matters".
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limitation of this process is that it requires information from preliminary interviews be correct.
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1102:"Forward telescoping bias in reported age of onset: an example from cigarette smoking"
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The original work on telescoping is usually attributed to a 1964 article by Neter and
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Thompson, Charles P.; Skowronski, John J.; Larsen, Steen F.; Betz, Andrew L. (1996).
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estimation. This study suggests that telescoping is not due solely to boundaries.
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Friedman, William J.; Janssen, Steve M.J. (2010). "Aging and the speed of time".
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Cognitive
Aspects of Survey Methodology: Building A Bridge Between Disciplines
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270:; therefore, the answers to these questions will include less telescoping.
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Brady, Kathleen T.; Back, Sudie E.; Greenfield, Shelly F. (2 April 2009).
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Janssen, Steve M. J.; Chessa, Antonio G.; Murre, Jaap M. J. (2006).
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Thompson, Charles P.; Skowronski, John J.; Lee, D. John (1988).
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878:"The role of guessing and boundaries on date estimation biases"
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Why life speeds up as you get older: on autobiographical memory
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Why life speeds up as you get older: on autobiographical memory
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Autobiographical memory: remembering what and remembering when
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A real-world example of the telescoping effect is the case of
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Kemp, Simon (1996). "Association as a Cause of Dating Bias".
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Autobiographical memory: theoretical and applied perspectives
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Golub, Andrew; Johnson, Bruce D.; Labouvie, Eric (2000).
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International
Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research
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website with test that measures the telescoping effect
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97:. Telescoping may bias answers to these questions.
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1217:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 182.
807:"Telescoping in dating naturally occurring events"
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489:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp.
74:Journal of the American Statistical Association
519:"Telescoping is not time compression: A model"
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681:Cohen, Gillian; Conway, Martin, eds. (2008).
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1214:Women's Mental Health: A Life-Cycle Approach
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685:(Updated ed.). Hove: Psychology Press.
1440:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
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876:Lee, Peter James; Brown, Norman R. (2004).
517:Rubin, David C.; Baddeley, Alan D. (1989).
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655:. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 131–134.
565:Draaisma, Douwe; Pomerans, Erica (2004).
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483:Draaisma, Douwe; Pomerans, Erica (2004).
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367:"Memory for time: How people date events"
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185:retrieve information decreases overtime.
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1288:Human Memory - University of Amsterdam
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417:. Washington, DC. pp. 119–125.
1158:Journal of Quantitative Criminology
846:Thompson, Charles P., ed. (1998).
411:National Research Council (1984).
188:A variation of this theory is the
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1721:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
882:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
16:Temporal displacement of an event
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194:assassination of John F. Kennedy
39:, and the latter as is known as
1931:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
1804:Memory and social interactions
621:Journal of Consumer Psychology
1:
110:Models and other explanations
1640:Retrieval-induced forgetting
1031:10.1080/09658211.2010.508749
944:10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.01.004
781:10.1016/0010-0285(85)90006-4
2828:DĂ©formation professionnelle
1253:. Guilford Press. pp.
633:10.1207/s15327663jcp0601_01
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2822:Basking in reflected glory
1978:Levels of Processing model
1903:World Memory Championships
1736:Lost in the mall technique
1583:dissociative (psychogenic)
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2952:Cognitive bias mitigation
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2536:Illusion of transparency
2016:The Seven Sins of Memory
1961:Intermediate-term memory
1766:Indirect tests of memory
1743:Recovered-memory therapy
1693:Misattribution of memory
683:Memory in the real world
268:reconstructive processes
119:Accessibility hypothesis
1703:Source-monitoring error
1170:10.1023/A:1007573411129
992:10.1080/096582196389004
735:10.1080/096582100387650
2110:George Armitage Miller
2070:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
811:Memory & Cognition
523:Memory & Cognition
371:Memory & Cognition
230:Demand characteristics
224:Demand characteristics
182:regression to the mean
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2904:Arab–Israeli conflict
2631:Social influence bias
2576:Out-group homogeneity
2273:Philosophy portal
2261:Psychology portal
2125:Henry L. Roediger III
1726:False memory syndrome
1698:Misinformation effect
1678:Imagination inflation
340:List of memory biases
313:pathological gambling
261:Minimizing the effect
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2546:Mere-exposure effect
2476:Extrinsic incentives
2422:Selective perception
1630:Motivated forgetting
769:Cognitive Psychology
101:Methods for studying
33:backward telescoping
21:cognitive psychology
2771:Social desirability
2666:von Restorff effect
2541:Mean world syndrome
2516:Hostile attribution
2140:Arthur P. Shimamura
2040:Richard C. Atkinson
1857:Effects of exercise
1731:Memory implantation
1615:Interference theory
1531:Selective retention
1511:Meaningful learning
1249:Women and Addiction
239:Modifiers of effect
128:Conveyor belt model
41:forward telescoping
3057:Telescoping effect
2686:Statistical biases
2464:Curse of knowledge
2237:Andriy Slyusarchuk
2060:Hermann Ebbinghaus
1966:Involuntary memory
1867:Memory improvement
1852:Effects of alcohol
1814:Transactive memory
1792:Politics of memory
1761:Exceptional memory
895:10.3758/BF03196630
824:10.3758/BF03214227
536:10.3758/BF03202626
384:10.3758/BF03193393
204:Other explanations
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81:Real-world example
63:Origin of the term
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2080:Marcia K. Johnson
1951:Exosomatic memory
1936:Context-dependent
1926:Absent-mindedness
1809:Memory conformity
1787:Collective memory
1688:Memory conformity
1625:Memory inhibition
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1536:Tip of the tongue
1264:978-1-60623-403-7
1224:978-0-7817-5129-2
1074:10.1080/741942604
932:Acta Psychologica
857:978-0-8058-2795-8
692:978-1-84169-641-6
662:978-0-8058-1514-6
578:978-0-521-83424-7
500:978-0-521-83424-7
450:978-0-309-07784-2
251:childhood amnesia
175:Associative model
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2741:Omitted-variable
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793:
792:
764:
755:
754:
718:
697:
696:
678:
667:
666:
648:
637:
636:
616:
583:
582:
562:
549:
548:
538:
514:
505:
504:
480:
469:
468:
462:
454:
426:
408:
397:
396:
386:
362:
29:telescoping bias
3103:
3102:
3098:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3028:
3020:
2990:
2985:
2966:
2940:
2805:
2680:
2661:Turkey illusion
2429:Compassion fade
2326:
2317:
2312:
2282:
2277:
2267:
2265:
2255:
2253:
2241:
2222:Dominic O'Brien
2200:
2169:
2150:Susumu Tonegawa
2130:Daniel Schacter
2105:Eleanor Maguire
2095:Geoffrey Loftus
2050:Stephen J. Ceci
2045:Robert A. Bjork
2021:
1940:state-dependent
1914:
1886:
1818:
1799:Cultural memory
1775:
1771:Memory disorder
1747:
1707:
1649:
1540:
1450:
1425:
1370:
1327:
1322:
1284:
1279:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1209:Seeman, Mary V.
1203:
1202:
1195:
1151:
1150:
1143:
1099:
1098:
1089:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1012:
1011:
1007:
986:(2): 131–1431.
977:
976:
967:
929:
928:
911:
875:
874:
865:
858:
845:
844:
840:
804:
803:
796:
766:
765:
758:
720:
719:
700:
693:
680:
679:
670:
663:
650:
649:
640:
618:
617:
586:
579:
564:
563:
552:
516:
515:
508:
501:
482:
481:
472:
455:
451:
424:10.1.1.972.2941
410:
409:
400:
364:
363:
352:
348:
336:
327:
321:
289:
284:
263:
246:
241:
232:
217:
206:
177:
156:
147:
130:
121:
112:
103:
83:
69:Joseph Waksberg
65:
53:time perception
17:
12:
11:
5:
3101:
3099:
3091:
3090:
3085:
3075:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3064:
3062:Vierordt's law
3059:
3054:
3052:Oddball effect
3049:
3044:
3039:
3033:
3030:
3029:
3021:
3019:
3018:
3011:
3004:
2996:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2948:
2946:
2945:Bias reduction
2942:
2941:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2921:Political bias
2918:
2913:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2849:Infrastructure
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2824:
2819:
2813:
2811:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2766:Self-selection
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2717:
2716:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2690:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2679:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2601:Pro-innovation
2598:
2593:
2588:
2586:Overton window
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2456:
2454:Dunning–Kruger
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2371:
2370:
2368:Correspondence
2365:
2363:Actor–observer
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2329:
2327:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2311:
2310:
2303:
2296:
2288:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2275:
2263:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2217:Paul R. McHugh
2214:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2177:
2175:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2075:Ivan Izquierdo
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2036:
2034:
2027:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2012:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1933:
1928:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1848:
1847:
1842:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1795:
1794:
1783:
1781:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1757:
1755:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1728:
1723:
1717:
1715:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1673:Hindsight bias
1670:
1665:
1659:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1620:Memory erasure
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1578:post-traumatic
1575:
1570:
1565:
1554:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1516:Personal-event
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1471:
1466:
1460:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1449:
1448:
1446:Working memory
1443:
1435:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1424:
1423:
1418:
1416:Motor learning
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1387:
1385:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1335:
1333:
1332:Basic concepts
1329:
1328:
1323:
1321:
1320:
1313:
1306:
1298:
1292:
1291:
1283:
1282:External links
1280:
1278:
1277:
1263:
1237:
1223:
1193:
1141:
1112:(3): 119–129.
1087:
1068:(4): 455–465.
1052:
1025:(7): 754–762.
1005:
965:
938:(2): 130–141.
909:
888:(4): 748–754.
863:
856:
838:
817:(5): 461–468.
794:
775:(2): 139–177.
756:
729:(2): 111–121.
698:
691:
668:
661:
638:
584:
577:
550:
529:(6): 653–661.
506:
499:
470:
449:
398:
377:(1): 138–147.
349:
347:
344:
343:
342:
335:
332:
323:Main article:
320:
317:
288:
285:
283:
280:
262:
259:
245:
242:
240:
237:
228:Main article:
213:Main article:
205:
202:
176:
173:
155:
154:Boundary model
152:
146:
143:
129:
126:
120:
117:
111:
108:
102:
99:
82:
79:
64:
61:
59:telescoping).
51:, also impair
37:time expansion
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3100:
3089:
3088:Memory biases
3086:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3031:
3027:
3024:
3017:
3012:
3010:
3005:
3003:
2998:
2997:
2994:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2973:
2972:
2969:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2943:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2899:United States
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2874:False balance
2872:
2871:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2808:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2746:Participation
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2715:
2714:Psychological
2712:
2711:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2683:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2481:Fading affect
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2423:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2391:
2388:
2387:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2360:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2309:
2304:
2302:
2297:
2295:
2290:
2289:
2286:
2274:
2264:
2262:
2252:
2251:
2248:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2203:
2197:
2196:Clive Wearing
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2160:Endel Tulving
2158:
2156:
2155:Anne Treisman
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2115:Brenda Milner
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2100:James McGaugh
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2065:Sigmund Freud
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2010:
2009:retrospective
2006:
2003:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1988:Muscle memory
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1835:Art of memory
1833:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1683:Memory biases
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1663:Confabulation
1661:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1655:Memory errors
1652:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1573:post-hypnotic
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1526:Rote learning
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1501:Hyperthymesia
1499:
1497:
1494:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1464:Active recall
1462:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1361:Consolidation
1359:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1319:
1314:
1312:
1307:
1305:
1300:
1299:
1296:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1266:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1250:
1241:
1238:
1226:
1220:
1216:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1148:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1118:10.1002/mpr.2
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1053:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1009:
1006:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
974:
972:
970:
966:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
926:
924:
922:
920:
918:
916:
914:
910:
905:
901:
896:
891:
887:
883:
879:
872:
870:
868:
864:
859:
853:
849:
842:
839:
834:
830:
825:
820:
816:
812:
808:
801:
799:
795:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
763:
761:
757:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
717:
715:
713:
711:
709:
707:
705:
703:
699:
694:
688:
684:
677:
675:
673:
669:
664:
658:
654:
647:
645:
643:
639:
634:
630:
626:
622:
615:
613:
611:
609:
607:
605:
603:
601:
599:
597:
595:
593:
591:
589:
585:
580:
574:
570:
569:
561:
559:
557:
555:
551:
546:
542:
537:
532:
528:
524:
520:
513:
511:
507:
502:
496:
492:
488:
487:
479:
477:
475:
471:
466:
460:
452:
446:
442:
441:2027.42/55956
438:
434:
430:
425:
420:
416:
415:
407:
405:
403:
399:
394:
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3047:Kappa effect
3037:Chronostasis
2859:In education
2826:
2810:Other biases
2796:Verification
2781:Survivorship
2731:Non-response
2704:Healthy user
2646:Substitution
2621:Self-serving
2417:Confirmation
2385:Availability
2333:Acquiescence
2227:Ben Pridmore
2145:Larry Squire
2055:Susan Clancy
2014:
1898:Memory sport
1823:Other topics
1713:False memory
1668:Cryptomnesia
1645:Weapon focus
1605:Decay theory
1366:Neuroanatomy
1325:Human memory
1268:. Retrieved
1248:
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1228:. Retrieved
1213:
1164:(1): 45–68.
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2926:Publication
2879:Vietnam War
2726:Length time
2709:Information
2651:Time-saving
2511:Horn effect
2501:Halo effect
2449:Distinction
2358:Attribution
2353:Attentional
2085:Eric Kandel
2033:Researchers
2005:Prospective
1956:Free recall
1910:Shas Pollak
1563:anterograde
1479:Declarative
244:Development
95:victimology
87:Ferdi Elsas
3077:Categories
2889:South Asia
2864:Liking gap
2676:In animals
2641:Status quo
2556:Negativity
2459:Egocentric
2434:Congruence
2412:Commitment
2402:Blind spot
2390:Mean world
2380:Automation
2120:Lynn Nadel
1998:intertrial
1983:Metamemory
1971:flashbacks
1891:In society
1588:retrograde
1550:Forgetting
1521:Procedural
1431:Short-term
1401:Eyewitness
1013:Wang, Qi;
346:References
215:Heuristics
209:Heuristics
91:drug abuse
3026:illusions
2957:Debiasing
2936:White hat
2931:Reporting
2844:Inductive
2761:Selection
2721:Lead time
2694:Estimator
2671:Zero-risk
2636:Spotlight
2616:Restraint
2606:Proximity
2591:Precision
2551:Narrative
2506:Hindsight
2491:Frequency
2471:Emotional
2444:Declinism
2375:Authority
2348:Anchoring
2338:Ambiguity
1872:Nutrition
1780:In groups
1593:selective
1568:childhood
1496:Flashbulb
1456:Long-term
1356:Attention
459:cite book
419:CiteSeerX
325:Marketing
319:Marketing
302:marijuana
190:prototype
93:or about
3023:Temporal
2854:Inherent
2817:Academic
2791:Systemic
2776:Spectrum
2756:Sampling
2736:Observer
2699:Forecast
2611:Response
2571:Optimism
2566:Omission
2561:Normalcy
2531:In-group
2526:Implicit
2439:Cultural
2343:Affinity
2174:Patients
1845:mnemonic
1840:chunking
1506:Implicit
1489:Semantic
1484:Episodic
1474:Explicit
1339:Encoding
1270:23 March
1230:23 March
1211:(2006).
1188:21544259
1136:16389888
1047:23155893
1039:20818575
960:31512074
952:20163781
904:15581128
789:54342018
743:10829127
627:: 1–29.
393:16686113
334:See also
145:Guessing
49:salience
2976:General
2974:Lists:
2909:Ukraine
2834:Funding
2596:Present
2581:Outcome
2486:Framing
1993:Priming
1919:Related
1862:Emotion
1558:Amnesia
1396:Eidetic
1383:Sensory
1344:Storage
1179:3085261
1127:6878269
1082:9829101
1000:8697033
833:3173095
751:5817639
545:2811662
491:201–225
307:In the
298:alcohol
294:smoking
71:in the
2981:Memory
2894:Sweden
2884:Norway
2751:Recall
2521:Impact
2397:Belief
2315:Biases
2026:People
2011:memory
1942:memory
1882:Trauma
1421:Visual
1411:Iconic
1406:Haptic
1391:Echoic
1349:Recall
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1257:–345.
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723:Memory
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23:, the
2869:Media
2839:FUTON
2205:Other
1877:Sleep
1830:Aging
1375:Types
1043:S2CID
956:S2CID
785:S2CID
747:S2CID
2007:and
1938:and
1272:2013
1259:ISBN
1232:2013
1219:ISBN
1184:PMID
1132:PMID
1078:PMID
1035:PMID
996:PMID
948:PMID
900:PMID
852:ISBN
829:PMID
739:PMID
687:ISBN
657:ISBN
573:ISBN
541:PMID
495:ISBN
465:link
445:ISBN
389:PMID
27:(or
2916:Net
2801:Wet
1255:344
1174:PMC
1166:doi
1122:PMC
1114:doi
1070:doi
1027:doi
988:doi
940:doi
936:134
890:doi
819:doi
777:doi
731:doi
629:doi
531:doi
437:hdl
429:doi
379:doi
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3079::
2191:NA
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2181:HM
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