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biological needs, social co-ordination needs, and needs related to the welfare and survival of groups. Schwartz's results from a series of studies that included surveys of more than 25,000 people in 44 countries with a wide range of different cultural types suggest that there are fifty-six specific universal values and ten types of universal value. Schwartz's ten types of universal value are:
101:'s understanding of the term. According to Berlin, "...universal values....are values that a great many human beings in the vast majority of places and situations, at almost all times, do in fact hold in common, whether consciously and explicitly or as expressed in their behaviour..." Second, something could have universal value when all people have
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research investigating whether there are universal values, and what those values are. Schwartz defined 'values' as "conceptions of the desirable that influence the way people select action and evaluate events". He hypothesised that universal values would relate to three different types of human need:
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The claim for universal values can be understood in two different ways. First, it could be that something has a universal value when everybody
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659:
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). 'Universals in the
Content and Structure of Values: Theory and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries'. In M. Zanna (ed.),
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study of universal value addresses questions such as the meaningfulness of universal value or whether universal values exist.
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66:, though it is clear that certain values are found across a great diversity of human cultures, such as primary attributes of
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133:. The issue of whether anything is of universal value, and, if so, what that thing or those things are, is relevant to
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Schwartz, S. H. (1994). 'Are there
Universal Aspects in the Structure and Contents of Human Values?'.
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Schwartz, S. H. and W. Bilsky (1987). 'Toward a
Universal Psychological Structure of Human Values'.
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if it has the same value or worth for all, or almost all, people. Spheres of human value encompass
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value non-violence. Many different things have been claimed to be of universal value, for example,
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Women and Human
Development; The 5th Annual Hesburgh Lectures on Ethics and Public Policy
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argued that non-violence is a universal value, he was arguing that all people have
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234:. Below are each of the value types, with the specific related values alongside:
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study of universal value addresses how such values are formed in a society.
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415:', but found that it does not seem to be recognised in all cultures.
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193:, along with a number of psychology colleagues, has carried out
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86:, a philosophical stance opposed to the existence of universal
58:. Whether universal values exist is an unproven conjecture of
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652:
The Common Mind: An Essay on
Psychology, Society, and Politics
407:
Schwartz also tested an eleventh possible universal value, '
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617:. McArthur & Co. Reprinted 2007, Halban Publishers.
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interprets the term in this way, pointing out that when
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Sen, Amartya (1999). 'Democracy as a
Universal Value'.
399:; stability of social order; reciprocation of favours;
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604:Diamond, Larry Jay, and Marc F. Plattner (2001).
78:. This objection is not limited to aesthetics.
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282:: daring activities; varied life; exciting life
176:Psychology and the search for universal values
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1712:Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel
682:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
27:Value that has the same worth for all people
591:Bolin, Anne, and Patricia Whelehan (1999).
117:to value non-violence, not that all people
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719:(1999). 'In Defense of Universal Values'
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1744:Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
643:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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369:; devoutness; respect for tradition;
149:Perspectives from various disciplines
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710:'Do We Still Have Universal Values'.
654:. New York: Oxford University Press.
606:The Global Divergence of Democracies
1760:Elements of the Philosophy of Right
744:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
725:. Occasional Paper Series, 16:OP:1.
365:: accepting one's portion in life;
733:'Basic Human Values: An Overview'.
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663:. New York: Academic Press: 1-65.
608:. Johns Hopkins University Press.
255:: success; capability; ambition;
249:; dominance, social power, wealth
1941:
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615:Conversations With Isaiah Berlin
740:'Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value'
593:Perspectives on Human Sexuality
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1098:Value monism – Value pluralism
738:Michael J. Zimmerman, (2007).
82:concerning morals is known as
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456:Unconditional positive regard
1792:On the Genealogy of Morality
1752:Critique of Practical Reason
613:Jahanbegloo, Ramin, (1991).
182:Theory of Basic Human Values
411:', or 'the goal of finding
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1720:A Treatise of Human Nature
553:Schwartz & Bilsky 1987
332:protecting the environment
179:
1936:
746:. (Accessed 13 Nov 2007).
645:. (Accessed 13 Nov 2007).
520:Bolin & Whelehan 1999
304:; choosing your own goals
105:to believe it has value.
1071:Universal prescriptivism
671:Journal of Social Issues
466:Universal basic services
186:Moral foundations theory
860:Artificial intelligence
735:(Accessed 6 Feb. 2016).
650:Pettit, Philip (1996).
637:Mason, Elinor, (2006).
68:physical attractiveness
461:Universal basic income
426:Christian universalism
145:, among other fields.
97:it valuable. This was
1784:The Methods of Ethics
1022:Divine command theory
1017:Ideal observer theory
330:; unity with nature;
64:cultural anthropology
1901:Political philosophy
692:Journal of Democracy
403:; sense of belonging
72:aesthetic relativism
44:aesthetic preference
1871:Evolutionary ethics
1832:Reasons and Persons
1808:A Theory of Justice
962:Uncertain sentience
395:; family security;
310:: broadmindedness;
1866:Ethics in religion
1861:Descriptive ethics
1696:Nicomachean Ethics
729:Shalom H. Schwartz
639:'Value pluralism'.
451:Unconditional love
446:Moral universalism
431:Cultural universal
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1906:Population ethics
1896:Philosophy of law
1876:History of ethics
1359:Political freedom
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623:1-905559-03-8
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588:
584:
577:
576:Schwartz 1992
572:
569:
566:
565:Schwartz 1994
561:
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554:
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543:
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339:
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329:
326:; a world of
325:
322:; a world at
321:
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196:
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164:
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160:
159:Philosophical
153:
148:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
99:Isaiah Berlin
96:
91:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
1972:Universalism
1925:
1881:Human rights
1824:After Virtue
1550:Schopenhauer
1324:Moral agency
1197:Common sense
1093:Universalism
1061:Expressivism
1041:Intuitionism
1012:Subjectivism
957:Terraforming
932:Professional
743:
722:
691:
680:
669:
660:
651:
642:
614:
605:
592:
571:
560:
548:
537:
526:
515:
503:
491:
476:Value system
471:Universalism
436:Human rights
409:spirituality
406:
388:
375:
362:
337:
308:Universalism
307:
298:independence
285:
279:
269:
265:self-respect
261:intelligence
252:
238:
216:universalism
189:
170:Sociological
168:
157:
118:
114:
102:
94:
92:
88:moral values
56:social order
35:
29:
1699:(c. 322 BC)
1565:Kierkegaard
1384:Stewardship
1161:Rousseauian
1078:Rationalism
990:Cognitivism
937:Programming
912:Meat eating
885:Engineering
393:cleanliness
346:forgiveness
338:Benevolence
280:Stimulation
253:Achievement
220:benevolence
208:stimulation
107:Amartya Sen
1961:Categories
1595:Bonhoeffer
1304:Immorality
1247:Eudaimonia
1207:Conscience
1202:Compassion
1088:Skepticism
1083:Relativism
1000:Naturalism
980:Absolutism
952:Technology
802:Deontology
706:Kofi Annan
597:SUNY Press
585:References
531:Mason 2006
376:Conformity
371:moderation
358:friendship
290:creativity
247:leadership
228:conformity
180:See also:
154:Philosophy
143:philosophy
135:psychology
80:Relativism
1856:Casuistry
1768:Either/Or
1675:Korsgaard
1670:Azurmendi
1635:MacIntyre
1575:Nietzsche
1505:Augustine
1500:Confucius
1480:Aristotle
1456:Ethicists
1414:Intrinsic
1379:Suffering
1289:Happiness
1262:Free will
1242:Etiquette
1187:Authority
1131:Epicurean
1126:Confucian
1121:Christian
1056:Emotivism
880:Discourse
817:Pragmatic
789:Normative
384:obedience
363:Tradition
302:curiosity
257:influence
243:authority
224:tradition
195:empirical
165:Sociology
131:democracy
123:fertility
119:currently
1946:Category
1886:Ideology
1851:Axiology
1680:Nussbaum
1630:Frankena
1625:Anscombe
1615:Williams
1570:Sidgwick
1490:Valluvar
1485:Diogenes
1470:Socrates
1394:Theodicy
1389:Sympathy
1354:Pacifism
1344:Morality
1257:Fidelity
1237:Equality
1192:Autonomy
1180:Concepts
1141:Feminist
1116:Buddhist
1046:Nihilism
985:Axiology
942:Research
875:Computer
870:Business
555:, p. 550
542:Sen 1999
508:Sen 1999
419:See also
389:Security
367:humility
320:equality
274:pleasure
270:Hedonism
232:security
204:hedonism
127:pleasure
40:morality
1844:Related
1590:Tillich
1555:Bentham
1530:Spinoza
1525:Aquinas
1510:Mencius
1424:Western
1399:Torture
1364:Precept
1319:Loyalty
1314:Liberty
1309:Justice
1222:Dignity
1212:Consent
1156:Kantian
1146:Islamic
1109:Schools
995:Realism
927:Nursing
922:Medical
907:Machine
847:Applied
510:, p. 12
498:, p. 37
350:loyalty
342:honesty
294:freedom
1835:(1984)
1827:(1981)
1819:(1979)
1811:(1971)
1803:(1903)
1795:(1887)
1787:(1874)
1779:(1861)
1771:(1843)
1763:(1820)
1755:(1788)
1747:(1785)
1739:(1780)
1731:(1759)
1723:(1740)
1715:(1726)
1707:(1677)
1665:Taylor
1650:Parfit
1645:Singer
1620:Mackie
1495:Cicero
1436:Virtue
1369:Rights
1294:Honour
1151:Jewish
947:Sexual
855:Animal
837:Virtue
781:Ethics
629:
621:
401:health
328:beauty
312:wisdom
230:, and
141:, and
129:, and
115:reason
103:reason
54:, and
48:traits
1927:Index
1689:Works
1660:Adams
1655:Nagel
1610:Dewey
1605:Rawls
1585:Barth
1580:Moore
1545:Hegel
1520:Xunzi
1475:Plato
1465:Laozi
1446:Wrong
1419:Japan
1409:Value
1404:Trust
1299:Ideal
1166:Stoic
917:Media
902:Legal
483:Notes
324:peace
239:Power
200:power
95:finds
34:is a
32:value
1640:Hare
1600:Foot
1560:Mill
1540:Kant
1535:Hume
1515:Mozi
1431:Vice
1349:Norm
1277:Evil
1272:Good
1232:Duty
972:Meta
895:Land
822:Role
807:Care
627:ISBN
619:ISBN
184:and
62:and
1441:Vow
1171:Tao
865:Bio
641:In
90:.
1963::
742:,
731:,
721:,
717:,
708:,
625:,
595:.
391::
382:;
378::
356:;
352:;
348:;
344:;
318:;
314:;
300:;
296:;
292:;
288::
272::
263:;
259:;
245:;
241::
226:,
222:,
218:,
214:,
210:,
206:,
137:,
125:,
50:,
46:,
42:,
30:A
773:e
766:t
759:v
599:.
20:)
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