360:. Once the electrodes are placed correctly, the stimulation can be started. Many devices have a built-in capability that allows the current to be "ramped up" or increased gradually until the necessary current is reached. This decreases the amount of stimulation effects felt by the person receiving the tDCS. After the stimulation has been started, the current will continue for the amount of time set on the device and then will automatically be shut off. Recently a new approach has been introduced where instead of using two large pads, multiple (more than two) smaller sized gel electrodes are used to target specific cortical structures. This new approach is called High Definition tDCS (HD-tDCS). In a pilot study, HD-tDCS was found to have greater and longer lasting motor cortex excitability changes than sponge tDCS.
344:. The careful placement of the electrodes is crucial to successful tDCS technique. The electrode pads come in various sizes with benefits to each size. A smaller sized electrode achieves a more focused stimulation of a site while a larger electrode ensures that the entirety of the region of interest is being stimulated. If the electrode is placed incorrectly, a different site or more sites than intended may be stimulated resulting in faulty results. One of the electrodes is placed over the region of interest and the other electrode, the reference electrode, is placed in another location in order to complete the
315:. When these electrodes are placed in the region of interest, the current induces intracerebral current flow. This current flow then either increases or decreases the neuronal excitability in the specific area being stimulated based on which type of stimulation is being used. This change of neuronal excitability leads to alteration of brain function, which can be used in various therapies as well as to provide more information about the functioning of the human brain.
4246:
4256:
376:, and sham. The anodal stimulation is positive (V+) stimulation that increases the neuronal excitability of the area being stimulated. Cathodal (V−) stimulation decreases the neuronal excitability of the area being stimulated. Cathodal stimulation can treat psychiatric disorders that are caused by the hyper-activity of an area of the brain. Sham stimulation is used as a
443:
505:
active tDCS compared to sham for nine eligible studies (572 participants), presenting moderate/high certainty of evidence, were included. Active tDCS was significantly superior to sham for response (30.9% vs. 18.9% respectively; OR = 1.96, 95%CI , NNT = 9), remission (19.9% vs. 11.7%, OR = 1.94 , NNT = 13) and depression improvement (effect size of β = 0.31, ).
519:(MDD); most found alleviation of depressive symptoms. There have been only two RCTs in treatment-resistant MDD; both were small, and one found an effect and the other did not. One meta-analysis of the data focused on reduction in symptoms and found an effect compared to sham treatment, but another that was focused on relapse found no effect compared to sham.
324:
types so that neither the person receiving the stimulation nor the experimenter knows which type is being administered. Each device has an anodal, positively charged electrode and a cathodal, negative electrode. Current is "conventionally" described as flowing from the positive anode, through the intervening conducting tissue, to the cathode, creating a
616:
reciprocal anatomical connections to motor and associative parts of the brain. Most such studies focus on the impact of cerebellar tDCS on motor, cognitive, and affective functions in healthy and patient populations, but some also employ tDCS over the cerebellum to study the functional connectivity of the cerebellum to other areas of the brain.
460:
technique, but the method of how this is induced is very different. Transcranial direct current stimulation has the two different directions of current that cause the different effects. Increased neuronal activity is induced in repetitive TMS by using a higher frequency and decreased neuronal activity is induced by using a lower frequency.
577:, has found that while large effect sizes were initially found for symptom improvement, later and larger studies have found smaller effect sizes (see also section on use of tDCS in psychiatric disorders below). Studies have mostly concentrated on positive symptoms like auditory hallucinations; research on negative symptoms is lacking.
214:, dizziness, and itching under the electrode. Typical treatment sessions lasting for about 20–30 minutes repeated daily for several weeks in the treatment of depression. Adverse effects of long term treatment were not known as of 2017. Nausea most commonly occurs when the electrodes are placed above the
265:
tDCS stimulates and activates brain cells by delivering electrical signals. The lasting modulation of cortical excitability produced by tDCS makes it an effective solution to facilitate rehabilitation and treat a range of neuropsychiatric disorders. The way that the stimulation changes brain function
607:
Research conducted as of 2012 on the use of tDCS to treat pain, found that the research has been of low quality and cannot be used as a basis to recommend use of tDCS to treat pain. In chronic pain following spinal cord injury, research is of high quality and has found tDCS to be ineffective. tDCS
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Transcranial direct current stimulation is a relatively simple technique requiring only a few parts. These include two electrodes and a battery-powered device that delivers constant current. Control software can also be used in experiments that require multiple sessions with differing stimulation
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Recently, tDCS devices are being researched and created intended for at-home use – ranging from treating medical conditions such as depression to enhancing general cognitive well-being. Clinical trials are needed to establish the efficacy, feasibility and acceptability of home-based
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tDCS has been used in neuroscience research, particularly to try to link specific brain regions to specific cognitive tasks or psychological phenomena. The cerebellum has been a focus of research, due to its high concentration of neurons, its location immediately below the skull, and its multiple
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There was a brief rise of interest in transcranial direct current stimulation in the 1960s when studies by researcher D. J. Albert proved that the stimulation could affect brain function by changing the cortical excitability. He also discovered that positive and negative stimulation had different
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Second, tDCS brain tissue stimulation targets a large area of poorly characterized tissue. Therefore, it is unclear whether electrical fields reach only the neural structures of the brain that need treatment. The radiation can destroy healthy cells which don't need treatment during tDCS therapy.
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There is evidence that certain tDCS montages can increase learning rates for particular tasks in healthy individuals, namely motor tasks and memory function. However, reproducibility remains to be fully tested across studies and standardization for these kinds of studies has not been implemented
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in the brain. There are two types of TMS: repetitive TMS and single pulse TMS. Both are used in research therapy but effects lasting longer than the stimulation period are only observed in repetitive TMS. Similar to tDCS, an increase or decrease in neuronal activity can be achieved using this
624:
While growing literature shows the efficacy of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for treating nervous diseases such as acute depressive episodes, the lack of knowledge about the nature of this treatment at the cell level raises concerns regarding possible adverse effects that would
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was published 2020. The meta-analysis collated results across nine eligible studies (572 participants) up until
December 2018 to estimate odds ratio (OR) and number needed to treat (NNT) of response and remission, and depression improvement. The results showed statistically superior efficacy of
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There is no strong evidence that tDCS can help improve upper limb function after stroke. In stroke, research conducted as of 2014, has found that tDCS is not effective for improving upper limb function after stroke. While some reviews have suggested an effect of tDCS for improving post-stroke
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tDCS is able to achieve cortical changes even after the stimulation is ended. The duration of this change depends on the length of stimulation as well as the intensity of stimulation. The effects of stimulation increase as the duration of stimulation increases or the strength of the current
380:
in experiments. Sham stimulation emits a brief current but then remains off for the remainder of the stimulation time. With sham stimulation, the person receiving the tDCS does not know that they are not receiving prolonged stimulation. By comparing the results in subjects exposed to sham
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First, tDCS therapy involves exposure of the brain to an intense electric field, which is several times and even orders of magnitude higher than natural ones in the brain. While the therapeutic effect is observed in a short period of months, the impact of the electric fields on the brain,
1919:
Utz KS, Dimova V, Oppenländer K, Kerkhoff G (August 2010). "Electrified minds: transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) as methods of non-invasive brain stimulation in neuropsychology--a review of current data and future implications".
544:
A 2015 review of results from hundreds of tDCS experiments found that there was no statistically conclusive evidence to support any net cognitive effect, positive or negative, of single session tDCS in healthy populations – there is no evidence that tDCS is useful for
328:. Note that in traditional electric circuits constructed from metal wires, charge drift is created by the motion of negatively charged electrons, which actually flow from cathode to anode. However, in biological systems, such as the head, current is usually created by the flow of
40:
348:. This reference electrode is usually placed on the neck or shoulder of the opposite side of the body than the region of interest. Since the region of interest may be small, it is often useful to locate this region before placing the electrode by using a
126:, non-neuropathic pain, nor for improving arm or leg functioning and muscle strength in people recovering from a stroke. There is emerging supportive evidence for tDCS in the management of schizophrenia – especially for negative symptoms.
1183:
Moffa AH, Martin D, Alonzo A, Bennabi D, Blumberger DM, Benseñor IM, et al. (April 2020). "Efficacy and acceptability of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for major depressive disorder: An individual patient data meta-analysis".
2873:
Horvath JC, Forte JD, Carter O (January 2015). "Evidence that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) generates little-to-no reliable neurophysiologic effect beyond MEP amplitude modulation in healthy human subjects: A systematic review".
286:
In case of treating depression, tDCS currents specifically target the left side of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) located in the frontal lobe. Left DLPFC has been shown to be associated with lower activity in the depressed population.
446:
Transcranial electrical stimulation techniques. While tDCS uses constant current intensity, tRNS and tACS use oscillating current. The vertical axis represents the current intensity in milliamp (mA), while the horizontal axis illustrates the
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514:
In 2015, the
British National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) found tDCS to be safe and to appear effective for depression treatment. Up until 2014, there have been several small randomized clinical trials (RCT) in
414:
were two such researchers that utilized the technology of tDCS in their explorations of the source of animal cell electricity . It was due to these initial studies that tDCS was first brought into the clinical scene. In 1801,
332:, which may be positively or negatively charged – positive ions will flow towards the cathode; negative ions will flow toward the anode. The device may control the current as well as the duration of stimulation.
2730:"A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) Over the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Healthy and Neuropsychiatric Samples: Influence of Stimulation Parameters"
282:
firing. When negative stimulation (cathodal tDCS) is delivered, the current causes a hyperpolarization of the resting membrane potential. This decreases neuron excitability due to the decreased spontaneous cell firing.
406:(DC) to stimulate the area of interest, has existed for over 100 years. There were a number of rudimentary experiments completed before the 19th century using this technique that tested animal and human electricity.
943:
Luedtke K, Rushton A, Wright C, Geiss B, Juergens TP, May A (June 2012). "Transcranial direct current stimulation for the reduction of clinical and experimentally induced pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis".
159:
Recent research on tDCS has shown promising results in treating other mental health conditions such as anxiety and PTSD. More research is required on the topic. There is also evidence that tDCS is useful in treating
2785:
Hill AT, Fitzgerald PB, Hoy KE (2016). "Effects of Anodal
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Working Memory: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Findings From Healthy and Neuropsychiatric Populations".
590:, a 2015 Cochrane review could find no improvement from combining tDCS with conventional treatment. Research conducted as of 2013 suggests that tDCS may be effective for improve vision deficits following stroke.
645:(MDD) in the UK, EU, Australia, and Mexico. As of 2015, tDCS has not been approved for any use by the US FDA. An FDA briefing document prepared in 2012 stated that "there is no regulation for therapeutic tDCS".
3490:
Lefaucheur JP, Antal A, Ayache SS, Benninger DH, Brunelin J, Cogiamanian F, et al. (January 2017). "Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)".
1039:
Liu Y, Gu N, Cao X, Zhu Y, Wang J, Smith RC, Li C (February 2021). "Effects of transcranial electrical stimulation on working memory in patients with schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis".
537:
in healthy people. Several reviews have found evidence of small yet significant cognitive improvements. Other reviews found no evidence at all, although one of them has been criticized for overlooking
2145:
Kuo HI, Bikson M, Datta A, Minhas P, Paulus W, Kuo MF, Nitsche MA (July 2013). "Comparing cortical plasticity induced by conventional and high-definition 4 × 1 ring tDCS: a neurophysiological study".
1966:
Sparing R, Mottaghy FM (April 2008). "Noninvasive brain stimulation with transcranial magnetic or direct current stimulation (TMS/tDCS)-From insights into human memory to therapy of its dysfunction".
511:
A 2017 study conducted by
Brunoni showed 6-weeks of tDCS treatment resulted in reduction of at least half of depression symptoms in 41% of depressed people (vs. 22% placebo and 47% antidepressants).
278:. When positive stimulation (anodal tDCS) is delivered, the current causes a depolarization of the resting membrane potential, which increases neuronal excitability and allows for more spontaneous
1268:
Ahmadizadeh MJ, Rezaei M, Fitzgerald PB (November 2019). "Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A randomized, double-blinded, controlled trial".
3781:
2642:
Mondino M, Bennabi D, Poulet E, Galvao F, Brunelin J, Haffen E (May 2014). "Can transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) alleviate symptoms and improve cognition in psychiatric disorders?".
792:
Our findings indicates two potential applications for tDCS in the therapeutic arsenal for depression: in primary care settings and as a non-pharmacological, neuromodulatory therapy for depression.
3767:
Sparing R, Mottaghy FM (2008). "Noninvasive brain stimulation with transcranial magnetic or direct current stimulation (TMS/tDCS)-From insights into human memory to therapy of its dysfunction".
2922:
Horvath JC, Forte JD, Carter O (2015). "Quantitative Review Finds No
Evidence of Cognitive Effects in Healthy Populations From Single-session Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS)".
2685:
Coffman BA, Clark VP, Parasuraman R (January 2014). "Battery powered thought: enhancement of attention, learning, and memory in healthy adults using transcranial direct current stimulation".
4035:
2401:
Théorique et expérimental sur le galvanisme, avec une série d'expériences faites devant des commissaires de l'Institut national de France, et en divers amphithéâtres anatomiques de
Londres
1887:
541:
effects and evidence from multiple-session tDCS trials. However, the original authors addressed these raised concerns in a further analysis and continued to find no evidence of impact
2405:
Theoretical and experimental on galvanism, with a series of experiments made before commissioners of the
National Institute of France, and in various anatomical amphitheatres in London.
608:
has also been studied in addiction. There is some moderate (level B) evidence to indicate that, in addition to treating major depressive disorder, tDCS may also be appropriate to treat
381:
stimulation with the results of subjects exposed to anodal or cathodal stimulation, researchers can see how much of an effect is caused by the current stimulation, rather than by the
806:"Comparative efficacy and acceptability of non-surgical brain stimulation for the acute treatment of major depressive episodes in adults: systematic review and network meta-analysis"
3751:
Siebner HR, Hartwigsen G, Kassuba T, Rothwell JC (2009). "How does transcranial magnetic stimulation modify neuronal activity in the brain? Implications for studies of cognition".
4214:
4045:
3965:
2494:
Ruffini G, Wendling F, Merlet I, Molaee-Ardekani B, Mekonnen A, Salvador R, et al. (May 2013). "Transcranial current brain stimulation (tCS): models and technologies".
2188:
Nitsche MA, Nitsche MS, Klein CC, Tergau F, Rothwell JC, Paulus W (April 2003). "Level of action of cathodal DC polarisation induced inhibition of the human motor cortex".
1362:"Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for improving capacity in activities and arm function after stroke: a network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials"
48:
size are put on F3 and right supraorbital region, respectively. A head strap is used (d) for convenience and reproducibility, and a rubber band (e) for reducing resistance.
3259:
de Aguiar V, Paolazzi CL, Miceli G (February 2015). "tDCS in post-stroke aphasia: the role of stimulation parameters, behavioral treatment and patient characteristics".
192:
3447:
Jansen JM, Daams JG, Koeter MW, Veltman DJ, van den Brink W, Goudriaan AE (December 2013). "Effects of non-invasive neurostimulation on craving: a meta-analysis".
2055:"Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) of the visual cortex: a proof-of-concept study based on interictal electrophysiological abnormalities in migraine"
1413:"Use of TDCS in Aphasia Rehabilitation: A Systematic Review of the Behavioral Interventions Implemented with Noninvasive Brain Stimulation for Language Recovery"
4221:
4204:
4015:
1650:
Nitsche MA, Liebetanz D, Lang N, Antal A, Tergau F, Paulus W (November 2003). "Safety criteria for transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in humans".
1137:"The efficacy of non-invasive, non-convulsive electrical neuromodulation on depression, anxiety and sleep disturbance: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
660:
464:
3738:
Grimaldi G, Argyropoulos GP, Boehringer A, Celnik P, Edwards MJ, Ferrucci R, et al. (2014). "Non-invasive cerebellar stimulation--a consensus paper" (PDF).
1558:
Nitsche MA, Cohen LG, Wassermann EM, Priori A, Lang N, Antal A, et al. (July 2008). "Transcranial direct current stimulation: State of the art 2008".
2006:"Gyri-precise head model of transcranial direct current stimulation: improved spatial focality using a ring electrode versus conventional rectangular pad"
1693:
Liebetanz D, Koch R, Mayenfels S, König F, Paulus W, Nitsche MA (June 2009). "Safety limits of cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation in rats".
3970:
2965:
Chhatbar PY, Feng W (2015). "Data
Synthesis in Meta-Analysis may Conclude Differently on Cognitive Effect From Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation".
992:"Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for improving activities of daily living, and physical and cognitive functioning, in people after stroke"
419:(Galvani's nephew) started a study in which he successfully used the technique of direct current stimulation to improve the mood of melancholy patients.
1500:
Poreisz C, Boros K, Antal A, Paulus W (May 2007). "Safety aspects of transcranial direct current stimulation concerning healthy subjects and patients".
2233:"At-Home Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) With Telehealth Support for Symptom Control in Chronically-Ill Patients With Multiple Symptoms"
2283:
1895:
340:
To set up the tDCS device, the electrodes and the skin need to be prepared. This ensures a low resistance connection between the skin and the
95:
delivered via electrodes on the head. It was originally developed to help patients with brain injuries or neuropsychiatric conditions such as
3975:
1085:"Efficacy and Safety of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation for Treating Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: A Randomized Clinical Trial"
665:
472:
431:
3821:
3400:"Repeated transcranial direct current stimulation prevents abnormal behaviors associated with abstinence from chronic nicotine consumption"
3008:
Horvath JC (2015). "New
Quantitative Analyses Following Price & Hamilton's Critique do not Change Original Findings of Horvath et al".
549:. A second study by the same authors found there was little-to-no statistically reliable impact of tDCS on any neurophysiologic outcome.
3595:"Cerebellar Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (ctDCS): A Novel Approach to Understanding Cerebellar Function in Health and Disease"
4025:
680:
2106:"A pilot study of the tolerability and effects of high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) on pain perception"
4010:
3985:
2846:
655:
100:
1787:"Physiological and modeling evidence for focal transcranial electrical brain stimulation in humans: a basis for high-definition tDCS"
455:(TMS), an electric coil is held above the region of interest on the scalp that uses rapidly changing magnetic fields to induce small
114:
Research shows increasing evidence for tDCS as a treatment for depression. There is mixed evidence about whether tDCS is useful for
670:
452:
427:
108:
4000:
3980:
2829:
Katsoulaki M, Kastrinis A, Tsekoura M (2017). "The
Effects of Anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Working Memory".
508:
A 2016 meta-analysis showed that 34% of people treated with tDCS showed at least 50% symptom reduction (compared to 19% placebo).
4209:
4005:
3854:
3693:
van Dun K, Bodranghien F, Manto M, Mariën P (June 2017). "Targeting the Cerebellum by Noninvasive Neurostimulation: a Review".
4111:
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468:
148:
1136:
4106:
4055:
3990:
3546:"Transcranial direct current stimulation over right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex enhances error awareness in older age"
3789:
1313:"Effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion on neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury"
357:
2549:"Transcranial direct current stimulation for acute major depressive episodes: meta-analysis of individual patient data"
754:"Transcranial direct current stimulation for acute major depressive episodes: meta-analysis of individual patient data"
4285:
565:, non-neuropathic pain. A few clinical trials have been conducted on the use of tDCS to ameliorate memory deficits in
275:
180:
3164:
Feng WW, Bowden MG, Kautz S (Jan 2013). "Review of transcranial direct current stimulation in poststroke recovery".
4020:
267:
165:
88:
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Woodham R, Rimmer RM, Mutz J, Fu CH (May 2021). "Is tDCS a potential first line treatment for major depression?".
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144:
96:
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4143:
4138:
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3869:
3814:
1603:"Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation: Safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines"
54:
3782:"FDA Executive Summary – Petitions to Request Change in Classification for Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulators"
1239:"Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) for Treatment Resistant Depression (TRD): A Systematic Review"
496:
Determining the safety and effectiveness of tDCS treatment for people with depression is being investigated:
4290:
4231:
3644:"tDCS of the Cerebellum: Where Do We Stand in 2016? Technical Issues and Critical Review of the Literature"
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3209:"Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for improving aphasia in adults with aphasia after stroke"
2503:
570:
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889:"Transcranial direct current stimulation for memory enhancement: from clinical research to animal models"
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1839:"Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation"
675:
538:
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115:
17:
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Brunoni AR, Moffa AH, Sampaio-Junior B, Borrione L, Moreno ML, Fernandes RA, et al. (June 2017).
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3884:
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Grimaldi G, Argyropoulos GP, Bastian A, Cortes M, Davis NJ, Edwards DJ, et al. (February 2016).
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should not receive tDCS. Studies have been completed to determine the current density at which overt
2508:
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3929:
3909:
3889:
3807:
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Agarwal SM, Shivakumar V, Bose A, Subramaniam A, Nawani H, Chhabra H, et al. (December 2013).
1601:
Antal A, Alekseichuk I, Bikson M, Brockmöller J, Brunoni AR, Chen R, et al. (September 2017).
1476:"3 The procedure | Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for depression | Guidance | NICE"
856:
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after spinal cord injury. There is evidence of very low to moderate quality that tDCS can improve
104:
4245:
2457:
Albert DJ (February 1966). "The effects of polarizing currents on the consolidation of learning".
2420:
Albert DJ (February 1966). "The effect of spreading depression on the consolidation of learning".
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3307:"Effects of tDCS on motor learning and memory formation: A consensus and critical position paper"
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Harty S, Robertson IH, Miniussi C, Sheehy OC, Devine CA, McCreery S, O'Connell RG (March 2014).
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specifically on the treated neuronal structures, is a question of further long-term research.
222:. A phosphene is a brief flash of light that can occur if an electrode is placed near the eye.
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Pollock A, Farmer SE, Brady MC, Langhorne P, Mead GE, Mehrholz J, van Wijck F (November 2014).
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Borckardt JJ, Bikson M, Frohman H, Reeves ST, Datta A, Bansal V, et al. (February 2012).
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1983:
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1451:"1 Recommendations | Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for depression | Guidance"
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Valiengo LD, Goerigk S, Gordon PC, Padberg F, Serpa MH, Koebe S, et al. (February 2020).
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There is some evidence tDCS might be of moderate benefit as treatment for mild and moderate
2887:
2547:
Brunoni AR, Moffa AH, Fregni F, Palm U, Padberg F, Blumberger DM, et al. (June 2016).
1933:
1854:
1412:
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we found tDCS to be efficacious across outcomes in both pairwise and network meta-analyses.
752:
Brunoni AR, Moffa AH, Fregni F, Palm U, Padberg F, Blumberger DM, et al. (June 2016).
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3305:
Buch ER, Santarnecchi E, Antal A, Born J, Celnik PA, Classen J, et al. (April 2017).
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242:
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in healthy people. There is no strong evidence that tDCS is useful for memory deficits in
2053:
Viganò A, D'Elia TS, Sava SL, Auvé M, De Pasqua V, Colosimo A, et al. (March 2013).
1311:
Soler MD, Kumru H, Pelayo R, Vidal J, Tormos JM, Fregni F, et al. (September 2010).
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3424:
3399:
3233:
3208:
3134:
3109:
3082:
3057:
2575:
2548:
2259:
2232:
2081:
2054:
2030:
2005:
1863:
1838:
1811:
1786:
1762:
1737:
1627:
1602:
1513:
1388:
1361:
1337:
1312:
1281:
1109:
1084:
1016:
991:
915:
888:
830:
805:
778:
753:
729:
704:
403:
308:
279:
271:
246:
172:
92:
3349:"Non-pharmacological interventions for chronic pain in people with spinal cord injury"
3347:
Boldt I, Eriks-Hoogland I, Brinkhof MW, de Bie R, Joggi D, von Elm E (November 2014).
2201:
1663:
4274:
4183:
3939:
3513:
2698:
2470:
2433:
2336:
1802:
1297:
1223:
1100:
1069:
574:
562:
407:
349:
3460:
3288:
3193:
3037:
2951:
2903:
2815:
2714:
2671:
2533:
2386:
2217:
1949:
1722:
1679:
1587:
1529:
973:
195:(NICE), the evidence on tDCS for depression raises no major safety concerns.
4158:
4123:
3722:
3561:
3530:
3476:
3365:
3224:
3125:
2994:
2174:
1053:
1007:
609:
442:
234:
39:
2833:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 987. pp. 283–289.
2320:
500:
A systematic review of placebo-controlled trials investigating tDCS treatment for
426:
Research continued, further fueled by knowledge gained from other techniques like
3504:
3325:
3272:
2838:
2771:
2655:
1753:
1706:
1618:
1411:
Galletta, Elizabeth E.; Conner, Peggy; Vogel-Eyny, Amy; Marangolo, Paola (2016).
1206:
957:
60:
2122:
2105:
1979:
1197:
887:
Bennabi D, Pedron S, Haffen E, Monnin J, Peterschmitt Y, Van Waes V (Sep 2014).
3306:
2600:"Trial of Electrical Direct-Current Therapy versus Escitalopram for Depression"
2517:
1428:
1254:
4051:
Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes
3830:
3706:
3073:
3021:
2978:
2935:
2799:
2745:
2729:
2565:
2370:
2158:
2021:
1571:
1378:
1153:
804:
Mutz J, Vipulananthan V, Carter B, Hurlemann R, Fu CH, Young AH (March 2019).
769:
3660:
3610:
2249:
1785:
Edwards D, Cortes M, Datta A, Minhas P, Wassermann EM, Bikson M (July 2013).
1162:
905:
3919:
2231:
Riggs A, Patel V, Paneri B, Portenoy RK, Bikson M, Knotkova H (2018-05-22).
2071:
573:
and healthy subjects, with mixed results. Research conducted as of 2013 in
341:
312:
203:
3714:
3679:
3628:
3579:
3522:
3468:
3433:
3384:
3333:
3280:
3242:
3185:
3143:
3091:
3029:
2986:
2943:
2895:
2856:
2807:
2763:
2754:
2706:
2663:
2625:
2584:
2525:
2378:
2328:
2268:
2209:
2166:
2131:
2090:
2039:
1987:
1941:
1872:
1820:
1771:
1714:
1671:
1636:
1579:
1521:
1436:
1397:
1346:
1328:
1289:
1215:
1118:
1061:
1025:
965:
924:
839:
787:
738:
3753:
Cortex; A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior.
2616:
2599:
3415:
3261:
Cortex; A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior
2479:
2442:
1135:
Cheng, Ying-Chih; Kuo, Po-Hsiu; Su, Min-I; Huang, Wei-Lieh (2022-04-01).
720:
230:
211:
1888:"Transcranial direct current stimulation in the treatment of depression"
1738:"Establishing safety limits for transcranial direct current stimulation"
599:
fully, though an attempt at formalizing standards was released in 2017.
44:
Anodal tDCS administration. Anodal (b) and cathodal (c) electrodes with
3177:
587:
557:
There is no strong evidence that tDCS is useful for memory deficits in
382:
373:
307:
Transcranial direct current stimulation works by sending constant, low
238:
226:
215:
176:
2004:
Datta A, Bansal V, Diaz J, Patel J, Reato D, Bikson M (October 2009).
821:
70:
250:
207:
199:
2284:"Europe's first home brain-zap device for depression launched in UK"
3398:
Pedron S, Monnin J, Haffen E, Sechter D, Van Waes V (March 2014).
2496:
IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering
1237:
Li, John; Kung, Simon; Croarkin, Paul; Lapid, Maria (2024-04-01).
441:
369:
1186:
Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry
476:
353:
171:
Transcranial direct-current stimulaiton is also used to augment
3803:
857:"Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for depression"
3110:"Interventions for improving upper limb function after stroke"
329:
3799:
3763:
3761:
3642:
van Dun K, Bodranghien FC, Mariën P, Manto MU (2016-01-01).
2728:
Dedoncker J, Brunoni AR, Baeken C, Vanderhasselt MA (2016).
1480:
The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
1455:
The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
1360:
Elsner B, Kwakkel G, Kugler J, Mehrholz J (September 2017).
861:
The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
202:
over two weeks, adverse effects include skin irritation, a
3058:"Transcranial direct current stimulation in schizophrenia"
4036:
Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists
533:
There is mixed evidence about whether tDCS is useful for
990:
Elsner B, Kugler J, Pohl M, Mehrholz J (November 2020).
179:, or to help maintain language abilities in the case of
552:
2637:
2635:
1832:
1830:
3103:
3101:
4046:
Taiwanese Society of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
3159:
3157:
3155:
3153:
479:), a group of technologies commonly referred to as
198:
As of 2017, at stimulation up to 60 min and up to 4
4192:
4064:
3966:
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
3958:
3837:
3755:
45 (9): 1035–1042. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.02.007
3207:Elsner B, Kugler J, Pohl M, Mehrholz J (May 2019).
553:
Parkinson's, Alzheimer's disease, and schizophrenia
291:increases. tDCS has been proposed to promote both
257:higher than protocols that were in use as of 2009.
53:
32:
175:in patients with acquired language disorders like
3254:
3252:
938:
936:
934:
299:, and further research is needed for validation.
193:National Institute for Health and Care Excellence
3771:44 (4): 329–337. doi:10.1016/j.ymeth.2007.02.001
3734:
3732:
882:
880:
878:
368:There are three different types of stimulation:
3051:
3049:
3047:
2917:
2915:
2913:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
27:Technique of brain electric stimulation therapy
3742:13 (1): 121–138. doi:10.1007/s12311-013-0514-7
2868:
2866:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1366:Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation
4016:Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia
3815:
2359:The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences
1417:American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology
8:
3062:Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience
1999:
1997:
1243:The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
1130:
1128:
661:Transcranial alternating current stimulation
3353:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
3213:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
3114:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1736:Bikson M, Datta A, Elwassif M (June 2009).
996:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
625:appear long after the treatment has ended.
168:assessment in the short-term after stroke.
3971:American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology
3822:
3808:
3800:
2644:The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry
1961:
1959:
698:
696:
38:
3669:
3659:
3618:
3569:
3512:
3423:
3374:
3364:
3232:
3133:
3081:
2753:
2615:
2574:
2564:
2507:
2478:
2441:
2258:
2248:
2121:
2080:
2070:
2029:
1862:
1810:
1761:
1658:(11): 2220–2222, author reply 2222–2223.
1626:
1387:
1377:
1336:
1205:
1152:
1108:
1015:
914:
904:
829:
777:
728:
2407:] (in French). Paris: Fournier Fils.
1837:Nitsche MA, Paulus W (September 2000).
705:"Somatic treatments for mood disorders"
692:
81:Transcranial direct current stimulation
33:Transcranial direct-current stimulation
18:Transcranial direct current stimulation
3449:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
2888:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.11.021
1934:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.06.002
1914:
1912:
1894:. Servier Laboratories. Archived from
1855:10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.t01-1-00633.x
423:effects on the cortical excitability.
249:of 52400 C/m or higher caused a brain
237:occurs in rats. It was found that in
29:
4205:Neurological conditions and disorders
3976:American Neuropsychiatric Association
3300:
3298:
666:Transcranial random noise stimulation
473:transcranial random noise stimulation
7:
2237:Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
985:
983:
703:Rosa MA, Lisanby SH (January 2012).
641:tDCS is a CE approved treatment for
4026:National Institute of Mental Health
2604:The New England Journal of Medicine
681:Non-invasive cerebellar stimulation
481:transcranial electrical stimulation
66:
4011:Hong Kong College of Psychiatrists
3986:Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse
2309:International Review of Psychiatry
1514:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.01.004
1282:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.09.011
656:Cranial electrotherapy stimulation
594:Motor Learning and Memory Function
266:is either by causing the neuron’s
101:cranial electrotherapy stimulation
25:
2553:The British Journal of Psychiatry
893:Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience
758:The British Journal of Psychiatry
671:Transcranial magnetic stimulation
463:Variants related to tDCS include
453:transcranial magnetic stimulation
183:, a neurodegenerative condition.
109:transcranial magnetic stimulation
4254:
4244:
4001:European Psychiatric Association
3981:American Psychiatric Association
2699:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.07.083
2059:The Journal of Headache and Pain
1803:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.01.042
1101:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3199
402:The basic design of tDCS, using
4255:
4006:Global Initiative on Psychiatry
3855:Child and adolescent psychiatry
3648:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
3461:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.07.009
3166:Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation
4222:Psychiatric survivors movement
4112:Psychiatric survivors movement
4082:Controversies about psychiatry
4041:Royal College of Psychiatrists
3562:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5308-13.2014
3366:10.1002/14651858.CD009177.pub2
3225:10.1002/14651858.CD009760.pub4
3126:10.1002/14651858.CD010820.pub2
1054:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113656
1008:10.1002/14651858.CD009645.pub4
253:in the rat. This is over two
149:treatment-resistant depression
1:
4107:Political abuse of psychiatry
4056:World Psychiatric Association
3991:Chinese Society of Psychiatry
2352:"Aldini's Essay on Galvanism"
2321:10.1080/09540261.2021.1879030
2202:10.1016/S1388-2457(02)00412-1
1664:10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00235-9
206:at the start of stimulation,
3790:Food and Drug Administration
3505:10.1016/j.clinph.2016.10.087
3326:10.1016/j.clinph.2017.01.004
3273:10.1016/j.cortex.2014.08.015
2839:10.1007/978-3-319-57379-3_25
2656:10.3109/15622975.2013.876514
2471:10.1016/0028-3932(66)90021-2
2434:10.1016/0028-3932(66)90020-0
1886:Fitzgerald PB (2011-10-24).
1754:10.1016/j.clinph.2009.03.018
1707:10.1016/j.clinph.2009.01.022
1619:10.1016/j.clinph.2017.06.001
958:10.1097/AJP.0b013e31823853e3
946:The Clinical Journal of Pain
99:. It can be contrasted with
3550:The Journal of Neuroscience
2123:10.1016/j.jpain.2011.07.001
1980:10.1016/j.ymeth.2007.02.001
1198:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.109836
438:Comparison to other devices
181:primary progressive aphasia
4322:
4021:Indian Psychiatric Society
2518:10.1109/TNSRE.2012.2200046
2350:Parent A (November 2004).
1429:10.1044/2016_AJSLP-15-0133
1255:10.1016/j.jagp.2024.01.181
268:resting membrane potential
245:of 142.9 A/m delivering a
166:activities of daily living
4240:
4097:Electroconvulsive therapy
4092:Biopsychiatry controversy
3865:Cross-cultural psychiatry
3860:Cognitive neuropsychiatry
3707:10.1007/s12311-016-0840-7
3514:10067/1420300151162165141
3074:10.9758/cpn.2013.11.3.118
3022:10.1016/j.brs.2015.05.001
2979:10.1016/j.brs.2015.06.001
2936:10.1016/j.brs.2015.01.400
2800:10.1016/j.brs.2015.10.006
2746:10.1016/j.brs.2016.04.006
2566:10.1192/bjp.bp.115.164715
2371:10.1017/S0317167100003851
2159:10.1016/j.brs.2012.09.010
2022:10.1016/j.brs.2009.03.005
1843:The Journal of Physiology
1572:10.1016/j.brs.2008.06.004
1379:10.1186/s12984-017-0301-7
1154:10.1017/S0033291721005560
770:10.1192/bjp.bp.115.164715
643:major depressive disorder
612:, and craving disorders.
517:major depressive disorder
502:major depressive disorder
191:According to the British
145:major depressive disorder
107:the same way, as well as
97:major depressive disorder
67:
37:
4144:Psychiatric epidemiology
4139:Philosophy of psychiatry
4031:Philadelphia Association
3870:Developmental disability
3661:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00199
3611:10.1177/1073858414559409
3493:Clinical Neurophysiology
3314:Clinical Neurophysiology
2250:10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00093
2190:Clinical Neurophysiology
1742:Clinical Neurophysiology
1695:Clinical Neurophysiology
1652:Clinical Neurophysiology
1607:Clinical Neurophysiology
906:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00159
91:that uses constant, low
4210:Psychiatric medications
3404:Neuropsychopharmacology
2072:10.1186/1129-2377-14-23
1502:Brain Research Bulletin
1270:Brain Research Bulletin
709:Neuropsychopharmacology
218:for stimulation of the
103:, which generally uses
4179:Psychosomatic medicine
3915:Nutritional psychiatry
3875:Descriptive psychiatry
3455:(10 Pt 2): 2472–2480.
1141:Psychological Medicine
448:
389:At-home administration
293:long term potentiation
229:, such as people with
225:People susceptible to
4102:Insulin shock therapy
4077:Clinical neuroscience
3996:Democratic Psychiatry
3850:Biological psychiatry
2617:10.1056/nejmoa1612999
1207:1959.4/unsworks_81424
676:Brainwave entrainment
547:cognitive enhancement
535:cognitive enhancement
445:
116:cognitive enhancement
4215:by condition treated
4154:Psychiatric hospital
4149:Psychiatric genetics
3895:Geriatric psychiatry
3885:Emergency psychiatry
3845:Addiction psychiatry
3416:10.1038/npp.2013.298
2016:(4): 201–7, 207.e1.
1482:. UK. 26 August 2015
1457:. UK. 26 August 2015
1329:10.1093/brain/awq184
721:10.1038/npp.2011.225
637:Regulatory approvals
364:Types of stimulation
297:long term depression
4072:Behavioral medicine
3930:Palliative medicine
3910:Military psychiatry
3890:Forensic psychiatry
2110:The Journal of Pain
1042:Psychiatry Research
571:Alzheimer's disease
567:Parkinson's disease
559:Alzheimer's disease
457:electrical currents
261:Mechanism of action
255:orders of magnitude
124:Alzheimer's disease
120:Parkinson's disease
105:alternating current
4286:Medical treatments
4174:Psychopharmacology
3905:Liaison psychiatry
3599:The Neuroscientist
3178:10.1310/tsr2001-68
449:
352:technique such as
4268:
4267:
4200:Counseling topics
4134:Pentylenetetrazol
3900:Immuno-psychiatry
3556:(10): 3646–3652.
3010:Brain Stimulation
2967:Brain Stimulation
2924:Brain Stimulation
2788:Brain Stimulation
2734:Brain Stimulation
2693:(Pt 3): 895–908.
2610:(26): 2523–2533.
2399:Essai AJ (1804).
2147:Brain Stimulation
2010:Brain Stimulation
1928:(10): 2789–2810.
1849:(Pt 3): 633–639.
1560:Brain Stimulation
1423:(4S): S854–S867.
863:. UK. August 2015
822:10.1136/bmj.l1079
220:vestibular system
155:Other medical use
78:
77:
16:(Redirected from
4313:
4301:Neurostimulation
4258:
4257:
4248:
4119:Imaging genetics
3824:
3817:
3810:
3801:
3795:
3794:
3786:
3778:
3772:
3765:
3756:
3749:
3743:
3736:
3727:
3726:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3673:
3663:
3639:
3633:
3632:
3622:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3573:
3541:
3535:
3534:
3516:
3487:
3481:
3480:
3444:
3438:
3437:
3427:
3395:
3389:
3388:
3378:
3368:
3359:(11): CD009177.
3344:
3338:
3337:
3311:
3302:
3293:
3292:
3256:
3247:
3246:
3236:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3161:
3148:
3147:
3137:
3120:(11): CD010820.
3105:
3096:
3095:
3085:
3053:
3042:
3041:
3005:
2999:
2998:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2919:
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2907:
2876:Neuropsychologia
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2860:
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2820:
2819:
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2775:
2757:
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2675:
2639:
2630:
2629:
2619:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2578:
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2544:
2538:
2537:
2511:
2491:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2459:Neuropsychologia
2454:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2422:Neuropsychologia
2417:
2411:
2408:
2390:
2356:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2304:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2294:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2262:
2252:
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2222:
2221:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2142:
2136:
2135:
2125:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2084:
2074:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2033:
2001:
1992:
1991:
1963:
1954:
1953:
1922:Neuropsychologia
1916:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1903:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1866:
1834:
1825:
1824:
1814:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1765:
1748:(6): 1033–1034.
1733:
1727:
1726:
1701:(6): 1161–1167.
1690:
1684:
1683:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1630:
1613:(9): 1774–1809.
1598:
1592:
1591:
1555:
1534:
1533:
1508:(4–6): 208–214.
1497:
1491:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1462:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1391:
1381:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1340:
1323:(9): 2565–2577.
1308:
1302:
1301:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1209:
1180:
1167:
1166:
1156:
1132:
1123:
1122:
1112:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1019:
1002:(11): CD009645.
987:
978:
977:
940:
929:
928:
918:
908:
884:
873:
872:
870:
868:
853:
847:
846:
833:
801:
795:
794:
781:
749:
743:
742:
732:
700:
412:Alessandro Volta
394:tDCS treatment.
162:neuropathic pain
71:edit on Wikidata
63:
47:
42:
30:
21:
4321:
4320:
4316:
4315:
4314:
4312:
4311:
4310:
4306:Medical devices
4296:Neurotechnology
4281:Neurophysiology
4271:
4270:
4269:
4264:
4236:
4232:Psychotherapies
4188:
4169:Psycho-oncology
4129:Neurophysiology
4087:Anti-psychiatry
4060:
3954:
3925:Neuropsychiatry
3880:Eating disorder
3833:
3828:
3798:
3784:
3780:
3779:
3775:
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3759:
3750:
3746:
3737:
3730:
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3687:
3641:
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3587:
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3396:
3392:
3346:
3345:
3341:
3309:
3304:
3303:
3296:
3258:
3257:
3250:
3219:(5): CD009760.
3206:
3205:
3201:
3163:
3162:
3151:
3107:
3106:
3099:
3055:
3054:
3045:
3007:
3006:
3002:
2964:
2963:
2959:
2921:
2920:
2911:
2872:
2871:
2864:
2849:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2784:
2783:
2779:
2755:1854/LU-7206618
2727:
2726:
2722:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2641:
2640:
2633:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2546:
2545:
2541:
2509:10.1.1.352.4406
2493:
2492:
2488:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2398:
2354:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2306:
2305:
2301:
2292:
2290:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2003:
2002:
1995:
1965:
1964:
1957:
1918:
1917:
1910:
1901:
1899:
1898:on 11 July 2020
1885:
1884:
1880:
1836:
1835:
1828:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1557:
1556:
1537:
1499:
1498:
1494:
1485:
1483:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1460:
1458:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1410:
1409:
1405:
1359:
1358:
1354:
1310:
1309:
1305:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1182:
1181:
1170:
1134:
1133:
1126:
1089:JAMA Psychiatry
1082:
1081:
1077:
1038:
1037:
1033:
989:
988:
981:
942:
941:
932:
886:
885:
876:
866:
864:
855:
854:
850:
803:
802:
798:
751:
750:
746:
702:
701:
694:
690:
685:
651:
639:
622:
605:
583:
555:
531:
526:
524:Other disorders
494:
489:
440:
417:Giovanni Aldini
400:
391:
366:
338:
321:
305:
263:
243:current density
241:stimulation, a
189:
157:
137:
132:
89:neuromodulation
87:) is a form of
74:
59:
49:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4319:
4317:
4309:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4291:Electrotherapy
4288:
4283:
4273:
4272:
4266:
4265:
4263:
4262:
4252:
4241:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4218:
4217:
4207:
4202:
4196:
4194:
4190:
4189:
4187:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4164:Psychoanalysis
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4115:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4079:
4074:
4068:
4066:
4065:Related topics
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3962:
3960:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3952:
3950:Telepsychiatry
3947:
3945:Sleep medicine
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3841:
3839:
3838:Subspecialties
3835:
3834:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3819:
3812:
3804:
3797:
3796:
3773:
3757:
3744:
3728:
3701:(3): 695–741.
3685:
3634:
3585:
3536:
3482:
3439:
3410:(4): 981–988.
3390:
3339:
3320:(4): 589–603.
3294:
3248:
3199:
3149:
3097:
3068:(3): 118–125.
3043:
3016:(3): 665–666.
3000:
2973:(5): 974–976.
2957:
2930:(3): 535–550.
2909:
2862:
2848:978-3319573786
2847:
2821:
2794:(2): 197–208.
2777:
2740:(4): 501–517.
2720:
2677:
2650:(4): 261–275.
2631:
2590:
2559:(6): 522–531.
2539:
2502:(3): 333–345.
2486:
2449:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2365:(4): 576–584.
2342:
2315:(3): 250–265.
2299:
2274:
2223:
2196:(4): 600–604.
2180:
2153:(4): 644–648.
2137:
2116:(2): 112–120.
2096:
2045:
1993:
1974:(4): 329–337.
1955:
1908:
1878:
1826:
1777:
1728:
1685:
1642:
1593:
1566:(3): 206–223.
1535:
1492:
1467:
1442:
1403:
1352:
1303:
1260:
1229:
1168:
1147:(5): 801–812.
1124:
1095:(2): 121–129.
1075:
1031:
979:
952:(5): 452–461.
930:
874:
848:
796:
764:(6): 522–531.
744:
715:(1): 102–116.
691:
689:
686:
684:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
652:
650:
647:
638:
635:
621:
618:
604:
601:
582:
579:
554:
551:
539:within-subject
530:
527:
525:
522:
521:
520:
512:
509:
506:
493:
490:
488:
485:
439:
436:
404:direct current
399:
396:
390:
387:
383:placebo effect
365:
362:
337:
334:
320:
317:
309:direct current
304:
301:
262:
259:
247:charge density
188:
185:
173:speech therapy
156:
153:
136:
133:
131:
128:
93:direct current
76:
75:
68:
65:
64:
57:
51:
50:
43:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4318:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4278:
4276:
4261:
4253:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4242:
4239:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4227:Psychiatrists
4225:
4223:
4220:
4216:
4213:
4212:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4191:
4185:
4184:Psychosurgery
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4084:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4067:
4063:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3963:
3961:
3959:Organizations
3957:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3940:Psychotherapy
3938:
3936:
3935:Pain medicine
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3842:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3825:
3820:
3818:
3813:
3811:
3806:
3805:
3802:
3792:
3791:
3783:
3777:
3774:
3770:
3764:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3748:
3745:
3741:
3735:
3733:
3729:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3689:
3686:
3681:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3638:
3635:
3630:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3589:
3586:
3581:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3540:
3537:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3486:
3483:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3443:
3440:
3435:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3391:
3386:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3343:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3308:
3301:
3299:
3295:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3255:
3253:
3249:
3244:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3200:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3160:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3145:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3104:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3052:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3004:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2961:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2869:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2825:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2781:
2778:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2724:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2678:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2638:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2591:
2586:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2540:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2490:
2487:
2481:
2480:2027.42/33481
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2453:
2450:
2444:
2443:2027.42/33480
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2416:
2413:
2406:
2402:
2397:
2396:
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2388:
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2338:
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2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2303:
2300:
2289:
2288:New Scientist
2285:
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2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2227:
2224:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2184:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2141:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2049:
2046:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1897:
1893:
1892:Medicographia
1889:
1882:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1831:
1827:
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1813:
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1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
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1778:
1773:
1769:
1764:
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1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1646:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1493:
1481:
1477:
1471:
1468:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1407:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1307:
1304:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1264:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1233:
1230:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1079:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
986:
984:
980:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
939:
937:
935:
931:
926:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
898:
894:
890:
883:
881:
879:
875:
862:
858:
852:
849:
845:
841:
837:
832:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
800:
797:
793:
789:
785:
780:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
748:
745:
740:
736:
731:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
699:
697:
693:
687:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
653:
648:
646:
644:
636:
634:
630:
626:
619:
617:
613:
611:
602:
600:
596:
595:
591:
589:
580:
578:
576:
575:schizophrenia
572:
568:
564:
563:schizophrenia
560:
550:
548:
542:
540:
536:
528:
523:
518:
513:
510:
507:
503:
499:
498:
497:
491:
486:
484:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
461:
458:
454:
444:
437:
435:
433:
429:
424:
420:
418:
413:
409:
408:Luigi Galvani
405:
397:
395:
388:
386:
384:
379:
375:
371:
363:
361:
359:
355:
351:
350:brain imaging
347:
343:
335:
333:
331:
327:
318:
316:
314:
310:
302:
300:
298:
294:
288:
284:
281:
277:
276:hyperpolarize
273:
269:
260:
258:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
223:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
196:
194:
186:
184:
182:
178:
174:
169:
167:
163:
154:
152:
150:
146:
142:
134:
129:
127:
125:
121:
117:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
72:
62:
58:
56:
52:
41:
36:
31:
19:
4159:Psychiatrist
4124:Neuroimaging
3788:
3776:
3768:
3752:
3747:
3739:
3698:
3694:
3688:
3651:
3647:
3637:
3605:(1): 83–97.
3602:
3598:
3588:
3553:
3549:
3539:
3499:(1): 56–92.
3496:
3492:
3485:
3452:
3448:
3442:
3407:
3403:
3393:
3356:
3352:
3342:
3317:
3313:
3264:
3260:
3216:
3212:
3202:
3172:(1): 68–77.
3169:
3165:
3117:
3113:
3065:
3061:
3013:
3009:
3003:
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