Pliocene - Knowledge (XXG)

3308: 1706:. Global sea-level fluctuation associated with ice-sheet collapse was probably up to 7 meters for the west Antarctic and 3 meters for the east Antarctic. Model simulations are consistent with reconstructed ice-sheet oscillations and suggest a progression from a smaller to a larger West Antarctic ice sheet in the last 5 million years. Intervals of ice sheet collapse were much more common in the early-mid Pliocene (5 Ma – 3 Ma), after three-million-year intervals with modern or glacial ice volume became longer and collapse occurs only at times when warmer global temperature coincide with strong austral summer insolation anomalies. 3648: 2333: 2308: 1715: 2292: 2164: 2256: 2195: 2176: 7809: 2235: 2274: 2216: 2116: 7798: 1546: 2140: 3784: 2033: 1928: 36: 1405: 1914:

variability selection hypothesis, which proposes that variability in climate fostered development of hominin traits. Improved climate proxies show that the Pliocene climate of east Africa was highly variable, suggesting that adaptability to varying conditions was more important in driving hominin evolution than the steady pressure of a particular habitat.

1910:, emphasized an intrinsic model of hominin evolution. According to this model, early evolutionary developments triggered later developments. The model placed little emphasis on the surrounding environment. Anthropologists tended to focus on intrinsic models while geologists and vertebrate paleontologists tended to put greater emphasis on habitats. 225: 1569:. The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene (3.3–3 mya) was 2–3 °C higher than today, while carbon dioxide levels were the same as today (400 ppm). Global sea level was about 25 m higher, though its exact value is uncertain. The northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive 1654:

over fluvial transport of pollen. Around 3.26 Ma, a strong aridification event that was followed by a return to more humid conditions, which was itself followed by another aridification around 2.7 Ma. From 2.6 to 2.4 Ma, vegetation zones began repeatedly shifting latitudinally in response to glacial-interglacial cycles.

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In northwestern Africa, tropical forests extended up to Cape Blanc during the Zanclean until around 3.5 Ma. During the Piacenzian, from about 3.5 to 2.6 Ma, the region was forested at irregular intervals and contained a significant Saharan palaeoriver until 3.35 Ma, when trade winds began to dominate

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values of occluded organic matter increased by 2.5% while those of pedogenic carbonate increased by 5% over the course of the Late Miocene and Pliocene, indicating increased aridification. Further aridification of Central Asia was caused by the development of Northern Hemisphere glaciation during the

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Alternatives to the savanna hypothesis include the woodland/forest hypothesis, which emphasizes the evolution of hominins in closed habitats, or hypotheses emphasizing the influence of colder habitats at higher latitudes or the influence of seasonal variation. More recent research has emphasized the

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with a greater species diversity compared to today during the Middle and Late Pliocene. Three different aridification events occurred around 2.90, 2.59, and 2.56 Ma, and may have been linked to the onset of continental glaciation in the Arctic, suggesting that vegetation changes in Australia during

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Tedford, Richard H.; Albright, L. Barry; Barnosky, Anthony D.; Ferrusquia-Villafranca, Ismael; Hunt, Robert M.; Storer, John E.; Swisher, Carl C.; Voorhies, Michael R.; Webb, S. David; Whistler, David P. (31 December 2004). "6. Mammalian Biochronology of the Arikareean Through Hemphillian Interval

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During the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene Series of the Cenozoic Era, 3.6 to 2.6 Ma, the Arctic was much warmer than it is at the present day (with summer temperatures some 8 °C warmer than today). That is a key finding of research into a lake-sediment core obtained in Eastern Siberia,

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that define the start and end are well-identified but the exact dates of the start and end of the epoch are slightly uncertain. The boundaries defining the Pliocene are not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer Miocene and the relatively

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continued to do well afterwards. The formation of the Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic waters decreasing temperatures in the now-separated Atlantic Ocean.

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The Pliocene was a high water mark for species diversity among Caribbean corals. From 5 to 2 Ma, coral species origination rates were relatively high in the Caribbean, although a noticeable extinction event and drop in diversity occurred at the end of this interval.

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have provided scientists with the means to test hypotheses of the evolution of human ancestors. Early hypotheses of the evolution of human traits emphasized the selective pressures produced by particular habitats. For example, many scientists have long favored the

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and parts of western Asia) the Pliocene contains the Dacian (roughly equal to the Zanclean) and Romanian (roughly equal to the Piacenzian and Gelasian together) stages. As usual in stratigraphy, there are many other regional and local subdivisions in use.

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The climate of eastern Africa was very similar to what it is today. Unexpectedly, the expansion of grasslands in eastern Africa during this epoch appears to have been decoupled from aridification and not caused by it, as evidenced by their asynchrony.

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Examples of migrant species in the Americas after the formation of the Isthmus of Panama. Olive green silhouettes denote North American species with South American ancestors; blue silhouettes denote South American species of North American

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beds. Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch. The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have accelerated on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas.

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Because of the 2009 reassignment of the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary from 1.8 to 2.6 million years ago, older papers on Pliocene hominin evolution sometimes include events that would now be regarded as taking place in the early

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Amidon, William H.; Fisher, G. Burch; Burbank, Douglas W.; Ciccioli, Patricia L.; Alonso, Ricardo N.; Gorin, Andrew L.; Silverhart, Perry H.; Kylander-Clark, Andrew R. C.; Christoffersen, Michael S. (12 June 2017).

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and their closest extinct relatives, near the end of the Pliocene at 2.6 million years ago. Key traits that evolved among hominins during the Pliocene include terrestrial bipedality and, by the end of the Pliocene,

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period of Earth's obliquity. Ice sheet collapse occurred when the global average temperature was 3 °C warmer than today and carbon dioxide concentration was at 400 ppmv. This resulted in open waters in the

1800:) was first flooded near the start of the Pliocene, allowing marine organisms to spread between the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. The bridge would continue to be periodically flooded and restored thereafter. 2332: 3967:

Krijgsman, W.; Garcés, M.; Langereis, C. G.; Daams, R.; Van Dam, J.; Van Der Meulen, A. J.; Agustí, J.; Cabrera, L. (1996). "A new chronology for the middle to late Miocene continental record in Spain".

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gradient was considerably lower than it is today. Mean sea surface temperatures in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west. This condition has been described as a permanent

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The formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 3.5 million years ago cut off the final remnant of what was once essentially a circum-equatorial current that had existed since the Cretaceous and the early

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Flynn, J.; Swisher, C.C. III (1995). "Cenozoic South American Land Mammal Ages: correlation to global geochronology". In William A. Berggren; Dennis V. Kent; Marie-Pierre Aubry; Jan Hardenbol (eds.).

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During the Pliocene epoch (5.3 to 2.6 million years ago (Ma)), the Earth's climate became cooler and drier, as well as more seasonal, marking a transition between the relatively warm

1646:, an arid period occurred from 6.1 to 5.2 Ma, with another occurring from 3.6 to 3.3 Ma. These arid periods are coincident with global cold periods, during which the position of the 3539:

as the African predators, forcing hyenas to adapt as specialized scavengers. Most mustelids in Africa declined as a result of increased competition from the new predators, although

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Epoch. Prior to the 2009 revision of the geologic time scale, which placed the four most recent major glaciations entirely within the Pleistocene, the Pliocene also included the

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From p. 53: "We derive the term Pliocene from πλειων, major, and χαινος, recens, as the major part of the fossil testacea of this epoch are referrible to recent species*."

3498: 1886:. This proposes that the evolution of terrestrial bipedality and other traits was an adaptive response to Pliocene climate change that transformed forests into more open 5871: 5265: 5307:

Blumenthal, Scott A.; Levin, Naomi E.; Brown, Francis H.; Brugal, Jean-Philip; Chritz, Kendra L.; Harris, John M.; Jehle, Glynis E.; Cerling, Thure E. (26 June 2017).

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Gautier, F., Clauzon, G., Suc, J.P., Cravatte, J., Violanti, D., 1994. Age and duration of the Messinian salinity crisis. C.R. Acad. Sci., Paris (IIA) 318, 1103–1109.

5044:"Regional Patterns in Miocene-Pliocene Aridity Across the Chinese Loess Plateau Revealed by High Resolution Records of Paleosol Carbonate and Occluded Organic Matter" 3667:, a large phorusrhacid that migrated to North America and rivaled mammals as top predator. Other birds probably evolved at this time, some modern (such as the genera 2291: 6672: 6720: 6247: 5977:"Sedimentary cyclicity in the marine Pliocene-Pleistocene of the Wanganui basin (New Zealand): Sequence stratigraphic motifs characteristic of the past 2.5 m.y." 5042:

Gallagher, Timothy M.; Serach, Lily; Sekhon, Natasha; Zhang, Hanzhi; Wang, Hanlin; Ji, Shunchuan; Chang, Xi; Lu, Huayu; Breecker, Daniel O. (25 November 2021).

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Dwyer, G.S.; Chandler, M.A. (2009). "Mid-Pliocene sea level and continental ice volume based on coupled benthic Mg/Ca palaeotemperatures and oxygen isotopes".

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Gibert, Jordi Maria de; Martinell, Jordi (January 1995). "Sedimentary substrate andtrace fossil assemblages in marine Pliocene deposits in Northeast Spain".

4464:"Integrated chronostratigraphy of the Pliocene-Pleistocene interval and its relation to the regional stratigraphical stages in the southern North Sea region" 3500: 3499: 3720:, having evolved in the Miocene, continued into the Pliocene, except with a more northern range; specimens have been found in very late Miocene deposits of 2175: 7047: 4549:

Qin, Jie; Zhang, Rui; Kravchinsky, Vadim A.; Valet, Jean-Pierre; Sagnotti, Leonardo; Li, Jianxing; Xu, Yong; Anwar, Taslima; Yue, Leping (2 April 2022).

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William Whewell, D. D., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge: An account of his writings with selections from his literary and scientific correspondence

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appearing in the late Pliocene. Rodents were successful, and elephant populations increased. Cows and antelopes continued diversification and overtook

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Selli, Raimondo (September 1965). "The Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary in Italian marine sections and its relationship to continental stratigraphies".

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Fedorov, Alexey V.; Brierley, Christopher M.; Emanuel, Kerry (February 2010). "Tropical cyclones and permanent El Niño in the early Pliocene epoch".

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Shen, Xingyan; Wan, Shiming; Colin, Christophe; Tada, Ryuji; Shi, Xuefa; Pei, Wenqiang; Tan, Yang; Jiang, Xuejun; Li, Anchun (15 November 2018).

2988: 5143:"Intensification of Asian dust storms during the Mid-Pliocene Warm Period (3.25–2.96 Ma) documented in a sediment core from the South China Sea" 5980: 1727:, moving from positions possibly as far as 250 km from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current locations. 1626:

became more seasonal during the Pliocene, with colder, drier winters and wetter summers, which contributed to an increase in the abundance of C

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The change to a cooler, drier, more seasonal climate had considerable impacts on Pliocene vegetation, reducing tropical species worldwide.

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Potts, R. (2007), Bobe, René; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Behrensmeyer, Anna K. (eds.), "Environmental hypotheses of Pliocene human evolution",

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the Pliocene behaved similarly to during the Late Pleistocene and were likely characterised by comparable cycles of aridity and humidity.

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Süfke, Finn; Kaboth-Barr, Stefanie; Wei, Kuo-Yen; Chuang, Chih-Kai; Gutjahr, Marcus; Pross, Jörg; Friedrich, Oliver (15 September 2022).

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appeared. Horses and modern rhinos came onto the scene. Bears, dogs and weasels (originally from North America) joined cats, hyenas and

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which is of exceptional importance because it has provided the longest continuous late Cenozoic land-based sedimentary record thus far.

4900: 6903: 5261:"Development of vegetation and continental aridity in northwestern Africa during the Late Pliocene: the pollen record of ODP site 658" 4778:"Mid-Pliocene shorelines of the US Atlantic Coastal Plain — An improved elevation database with comparison to Earth model predictions" 3881: 3492: 1639:

Late Pliocene. A sediment core from the northern South China Sea shows an increase in dust storm activity during the middle Pliocene.

5370:"Palynological evidence for aridity events and vegetation change during the Middle Pliocene, a warm period in Southwestern Australia" 1822:

During the Pliocene parts of southern Norway and southern Sweden that had been near sea level rose. In Norway this rise elevated the

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Pollard, D.; DeConto, R. M. (2009). "Modelling West Antarctic ice sheet growth and collapse through the past five million years".

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westerlies shifted northward and disrupted the South American Low Level Jet, which brings moisture to southeastern South America.

6721:"Pliocene closing of the Isthmus of Panama, based on biostratigraphic evidence from nearby Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea cores" 6157: 4776:

Rovere, A.; Hearty, P. J.; Austermann, J.; Mitrovica, J. X.; Gale, J.; Moucha, R.; Forte, A. M.; Raymo, Maureen E. (June 2015).

7040: 5815: 5104: 3884:, drying the climate and increasing cool shallow currents in the North Atlantic. Deep cold currents flowed from the Antarctic. 3488: 3178: 2093:

Both marine and continental faunas were essentially modern, although continental faunas were a bit more primitive than today.

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The Pliocene is bookended by two significant events in the evolution of human ancestors. The first is the appearance of the

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response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth's

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During the Late Pliocene, the Himalayas became less active in their uplift, as evidenced by sedimentation changes in the

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The Piacenzian is sometimes referred to as the Late Pliocene, whereas the Zanclean is referred to as the Early Pliocene.

6924: 2618: 2390: 6552: 3848: 100: 7187: 5374: 5100:"Late Pliocene-Pleistocene changes in mass accumulation rates of eolian deposits on the central Chinese Loess Plateau" 4551:"1.2 Myr Band of Earth-Mars Obliquity Modulation on the Evolution of Cold Late Miocene to Warm Early Pliocene Climate" 4516:"Quantification of the northern Italy Pliocene climate from pollen data: evidence for a very peculiar climate pattern" 4463: 4303: 2968: 2367: 664: 3820: 2043: 1938: 72: 4988:"Increased seasonality and aridity drove the C4 plant expansion in Central Asia since the Miocene–Pliocene boundary" 7837: 7033: 5147: 4908: 4462:

Kuhlmann, G.; C.G. Langereis; D. Munsterman; R.-J. van Leeuwen; R. Verreussel; J.E. Meulenkamp; Th.E. Wong (2006).

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the Pliocene is divided into these stages (old to young): Brunssumian C, Reuverian A, Reuverian B, Reuverian C,

1392:, "new" or "recent") and means roughly "continuation of the recent", referring to the essentially modern marine 79: 1863: 1694: 1064: 834: 754: 5950:

Deméré, Thomas A. (1983). "The Neogene San Diego basin: a review of the marine Pliocene San Diego formation".

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Base of the Thvera magnetic event (C3n.4n), which is only 96 ka (5 precession cycles) younger than the GSSP

6185:"Phylogeny of early Australopithecus: new fossil evidence from the Woranso-Mille (central Afar, Ethiopia)" 5866: 5810: 5662: 5435: 5369: 5142: 4987: 4925: 3834: 2838: 2315: 1147: 1013: 879: 86: 6283:, Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 25–49, 5260: 4726:

Raymo, Maureen E.; Kozdon, Reinhard; Evans, David; Lisiecki, Lorraine; Ford, Heather L. (February 2018).

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Robinson, M.; Dowsett, H.J.; Chandler, M.A. (2008). "Pliocene role in assessing future climate impacts".

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The land mass collisions meant great migration and mixing of previously isolated species, such as in the

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that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58 million years ago. It is the second and most recent epoch of the

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Bartoli, G.; Sarnthein, M.; Weinelt, M.; Erlenkeuser, H.; Garbe-Schönberg, D.; Lea, D.W. (August 2005).

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Van Couvering, John; Castradori, Davide; Cita, Maria; Hilgen, Frederik; Rio, Domenico (September 2000).

2610: 1561:. The beginning of the Pliocene was marked by an increase in global temperatures relative to the cooler 709: 6890: 5951: 6058: 6799: 6732: 6497: 6428: 6364: 6122: 6070: 6031: 5989: 5924: 5880: 5824: 5783: 5728: 5671: 5618: 5565: 5490: 5427: 5383: 5322: 5274: 5213: 5156: 5113: 5057: 5001: 4917: 4837: 4791: 4674: 4614: 4564: 4478: 3977: 3924: 3816: 3758: 3247: 3048: 2895: 2764: 2749: 2011:

grasslands. Tropical forests were limited to a tight band around the equator, and in addition to dry

1907: 1891: 1874: 1613: 1593: 1417: 1165: 985: 68: 6871: 5440: 4930: 7791: 6866: 5043: 4550: 4320:"The Global Standard Stratotype-section and Point (GSSP) of the Piacenzian Stage (Middle Pliocene)" 4211: 2004:

spread on all continents (except Antarctica). Eastern Africa in particular saw a huge expansion of

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Stage, which lasted from 2.588 to 1.806 million years ago, and is now included in the Pleistocene.

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Fedorov, A. V.; et al. (2006). "The Pliocene paradox (mechanisms for a permanent El Niño)".

5172: 5073: 5017: 4777: 4727: 4708: 4580: 4496: 4024: 3585: 3158: 2005: 1831: 1502: 1498: 1134: 967: 485: 7808: 6059:"Mountains of southernmost Norway: uplifted Miocene peneplains and re-exposed Mesozoic surfaces" 4962:"The last time carbon dioxide concentrations were around 400ppm: a snapshot from Arctic Siberia" 4049: 1612:

to one of low-frequency, high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the

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Gladenkov, Andrey Yu; Oleinik, Anton E; Marincovich, Louie; Barinov, Konstantin B (July 2002).

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Oceans continued to be relatively warm during the Pliocene, though they continued cooling. The

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were successful in Asia (the largest land mammals of the Pliocene were such proboscideans as

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Uno, Kevin T.; Polissar, Pratigya J.; Jackson, Kevin E.; deMenocal, Peter B. (6 June 2016).

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cooler Pleistocene. The upper boundary was set at the start of the Pleistocene glaciations.

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Stringer CB (1994). "Evolution of early humans". In Jones S, Martin R, Pilbeam D (eds.).

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The marsupials remained the dominant Australian mammals, with herbivore forms including

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state, or “El Padre.” Several mechanisms have been proposed for this pattern, including

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Strotz, Luke C.; Saupe, Erin E.; Kimmig, Julien; Lieberman, Bruce S. (29 August 2018).

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Hominin Environments in the East African Pliocene: An Assessment of the Faunal Evidence

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Africa was dominated by hoofed animals, and primates continued their evolution, with

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in the early Pliocene, around 4.2 million years ago. The second is the appearance of

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to 1200 m in the Early Pliocene. In Southern Sweden similar movements elevated the

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Map of Earth as it appeared 5 million years ago during the Pliocene, Zanclean stage

6614:"Metabolic rates, climate and macroevolution: a case study using Neogene molluscs" 6316:

Potts, Richard (3 January 1999). "Environmental hypotheses of hominin evolution".

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Japsen, Peter; Green, Paul F.; Chalmers, James A.; Bonow, Johan M. (17 May 2018).

4728:"The accuracy of mid-Pliocene δ18O-based ice volume and sea level reconstructions" 1834:

from its original path across south-central Sweden into a course south of Sweden.

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South America was invaded by North American species for the first time since the

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that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma. The formation of an Arctic

1558: 1522: 1518: 1497:, the Pliocene is divided into the following stages (old to young): Gedgravian, 1456: 1448: 1331: 494: 477: 151: 35: 6489:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Understanding Humans: Introduction to Physical Anthropology and Archaeology

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Webb, S. David (1991). "Ecogeography and the Great American Interchange".

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were successful; some camel species crossed into Asia from North America.

1770:. The border between the Miocene and the Pliocene is also the time of the 224: 7709: 7704: 7668: 7568: 7501: 7470: 7365: 7334: 7295: 7219: 7195: 7074: 7004: 6978: 6330:

10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(1998)107:27+<93::AID-AJPA5>3.0.CO;2-X

5715:"Final closure of Panama and the onset of northern hemisphere glaciation" 5126: 5099: 5069: 4939: 4826:"Final closure of Panama and the onset of northern hemisphere glaciation" 4626: 4576: 3904: 3900: 3889: 3754: 3681: 3632: 3618: 3608: 3569: 3514: 3457: 3423: 3415: 3354: 3332: 3320: 3225: 3203: 3114: 2562: 1898:, as "the unknown world beyond the trees", and was further elaborated by 1887: 1843: 1797: 1703: 1670: 1430: 1335: 1323: 1191: 1098: 1070: 539: 503: 366: 191: 186: 171: 166: 156: 6448: 6082: 5630: 5577: 5511: 5502: 3892:. This may have contributed to further cooling of the oceans worldwide. 7723: 7663: 7413: 7250: 7234: 6953: 6940: 6811: 5915: 5691: 4754: 4028: 3896: 3663: 3552:, with North American rodents and primates mixing with southern forms. 3532: 3453: 3434: 3411: 3407: 3328: 3316: 3182: 2719: 2711: 2697: 2521: 2349: 2281: 2131: 2016: 1793: 1635: 1585: 1578: 1570: 1554: 1526: 1452: 1393: 1342: 1327: 1319: 608: 442: 404: 206: 181: 6189:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

4695: 3617:. Carnivorous marsupials continued hunting in the Pliocene, including 3468:

appeared, joining other predators including dogs, bears, and weasels.

2169:

A gastropod and attached serpulid wormtube from the Pliocene of Cyprus

7759: 7642: 7276: 6808:"Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)" 6673:"Diversity and extinction in the Cenozoic history of Caribbean reefs" 5956:. Pacific Section,m Society for Sedimentary Geology. pp. 187–195 4899:

Dowsett, H. J.; Chandler, M. A.; Cronin, T. M.; Dwyer, G. S. (2005).

3687: 3604: 3528: 3518: 3461: 3440: 3380: 2222: 2201: 2155: 1997: 1789: 1759: 1755: 1582: 1529:

A, Tiglian B, Tiglian C1-4b, Tiglian C4c, Tiglian C5, Tiglian C6 and

1486: 1474: 1387: 1375: 1182: 744: 7025: 4020: 5975:

Saul, G.; Naish, T.R.; Abbott, S.T.; Carter, R.M. (1 April 1999).

3738: 3646: 3573: 3536: 3449: 3445: 3344: 3336: 3306: 2320: 2146: 1816: 1804: 1739:

and bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive

1713: 1643: 1544: 1403: 748: 6909: 6484:"Neogene biomarker record of vegetation change in eastern Africa" 1549:

Mid-Pliocene reconstructed annual sea surface temperature anomaly

7783: 7779: 7775: 5552:"Obliquity-paced Pliocene West Antarctic ice sheet oscillations" 3710:

genera continued to increase as more rodents and birds evolved.

3560:, South American natives, were mostly wiped out, except for the 3340: 1853: 951: 827: 145: 7160: 7029: 6913: 4318:

Castradori, D.; Rio, D.; Hilgen, F. J.; Lourens, L. J. (1998).

1616:

characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles.

4441:

Geochronology Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation

4273:. Vol. 2. London, England: Macmillan and Co. p. 111. 3777: 3486: 3384: 3311:

Nineteenth-century artist's impression of a Pliocene landscape

3296: 2362: 2026: 1921: 1262: 241: 29: 3600:

did the opposite, migrating to the north and thriving there.

3452:

diversity declined, while tapirs and rhinos did fairly well.

1381: 1369: 6400:

Dart, R (1953). "The predatory transition from ape to man".

1533:. The exact correlations between these local stages and the 6891:

Pliocene Microfossils: 100+ images of Pliocene Foraminifera

6002:

10.1130/0016-7606(1999)111<0524:SCITMP>2.3.CO;2

4075:"The base of the Zanclean Stage and of the Pliocene Series" 1286: 1280: 1256: 1250: 3568:, which managed to survive. Small weasel-like carnivorous 2209:

right and left valve interiors from the Pliocene of Cyprus

5867:"A refined age for the earliest opening of Bering Strait" 3761:

throughout the various climatic changes of the Pliocene.

6745:

10.1130/0091-7613(1978)6<630:PCOTIO>2.0.CO;2

4284:. Vol. 3. London, England: John Murray. p. 53. 4068: 4066: 3403:

came north with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama.

6857:

Mid-Pliocene Global Warming: NASA/GISS Climate Modeling

6835:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6773:(7th ed.). New York, NY: Susan Finnemore Brennan. 6619:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

3545:

remained an unusually successful terrestrial predator.

6831:

New Views on an Old Planet: a History of Global Change

4230:

Ogg, James George; Ogg, Gabi; Gradstein F. M. (2008).

6265:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 242. 4901:"Middle Pliocene sea surface temperature variability" 4443:. Society for Sedimentary Geology. pp. 317–333. 4354:

Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic Mammals of North America

3741:

were still present in Australia. The amphibian order

3631:. The first rodents arrived in Australia. The modern 1743:

fauna, though other South American lineages like its

1295: 1265: 1259: 4514:

Fauquette, Séverine; Bertini, Adele (28 June 2008).

1803:

Pliocene marine formations are exposed in northeast

1455:(4.75–1.6 Ma). The Blancan extends forward into the 1277: 1274: 1247: 1244: 7758: 7722: 7682: 7651: 7620: 7607: 7567: 7536: 7500: 7469: 7443: 7412: 7399: 7364: 7333: 7307: 7294: 7259: 7233: 7207: 7194: 6236:(11th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. 4212:

See the 2014 version of the ICS geologic time scale

3808:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3714:first appeared in the Pliocene. The modern species 1747:were already extinct by this point and others like 1271: 1241: 865: 822: 799:

Base of magnetic polarity chronozone C2r (Matuyama)

793: 785: 731: 723: 715: 705: 695: 690: 682: 670: 660: 655: 647: 642: 234: 136: 60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6828: 6419:Washburn, SL (1960). "Tools and human evolution". 3757:exhibited remarkable stasis with regards to their 3347:all seeing populations recede. Three-toed horses ( 1870:relative to body mass and stone tool manufacture. 1357:(later Sir Charles) gave the Pliocene its name in 6769:Comins, Niel F.; William J. Kaufmann III (2005). 6578:Charles A. Repenning, Richard H. Tedford (2013). 5872:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5266:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4352:(Late Oligocene Through Early Pliocene Epochs)". 4005:"Neogene Expansion of the North American Prairie" 3728:still thrived in North America, with genera like 4109:Gibbard, Philip; Head, Martin (September 2010). 4879:University of California Museum of Paleontology 4234:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 150–1. 3331:continued successfully, while hoofed animals ( 7172: 7041: 6925: 6263:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution 5953:Cenozoic Marine Sedimentation, Pacific Margin 5098:Sun, Youbin; An, Zhisheng (1 December 2005). 4607:Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 2391: 1408:Some schemes for subdivisions of the Pliocene 1212: 8: 6788:Gradstein, F.M.; Ogg, J.G. & Smith, A.G. 6311: 6309: 6307: 6274: 6272: 5809:Chang, Zihan; Zhou, Liping (December 2019). 5368:Dodson, J. R.; Macphail, M. K. (July 2004). 4387:"Hemphillian North American Land Mammal Age" 1838:Environment and evolution of human ancestors 869:2009 (as base of Quaternary and Pleistocene) 624:Subdivision of the Neogene according to the 6318:American Journal of Biological Anthropology 5259:Leroy, Suzanne; Dupont, Lydie (June 1994). 3661:were rare in this time; among the last was 2353:) from the Pliocene of York River, Virginia 2061:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1956:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1731:became linked to North America through the 1283: 1253: 7617: 7409: 7304: 7204: 7179: 7165: 7157: 7065: 7048: 7034: 7026: 6949: 6932: 6918: 6910: 6551:Mares, Micheal A., ed. (1999). "Miocene". 6246:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3706:died out in Europe as the climate cooled. 2398: 2384: 2104:got bigger, as did specialized predators. 1537:(ICS) stages is still a matter of detail. 1341:As with other older geologic periods, the 1219: 1205: 874: 6647: 6584:. Indiana University Press. p. 373. 6527: 6509: 6376: 6208: 5740: 5510: 5439: 5344: 5334: 5235: 5225: 5125: 4929: 4849: 4753: 4694: 4641:"Solutions: Responding to Climate Change" 4533: 4490: 4412:Hulbert, Richard C. Jr. (2 August 2016). 4385:Hulbert, Richard C. Jr. (2 August 2016). 4335: 4129: 4093: 3868:Learn how and when to remove this message 2081:Learn how and when to remove this message 1976:Learn how and when to remove this message 1735:during the Pliocene, making possible the 120:Learn how and when to remove this message 4414:"Blancan North American Land Mammal Age" 3753:In the Western Atlantic, assemblages of 1535:International Commission on Stratigraphy 6107:; Olvmo, Mats; Bonow, Johan M. (2017). 3959: 3939: 2111: 1830:leading to a deflection of the ancient 886: 6239: 5981:Geological Society of America Bulletin 1501:, Pre-Ludhamian, Ludhamian, Thurnian, 1416:, the Pliocene is subdivided into two 133: 6469: 6183:Haile-Selassie, Y (27 October 2010). 5049:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 631:Vertical axis: millions of years ago. 7: 6719:Keigwin, Lloyd D. (1 October 1978). 4813:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 4765:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 3806:adding citations to reliable sources 3235: 3213: 3191: 3167: 3147: 3127: 3103: 3083: 3060: 3037: 3017: 2997: 2977: 2957: 2059:adding citations to reliable sources 1954:adding citations to reliable sources 1567:obliquity amplitude modulation cycle 1420:. From youngest to oldest they are: 596: 576: 58:adding citations to reliable sources 7778:= kiloannum (thousands years ago); 6357:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 6351:deMenocal, Peter B (3 March 2004). 5775:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 5720:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4993:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3970:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1688:increased tropical cyclone activity 7782:= megaannum (millions years ago); 6904:National Museum of Natural History 6232:Lewis, Barry; et al. (2013). 5309:"Aridity and hominin environments" 4535:10.1111/j.1502-3885.2003.tb01090.x 4471:Netherlands Journal of Geosciences 3895:The Pliocene seas were alive with 1766:, cutting off the remnants of the 1581:is signaled by an abrupt shift in 27:Second epoch of the Neogene Period 25: 7786:= gigaannum (billions years ago). 6886:UCMP Berkeley Pliocene Epoch Page 6557:. University of Oaklahoma Press. 6441:10.1038/scientificamerican0960-62 6063:Journal of the Geological Society 4824:Bartoli, G.; et al. (2005). 3580:migrated from the north. Grazing 1630:plants across the region. In the 1412:In the official timescale of the 7807: 7796: 6581:Fossils of the Carpathian Region 3782: 2331: 2306: 2290: 2272: 2254: 2233: 2214: 2193: 2174: 2162: 2138: 2114: 2031: 1926: 1565:related to the 1.2 million year 1237: 223: 34: 6867:PBS Change: Deep Time: Pliocene 5816:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 5550:Naish, T.; et al. (2009). 5396:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2004.01.013 5169:10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107669 5105:Journal of Geophysical Research 4804:10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.02.007 4746:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.11.022 4337:10.18814/epiiugs/1998/v21i2/003 4232:The Concise Geologic Time Scale 4131:10.18814/epiiugs/2010/v33i3/002 4095:10.18814/epiiugs/2000/v23i3/005 3793:needs additional citations for 2000:covered much of the north, and 1463:South American Land Mammal Ages 1445:North American Land Mammal Ages 45:needs additional citations for 6156:Rozé, Simon (28 August 2019). 4267:Todhunter, Isaac, ed. (1876). 4158:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary 1661:Southwestern Australia hosted 1604:During the Pliocene the earth 1: 7225:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma) 6827:Van Andel, Tjeerd H. (1994). 6378:10.1016/S0012-821X(04)00003-2 6135:10.1080/11035897.2017.1364293 5937:10.1016/S0016-6995(95)80166-9 5893:10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00249-3 3657:The predatory South American 3531:in numbers of species. Early 2019:appeared in Asia and Africa. 1677:The equatorial Pacific Ocean 1330:Epoch and is followed by the 6896:Human Timeline (Interactive) 6044:10.1016/0079-6611(65)90041-8 5837:10.1016/j.jseaes.2019.104008 5796:10.1016/0012-821X(96)00109-4 5765:Krijgsman, W (August 1996). 5287:10.1016/0031-0182(94)90181-3 3990:10.1016/0012-821X(96)00109-4 3448:migrated north from Africa. 2319:attached to a branch of the 1906:. Other scientists, such as 1388: 1376: 7188:Geological history of Earth 6872:Possible Pliocene supernova 6289:10.1007/978-1-4020-3098-7_2 5375:Global and Planetary Change 4304:Online Etymology Dictionary 2326:from the Pliocene of Cyprus 2301:from the Pliocene of Cyprus 2285:from the Pliocene of Cyprus 2267:from the Pliocene of Cyprus 2249:from the Pliocene of Cyprus 2228:from the Pliocene of Cyprus 2188:from the Pliocene of Cyprus 1368:comes from the Greek words 1326:. The Pliocene follows the 144:5.333 ± 0.08 – 2.58 ± 0.04 7859: 7461:Mississippian (323–359 Ma) 7456:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma) 7220:Holocene (present–11.7 ka) 6882:retrieved February 2, 2002 6796:A Geologic Time Scale 2004 6671:Budd, A. F. (April 2000). 5742:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.06.020 5148:Quaternary Science Reviews 5014:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.08.056 4851:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.06.020 4265:dated 31 January 1831 in: 3717:Alligator mississippiensis 3375:became extinct, but other 2098:Great American Interchange 1857:, the genus that includes 1848:Australopithecus anamensis 1737:Great American Interchange 1382: 1370: 826:Monte San Nicola Section, 7773: 7745:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga) 7595:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma) 7063: 6947: 5684:10.1017/S0094837300010605 4864:Van Andel (1994), p. 226. 4492:10.1017/S0016774600021405 4418:Fossil Species of Florida 4391:Fossil Species of Florida 4198:Dictionary.com Unabridged 4178:Dictionary.com Unabridged 4003:Retallack, G. J. (1997). 3292: 2376: 2365: 1890:. This was championed by 1772:Messinian salinity crisis 794:Upper boundary definition 724:Lower boundary definition 621: 588:Messinian salinity crisis 239: 222: 141: 7740:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga) 7585:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma) 7430:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma) 7282:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma) 7272:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma) 6771:Discovering the Universe 6024:Progress in Oceanography 4281:Principles of Geology, … 3410:rodents did well, while 3383:family diversified, and 1723:Continents continued to 1695:West Antarctic Ice Sheet 808:Discoaster pentaradiatus 735:Heraclea Minoa section, 7735:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga) 7700:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga) 7695:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga) 7638:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma) 7528:Llandovery (433–444 Ma) 7435:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma) 7246:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma) 6554:Encyclopedia of Deserts 6511:10.1073/pnas.1521267113 6402:Int. Anthrop. Ling. Rev 6369:2004E&PSL.220....3D 6105:Lidmar-Bergström, Karna 5788:1996E&PSL.142..367K 5733:2005E&PSL.237...33B 5450:10.1126/science.1122666 5336:10.1073/pnas.1700597114 5227:10.1073/pnas.1700327114 5006:2018E&PSL.502...74S 4842:2005E&PSL.237...33B 4830:Earth Planet. Sci. Lett 4278:Lyell, Charles (1833). 3982:1996E&PSL.142..367K 3695:Reptiles and amphibians 3414:distribution declined. 3280:P a r a n t h r o p u s 3139:Dispersal beyond Africa 2130:, from the Pliocene of 1828:South Swedish highlands 1679:sea surface temperature 7705:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga) 7674:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga) 7633:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma) 7580:Furongian (485–497 Ma) 7425:Lopingian (252–260 Ma) 7251:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma) 6806:Ogg, Jim (June 2004). 6632:10.1098/rspb.2018.1292 6201:10.1098/rstb.2010.0064 4687:10.1098/rsta.2008.0222 4667:Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 4449:10.2110/pec.95.04.0317 3654: 3312: 2411:−10 — 2316:Petaloconchus intortus 1992:forests proliferated, 1824:Hardangervidda plateau 1720: 1550: 1409: 1148:Post-classical history 1014:Cradle of civilization 317:−10 — 307:−12 — 297:−14 — 287:−16 — 277:−18 — 267:−20 — 257:−22 — 247:−24 — 7843:Neogene geochronology 7710:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga) 7669:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga) 7590:Series 2 (509–521 Ma) 7277:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma) 6691:10.1007/s003380050222 4783:Earth-Science Reviews 4733:Earth-Science Reviews 4362:10.7312/wood13040-008 4050:"ICS Timescale Chart" 3928:(with link directory) 3882:Arctic ice cap formed 3759:basal metabolic rates 3691:), some now extinct. 3650: 3310: 2501:−1 — 2491:−2 — 2481:−3 — 2471:−4 — 2461:−5 — 2451:−6 — 2441:−7 — 2431:−8 — 2421:−9 — 2297:The pectenid bivalve 2154:from the Pliocene of 1866:(brains with a large 1717: 1697:oscillated at the 40 1642:In the south-central 1548: 1407: 1359:Principles of Geology 357:−2 — 347:−4 — 337:−6 — 327:−8 — 7750:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga) 7643:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga) 7523:Wenlock (427–433 Ma) 7513:Pridoli (419–423 Ma) 6800:Cambridge University 5127:10.1029/2005JD006064 5070:10.1029/2021PA004344 4940:10.1029/2005PA001133 4875:"The Pliocene epoch" 4627:10.1029/2008eo490001 4577:10.1029/2022JB024131 4057:www.stratigraphy.org 3925:List of fossil sites 3802:improve this article 3542:Enhydriodon omoensis 3095:Earliest stone tools 2347:and sponge borings ( 2055:improve this section 1950:improve this section 1908:Sherwood L. Washburn 1896:The Evolution of Man 1892:Grafton Elliot Smith 1614:orbital eccentricity 986:Behavioral modernity 54:improve this article 7805: • 7794: • 7792:Geologic time scale 7554:Middle (458–470 Ma) 7518:Ludlow (423–427 Ma) 7487:Middle (383–393 Ma) 7382:Middle (237–247 Ma) 7351:Middle (164–174 Ma) 6879:Science News Online 6737:1978Geo.....6..630K 6502:2016PNAS..113.6355U 6472:, pp. 106–108. 6433:1960SciAm.203c..62W 6195:(1556): 3323–3331. 6127:2017GFF...139..244L 6083:10.1144/jgs2017-157 6075:2018JGSoc.175..721J 6036:1965PrOce...4...67S 5994:1999GSAB..111..524S 5929:1995Geobi..28R.197G 5885:2002PPP...183..321G 5829:2019JAESc.18604008C 5676:1991Pbio...17..266W 5631:10.1038/nature07809 5623:2009Natur.458..329P 5578:10.1038/nature07867 5570:2009Natur.458..322N 5503:10.1038/nature08831 5495:2010Natur.463.1066F 5489:(7284): 1066–1070. 5432:2006Sci...312.1485F 5426:(5779): 1485–1489. 5388:2004GPC....41..285D 5327:2017PNAS..114.7331B 5279:1994PPP...109..295L 5218:2017PNAS..114.6474A 5161:2022QSRv..29207669S 5118:2005JGRD..11023101S 5062:2021PaPa...36.4344G 4949:on 22 October 2011. 4922:2005PalOc..20.2014D 4796:2015ESRv..145..117R 4679:2009RSPTA.367..157D 4619:2008EOSTr..89..501R 4569:2022JGRB..12724131Q 4483:2006NJGeo..85...19K 3586:giant ground sloths 3519:baboon-like monkeys 3513:(some of the first 3481: 2313:Vermetid gastropod 1884:savannah hypothesis 1864:encephalized brains 1648:Southern Hemisphere 1598:North Pacific Ocean 1316:geologic time scale 1065:Bronze Age collapse 866:Upper GSSP ratified 850:37.1469°N 14.2035°E 846: / 823:Upper boundary GSSP 814:Discoaster surculus 786:Lower GSSP ratified 770:37.3917°N 13.2806°E 766: / 732:Lower boundary GSSP 716:Time span formality 7803:Geology portal 7664:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga) 7559:Early (470–485 Ma) 7492:Early (393–419 Ma) 7387:Early (247–252 Ma) 7356:Early (174–201 Ma) 7325:Early (100–145 Ma) 7320:Late (66.0–100 Ma) 6626:(1885): 20181292. 4217:2014-05-30 at the 4161:. Merriam-Webster. 3655: 3590:caviomorph rodents 3511:australopithecines 3471: 3466:saber-toothed cats 3315:In North America, 3313: 2896:H. heidelbergensis 2299:Ammusium cristatum 2279:The arcid bivalve 1894:in his 1924 book, 1877:and in the use of 1758:'s collision with 1721: 1693:The extent of the 1551: 1410: 1361:(volume 3, 1833). 968:Middle Paleolithic 802:Extinction of the 706:Stratigraphic unit 696:Chronological unit 683:Time scale(s) used 7838:Geological epochs 7820: 7819: 7718: 7717: 7684:Paleoproterozoic 7603: 7602: 7549:Late (444–458 Ma) 7482:Late (359–383 Ma) 7395: 7394: 7377:Late (201–237 Ma) 7346:Late (145–164 Ma) 7290: 7289: 7211:(present–2.58 Ma) 7199:(present–66.0 Ma) 7154: 7153: 7149: 7148: 7070:Pleistocene Epoch 7057:Quaternary Period 7023: 7022: 7018: 7017: 6842:978-0-521-44243-5 6780:978-0-7167-7584-3 6496:(23): 6355–6363. 6298:978-1-4020-3098-7 5617:(7236): 329–332. 5564:(7236): 322–328. 5321:(28): 7331–7336. 5212:(25): 6474–6479. 4966:Skeptical Science 4673:(1886): 157–168. 3878: 3877: 3870: 3852: 3578:short-faced bears 3507: 3506: 3389:short-faced bears 3335:) declined, with 3305: 3304: 3297:million years ago 3256: 3255: 3234: 3233: 3212: 3211: 3204:Earliest rock art 3190: 3189: 3166: 3165: 3159:Earliest language 3146: 3145: 3126: 3125: 3102: 3101: 3082: 3081: 3072:Earliest sign of 3059: 3058: 3049:Earliest sign of 3036: 3035: 3016: 3015: 2996: 2995: 2976: 2975: 2619:Ou. macedoniensis 2091: 2090: 2083: 1986: 1985: 1978: 1904:killer ape theory 1764:Mediterranean Sea 1745:predatory mammals 1733:Isthmus of Panama 1473:(4.0–3.0 Ma) and 1451:(9–4.75 Ma), and 1440:In the system of 1343:geological strata 1229: 1228: 981:Upper Paleolithic 943:Lower Paleolithic 873: 872: 741:Cattolica Eraclea 656:Usage information 637: 636: 617: 616: 595: 594: 130: 129: 122: 104: 16:(Redirected from 7850: 7814:World portal 7812: 7811: 7801: 7800: 7763: 7727: 7687: 7656: 7653:Mesoproterozoic 7625: 7618: 7613: 7572: 7541: 7505: 7474: 7448: 7417: 7410: 7405: 7369: 7338: 7312: 7305: 7300: 7264: 7238: 7212: 7205: 7200: 7181: 7174: 7167: 7158: 7066: 7050: 7043: 7036: 7027: 6950: 6934: 6927: 6920: 6911: 6862:Palaeos Pliocene 6846: 6834: 6823: 6821: 6819: 6814:on 23 April 2006 6810:. Archived from 6789: 6784: 6757: 6756: 6716: 6710: 6709: 6707: 6705: 6668: 6662: 6661: 6651: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6598: 6575: 6569: 6568: 6548: 6542: 6541: 6531: 6513: 6479: 6473: 6467: 6461: 6460: 6416: 6410: 6409: 6397: 6391: 6390: 6380: 6348: 6342: 6341: 6313: 6302: 6301: 6276: 6267: 6266: 6258: 6252: 6251: 6245: 6237: 6229: 6223: 6222: 6212: 6180: 6174: 6173: 6171: 6169: 6153: 6147: 6146: 6101: 6095: 6094: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6019: 6013: 6012: 6010: 6008: 5972: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5961: 5947: 5941: 5940: 5910: 5904: 5903: 5901: 5899: 5879:(3–4): 321–328. 5862: 5856: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5806: 5800: 5799: 5782:(3–4): 367–380. 5771: 5762: 5756: 5753: 5747: 5746: 5744: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5657: 5651: 5650: 5604: 5598: 5597: 5547: 5541: 5540: 5514: 5476: 5470: 5469: 5443: 5413: 5407: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5382:(3–4): 285–307. 5365: 5359: 5358: 5348: 5338: 5304: 5298: 5297: 5295: 5293: 5273:(2–4): 295–316. 5256: 5250: 5249: 5239: 5229: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5138: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5095: 5089: 5088: 5086: 5084: 5039: 5033: 5032: 5030: 5028: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4972: 4957: 4951: 4950: 4948: 4942:. Archived from 4933: 4909:Paleoceanography 4905: 4896: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4871: 4865: 4862: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4812: 4810: 4773: 4767: 4766: 4764: 4762: 4757: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4698: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4651: 4645:Climate.Nasa.gov 4637: 4631: 4630: 4602: 4596: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4546: 4540: 4539: 4537: 4511: 4505: 4504: 4494: 4468: 4459: 4453: 4452: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4420:. Florida Museum 4409: 4403: 4402: 4400: 4398: 4393:. Florida Museum 4382: 4376: 4375: 4348: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4295: 4289: 4285: 4274: 4252: 4246: 4245: 4227: 4221: 4209: 4203: 4202: 4189: 4183: 4182: 4169: 4163: 4162: 4149: 4143: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4133: 4115: 4106: 4100: 4099: 4097: 4079: 4070: 4061: 4060: 4054: 4046: 4040: 4039: 4037: 4035: 4000: 3994: 3993: 3976:(3–4): 367–380. 3964: 3948: 3944: 3873: 3866: 3862: 3859: 3853: 3851: 3810: 3786: 3778: 3745:became extinct. 3482: 3367:Borophagine dogs 3365:became extinct. 3285: 3283: 3282: 3268: 3266: 3250: 3241: 3236: 3228: 3226:Earliest clothes 3219: 3214: 3206: 3197: 3192: 3173: 3168: 3153: 3148: 3133: 3128: 3115:Earliest sign of 3109: 3104: 3089: 3084: 3074:Australopithecus 3066: 3061: 3043: 3038: 3029:Earliest bipedal 3023: 3018: 3009:Chimpanzee split 3003: 2998: 2983: 2978: 2963: 2958: 2944: 2943: 2929: 2928: 2912: 2898: 2884: 2856: 2843: 2823: 2810: 2782: 2780:Australopithecus 2769: 2754: 2737: 2724: 2700: 2687: 2674: 2661: 2648: 2635: 2623: 2604: 2591: 2578: 2566: 2552: 2539: 2526: 2524: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2472: 2467: 2462: 2457: 2452: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2400: 2393: 2386: 2380: 2370: 2369:Hominin timeline 2363: 2335: 2310: 2294: 2276: 2258: 2237: 2218: 2197: 2178: 2166: 2142: 2118: 2086: 2079: 2075: 2072: 2066: 2035: 2027: 1981: 1974: 1970: 1967: 1961: 1930: 1922: 1873:Improvements in 1465:(SALMA) include 1447:(NALMA) include 1433:(5.333–3.600 Ma) 1391: 1385: 1384: 1379: 1373: 1372: 1302: 1298: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1268: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1221: 1214: 1207: 1196: 1195: 1189: 1181: 1135:Earliest records 1120:Recorded history 921: 920: 914: 903: 896: 875: 861: 860: 858: 857: 856: 855:37.1469; 14.2035 851: 847: 844: 843: 842: 839: 781: 780: 778: 777: 776: 775:37.3917; 13.2806 771: 767: 764: 763: 762: 759: 612: 602: 597: 590: 582: 577: 551: 542: 533: 524: 515: 506: 497: 488: 472: 457: 420: 395: 384: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 242: 227: 218: 148: 134: 125: 118: 114: 111: 105: 103: 62: 38: 30: 21: 7858: 7857: 7853: 7852: 7851: 7849: 7848: 7847: 7823: 7822: 7821: 7816: 7806: 7795: 7787: 7769: 7761: 7754: 7725: 7714: 7685: 7678: 7654: 7647: 7623: 7622:Neoproterozoic 7612:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga) 7611: 7610: 7609:Proterozoic Eon 7599: 7570: 7563: 7539: 7532: 7503: 7496: 7472: 7465: 7446: 7439: 7415: 7403: 7402: 7391: 7367: 7360: 7336: 7329: 7310: 7298: 7297: 7286: 7262: 7255: 7236: 7229: 7210: 7198: 7197: 7190: 7185: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7099: 7059: 7054: 7024: 7019: 7014: 6998: 6943: 6938: 6853: 6843: 6826: 6817: 6815: 6805: 6787: 6781: 6768: 6765: 6763:Further reading 6760: 6731:(10): 630–634. 6718: 6717: 6713: 6703: 6701: 6670: 6669: 6665: 6611: 6610: 6606: 6596: 6594: 6592: 6577: 6576: 6572: 6565: 6550: 6549: 6545: 6481: 6480: 6476: 6468: 6464: 6418: 6417: 6413: 6399: 6398: 6394: 6350: 6349: 6345: 6324:(S27): 93–136. 6315: 6314: 6305: 6299: 6278: 6277: 6270: 6260: 6259: 6255: 6238: 6231: 6230: 6226: 6182: 6181: 6177: 6167: 6165: 6155: 6154: 6150: 6103: 6102: 6098: 6056: 6055: 6051: 6021: 6020: 6016: 6006: 6004: 5974: 5973: 5969: 5959: 5957: 5949: 5948: 5944: 5912: 5911: 5907: 5897: 5895: 5864: 5863: 5859: 5849: 5847: 5808: 5807: 5803: 5769: 5764: 5763: 5759: 5754: 5750: 5712: 5711: 5707: 5659: 5658: 5654: 5606: 5605: 5601: 5549: 5548: 5544: 5478: 5477: 5473: 5441:10.1.1.143.5772 5415: 5414: 5410: 5400: 5398: 5367: 5366: 5362: 5306: 5305: 5301: 5291: 5289: 5258: 5257: 5253: 5196: 5195: 5191: 5181: 5179: 5140: 5139: 5135: 5097: 5096: 5092: 5082: 5080: 5041: 5040: 5036: 5026: 5024: 4985: 4984: 4980: 4970: 4968: 4959: 4958: 4954: 4946: 4931:10.1.1.856.1776 4903: 4898: 4897: 4893: 4883: 4881: 4873: 4872: 4868: 4863: 4859: 4823: 4822: 4818: 4808: 4806: 4775: 4774: 4770: 4760: 4758: 4725: 4724: 4720: 4664: 4663: 4659: 4649: 4647: 4639: 4638: 4634: 4613:(49): 501–502. 4604: 4603: 4599: 4589: 4587: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4513: 4512: 4508: 4466: 4461: 4460: 4456: 4438: 4437: 4433: 4423: 4421: 4411: 4410: 4406: 4396: 4394: 4384: 4383: 4379: 4372: 4350: 4349: 4345: 4317: 4316: 4312: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4277: 4266: 4259:William Whewell 4253: 4249: 4242: 4229: 4228: 4224: 4219:Wayback Machine 4210: 4206: 4191: 4190: 4186: 4171: 4170: 4166: 4151: 4150: 4146: 4136: 4134: 4113: 4108: 4107: 4103: 4077: 4072: 4071: 4064: 4052: 4048: 4047: 4043: 4033: 4031: 4021:10.2307/3515337 4002: 4001: 3997: 3966: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3952: 3951: 3945: 3941: 3936: 3921: 3874: 3863: 3857: 3854: 3811: 3809: 3799: 3787: 3776: 3767: 3751: 3726:Giant tortoises 3697: 3645: 3621:, the dog-like 3611:, and the huge 3503: 3501: 3474:Human evolution 3301: 3300: 3288: 3287: 3286: 3278: 3277: 3275: 3271: 3270: 3269: 3264:H o m i n i d s 3262: 3260: 3252: 3251: 3246: 3239: 3230: 3229: 3224: 3217: 3208: 3207: 3202: 3195: 3186: 3185: 3171: 3162: 3161: 3151: 3142: 3141: 3131: 3122: 3121: 3116: 3107: 3098: 3097: 3087: 3078: 3077: 3064: 3055: 3054: 3041: 3032: 3031: 3021: 3012: 3011: 3001: 2992: 2991: 2981: 2972: 2971: 2961: 2954: 2953: 2952: 2947: 2946: 2945: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2932: 2931: 2930: 2924: 2923: 2919: 2917: 2916: 2915: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2900: 2894: 2889: 2887: 2886: 2885: 2876: 2868: 2860: 2859: 2852: 2846: 2845: 2844: 2835: 2827: 2826: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2811: 2802: 2794: 2786: 2785: 2778: 2772: 2771: 2770: 2761: 2757: 2756: 2755: 2746: 2742: 2741: 2740: 2733: 2727: 2726: 2725: 2716: 2708: 2704: 2703: 2702: 2696: 2691: 2690: 2689: 2683: 2678: 2677: 2676: 2670: 2665: 2664: 2663: 2657: 2652: 2651: 2650: 2644: 2639: 2638: 2637: 2633:Chororapithecus 2631: 2626: 2625: 2624: 2615: 2607: 2606: 2600: 2595: 2594: 2593: 2589:Samburupithecus 2587: 2582: 2581: 2580: 2574: 2569: 2568: 2567: 2560: 2556: 2555: 2554: 2548: 2543: 2542: 2541: 2535: 2530: 2529: 2528: 2522: 2520: 2513: 2510: 2508: 2505: 2503: 2500: 2498: 2495: 2493: 2490: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2473: 2470: 2468: 2465: 2463: 2460: 2458: 2455: 2453: 2450: 2448: 2445: 2443: 2440: 2438: 2435: 2433: 2430: 2428: 2425: 2423: 2420: 2418: 2415: 2413: 2410: 2404: 2378: 2372: 2368: 2361: 2354: 2336: 2327: 2311: 2302: 2295: 2286: 2277: 2268: 2259: 2250: 2238: 2229: 2226:Diodora italica 2219: 2210: 2198: 2189: 2179: 2170: 2167: 2158: 2143: 2134: 2119: 2110: 2087: 2076: 2070: 2067: 2052: 2036: 2025: 2009: 1982: 1971: 1965: 1962: 1947: 1931: 1920: 1879:climate proxies 1840: 1741:native ungulate 1712: 1629: 1592:cobbles in the 1543: 1427:(3.600–2.58 Ma) 1402: 1352: 1300: 1296: 1270: 1240: 1236: 1225: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1179: 1174: 1173: 1170: 1144: 1127:Ancient history 1122: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1060: 1005: 996:Epipalaeolithic 964: 931: 912: 911: 910: 901: 891: 890: 854: 852: 848: 845: 840: 837: 835: 833: 832: 831: 830:, Sicily, Italy 774: 772: 768: 765: 760: 757: 755: 753: 752: 751: 638: 633: 632: 630: 613: 607:North American 606: 600: 591: 586: 580: 573: 572: 568: 567: 563: 562: 558: 557: 553: 552: 547: 544: 543: 538: 535: 534: 529: 526: 525: 520: 517: 516: 511: 508: 507: 502: 499: 498: 493: 490: 489: 484: 481: 480: 474: 473: 469: 467: 465: 462: 459: 458: 454: 452: 450: 448: 446: 444: 441: 438: 437: 431: 430: 422: 421: 416: 414: 412: 410: 408: 406: 402: 399: 398: 393: 391: 386: 385: 380: 378: 376: 374: 372: 370: 368: 364: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 230: 217: 216: 215: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 143: 142: 126: 115: 109: 106: 63: 61: 51: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7856: 7854: 7846: 7845: 7840: 7835: 7825: 7824: 7818: 7817: 7774: 7771: 7770: 7767: 7765: 7756: 7755: 7753: 7752: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7731: 7729: 7720: 7719: 7716: 7715: 7713: 7712: 7707: 7702: 7697: 7691: 7689: 7680: 7679: 7677: 7676: 7671: 7666: 7660: 7658: 7649: 7648: 7646: 7645: 7640: 7635: 7629: 7627: 7615: 7605: 7604: 7601: 7600: 7598: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7576: 7574: 7565: 7564: 7562: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7545: 7543: 7534: 7533: 7531: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7509: 7507: 7498: 7497: 7495: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7478: 7476: 7467: 7466: 7464: 7463: 7458: 7452: 7450: 7445:Carboniferous 7441: 7440: 7438: 7437: 7432: 7427: 7421: 7419: 7407: 7397: 7396: 7393: 7392: 7390: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7373: 7371: 7362: 7361: 7359: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7342: 7340: 7331: 7330: 7328: 7327: 7322: 7316: 7314: 7302: 7292: 7291: 7288: 7287: 7285: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7268: 7266: 7263:(23.0–66.0 Ma) 7257: 7256: 7254: 7253: 7248: 7242: 7240: 7237:(2.58–23.0 Ma) 7231: 7230: 7228: 7227: 7222: 7216: 7214: 7202: 7192: 7191: 7186: 7184: 7183: 7176: 7169: 7161: 7152: 7151: 7147: 7146: 7144: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7102: 7100: 7098: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7081: 7078: 7077: 7075:Holocene Epoch 7072: 7064: 7061: 7060: 7055: 7053: 7052: 7045: 7038: 7030: 7021: 7020: 7016: 7015: 7013: 7012: 7007: 7001: 6999: 6997: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6965: 6962: 6961: 6959:Pliocene Epoch 6956: 6948: 6945: 6944: 6941:Neogene Period 6939: 6937: 6936: 6929: 6922: 6914: 6908: 6907: 6906:(August 2016). 6893: 6888: 6883: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6852: 6851:External links 6849: 6848: 6847: 6841: 6824: 6803: 6785: 6779: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6758: 6711: 6663: 6604: 6590: 6570: 6563: 6543: 6474: 6462: 6411: 6392: 6343: 6303: 6297: 6268: 6253: 6224: 6175: 6148: 6121:(4): 244–259. 6096: 6069:(5): 721–741. 6049: 6014: 5988:(4): 524–537. 5967: 5942: 5905: 5857: 5801: 5757: 5748: 5727:(1–2): 33–44. 5705: 5670:(3): 266–280. 5652: 5599: 5542: 5471: 5408: 5360: 5299: 5251: 5189: 5133: 5090: 5034: 4978: 4952: 4891: 4866: 4857: 4816: 4768: 4718: 4657: 4632: 4597: 4541: 4528:(2): 361–369. 4506: 4454: 4431: 4404: 4377: 4370: 4343: 4310: 4290: 4288: 4287: 4275: 4247: 4240: 4222: 4204: 4201:(Online). n.d. 4184: 4181:(Online). n.d. 4164: 4144: 4124:(3): 152–158. 4101: 4088:(3): 179–187. 4062: 4041: 4015:(4): 380–390. 3995: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3950: 3949: 3938: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3931: 3930: 3920: 3917: 3876: 3875: 3790: 3788: 3781: 3775: 3772: 3766: 3763: 3750: 3747: 3731:Hesperotestudo 3708:Venomous snake 3696: 3693: 3644: 3641: 3505: 3504: 3485: 3441:Mammut borsoni 3379:including the 3303: 3302: 3294: 3293: 3290: 3289: 3274: 3273: 3272: 3259: 3258: 3257: 3254: 3253: 3245: 3244: 3242: 3232: 3231: 3223: 3222: 3220: 3210: 3209: 3201: 3200: 3198: 3188: 3187: 3177: 3176: 3174: 3164: 3163: 3157: 3156: 3154: 3144: 3143: 3137: 3136: 3134: 3124: 3123: 3113: 3112: 3110: 3100: 3099: 3093: 3092: 3090: 3080: 3079: 3070: 3069: 3067: 3057: 3056: 3047: 3046: 3044: 3034: 3033: 3027: 3026: 3024: 3014: 3013: 3007: 3006: 3004: 2994: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2984: 2974: 2973: 2967: 2966: 2964: 2955: 2950: 2949: 2948: 2937: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2922: 2921: 2920: 2918: 2905: 2904: 2903: 2892: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2849: 2848: 2847: 2831:H. rudolfensis 2816: 2815: 2814: 2775: 2774: 2773: 2760: 2759: 2758: 2745: 2744: 2743: 2730: 2729: 2728: 2707: 2706: 2705: 2694: 2693: 2692: 2685:Graecopithecus 2681: 2680: 2679: 2672:Sahelanthropus 2668: 2667: 2666: 2655: 2654: 2653: 2642: 2641: 2640: 2629: 2628: 2627: 2602:Ouranopithecus 2598: 2597: 2596: 2585: 2584: 2583: 2576:Nakalipithecus 2572: 2571: 2570: 2559: 2558: 2557: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2533: 2532: 2531: 2518: 2517: 2516: 2514: 2511:0 — 2509: 2504: 2499: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2479: 2474: 2469: 2464: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2444: 2439: 2434: 2429: 2424: 2419: 2414: 2409: 2406: 2405: 2403: 2402: 2395: 2388: 2377: 2374: 2373: 2366: 2360: 2357: 2356: 2355: 2337: 2330: 2328: 2312: 2305: 2303: 2296: 2289: 2287: 2278: 2271: 2269: 2261:The gastropod 2260: 2253: 2251: 2239: 2232: 2230: 2220: 2213: 2211: 2199: 2192: 2190: 2181:The gastropod 2180: 2173: 2171: 2168: 2161: 2159: 2144: 2137: 2135: 2120: 2113: 2109: 2106: 2089: 2088: 2039: 2037: 2030: 2024: 2021: 2007: 1984: 1983: 1934: 1932: 1925: 1919: 1916: 1875:dating methods 1839: 1836: 1832:Eridanos river 1711: 1710:Paleogeography 1708: 1627: 1606:climate system 1594:North Atlantic 1557:to the cooler 1542: 1539: 1509:or Baventian, 1485:area (central 1479: 1478: 1469:(6.8–4.0 Ma), 1460: 1435: 1434: 1428: 1401: 1398: 1380:, "more") and 1351: 1348: 1322:Period in the 1227: 1226: 1224: 1223: 1216: 1209: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1192:Holocene epoch 1176: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1169: 1168: 1163: 1157: 1155: 1153:Modern history 1150: 1145: 1143: 1142: 1137: 1131: 1129: 1123: 1118: 1117: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1107: 1106: 1101: 1096: 1094:Southeast Asia 1091: 1086: 1081: 1075: 1073: 1068: 1061: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1037: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1019: 1018: 1017: 1016: 1011: 1004: 1003: 998: 992: 990: 989: 988: 983: 978: 970: 965: 963: 962: 955: 947: 945: 938: 932: 927: 926: 923: 922: 917:Pliocene epoch 898: 897: 884: 883: 871: 870: 867: 863: 862: 824: 820: 819: 818: 817: 800: 795: 791: 790: 787: 783: 782: 737:Heraclea Minoa 733: 729: 728: 725: 721: 720: 717: 713: 712: 707: 703: 702: 697: 693: 692: 688: 687: 686:ICS Time Scale 684: 680: 679: 672: 671:Regional usage 668: 667: 662: 661:Celestial body 658: 657: 653: 652: 649: 648:Name formality 645: 644: 640: 639: 635: 634: 622: 619: 618: 615: 614: 605: 603: 593: 592: 585: 583: 574: 570: 569: 565: 564: 560: 559: 555: 554: 546: 545: 537: 536: 528: 527: 519: 518: 510: 509: 501: 500: 492: 491: 483: 482: 476: 475: 461: 460: 440: 439: 433: 432: 424: 423: 401: 400: 388: 387: 363: 362: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 237: 236: 232: 231: 228: 220: 219: 212: 211: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 149: 139: 138: 128: 127: 42: 40: 33: 26: 24: 18:Upper Pliocene 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7855: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7834: 7831: 7830: 7828: 7815: 7810: 7804: 7799: 7793: 7790: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7772: 7766: 7764: 7757: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7732: 7730: 7728: 7721: 7711: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7692: 7690: 7688: 7681: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7661: 7659: 7657: 7650: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7630: 7628: 7626: 7624:(539 Ma–1 Ga) 7619: 7616: 7614: 7606: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7577: 7575: 7573: 7566: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7546: 7544: 7542: 7535: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7510: 7508: 7506: 7499: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7479: 7477: 7475: 7468: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7453: 7451: 7449: 7442: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7426: 7423: 7422: 7420: 7418: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7401:Paleozoic Era 7398: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7374: 7372: 7370: 7363: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7343: 7341: 7339: 7332: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7317: 7315: 7313: 7311:(66.0–145 Ma) 7306: 7303: 7301: 7299:(66.0–252 Ma) 7293: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7269: 7267: 7265: 7258: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7243: 7241: 7239: 7232: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7217: 7215: 7213: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7193: 7189: 7182: 7177: 7175: 7170: 7168: 7163: 7162: 7159: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7111:Northgrippian 7109: 7107: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7082: 7080: 7079: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7067: 7062: 7058: 7051: 7046: 7044: 7039: 7037: 7032: 7031: 7028: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7002: 7000: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6966: 6964: 6963: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6954:Miocene Epoch 6952: 6951: 6946: 6942: 6935: 6930: 6928: 6923: 6921: 6916: 6915: 6912: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6881: 6880: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6854: 6850: 6844: 6838: 6833: 6832: 6825: 6813: 6809: 6804: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6786: 6782: 6776: 6772: 6767: 6766: 6762: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6715: 6712: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6679: 6674: 6667: 6664: 6659: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6620: 6615: 6608: 6605: 6593: 6591:9780253009876 6587: 6583: 6582: 6574: 6571: 6566: 6564:0-8061-3146-2 6560: 6556: 6555: 6547: 6544: 6539: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6490: 6485: 6478: 6475: 6471: 6466: 6463: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6415: 6412: 6407: 6403: 6396: 6393: 6388: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6347: 6344: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6312: 6310: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6282: 6275: 6273: 6269: 6264: 6257: 6254: 6249: 6243: 6235: 6228: 6225: 6220: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6179: 6176: 6163: 6159: 6152: 6149: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6115: 6110: 6106: 6100: 6097: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6053: 6050: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6018: 6015: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5982: 5978: 5971: 5968: 5955: 5954: 5946: 5943: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5917: 5909: 5906: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5873: 5868: 5861: 5858: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5817: 5812: 5805: 5802: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5776: 5768: 5761: 5758: 5752: 5749: 5743: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5721: 5716: 5709: 5706: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5664: 5656: 5653: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5611: 5603: 5600: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5558: 5553: 5546: 5543: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5483: 5475: 5472: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5420: 5412: 5409: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5376: 5371: 5364: 5361: 5356: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5315: 5310: 5303: 5300: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5267: 5262: 5255: 5252: 5247: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5206: 5201: 5193: 5190: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5149: 5144: 5137: 5134: 5128: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5106: 5101: 5094: 5091: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5050: 5045: 5038: 5035: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4989: 4982: 4979: 4967: 4963: 4960:Mason, John. 4956: 4953: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4916:(2): PA2014. 4915: 4911: 4910: 4902: 4895: 4892: 4880: 4876: 4870: 4867: 4861: 4858: 4852: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4836:(1–2): 3344. 4835: 4831: 4827: 4820: 4817: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4784: 4779: 4772: 4769: 4756: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4734: 4729: 4722: 4719: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4661: 4658: 4646: 4642: 4636: 4633: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4601: 4598: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4557: 4552: 4545: 4542: 4536: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4522: 4517: 4510: 4507: 4502: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4465: 4458: 4455: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4435: 4432: 4419: 4415: 4408: 4405: 4392: 4388: 4381: 4378: 4373: 4371:9780231130400 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4347: 4344: 4338: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4314: 4311: 4306: 4305: 4300: 4294: 4291: 4283: 4282: 4276: 4272: 4271: 4264: 4263:Charles Lyell 4260: 4256: 4255: 4251: 4248: 4243: 4241:9780521898492 4237: 4233: 4226: 4223: 4220: 4216: 4213: 4208: 4205: 4200: 4199: 4194: 4188: 4185: 4180: 4179: 4174: 4168: 4165: 4160: 4159: 4154: 4148: 4145: 4132: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4112: 4105: 4102: 4096: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4076: 4069: 4067: 4063: 4058: 4051: 4045: 4042: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 3999: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3963: 3960: 3954: 3943: 3940: 3933: 3929: 3926: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3893: 3891: 3885: 3883: 3872: 3869: 3861: 3850: 3847: 3843: 3840: 3836: 3833: 3829: 3826: 3822: 3819: – 3818: 3814: 3813:Find sources: 3807: 3803: 3797: 3796: 3791:This article 3789: 3785: 3780: 3779: 3773: 3771: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3737: 3733: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3718: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3689: 3684: 3683: 3678: 3677: 3672: 3671: 3666: 3665: 3660: 3659:phorusrhacids 3653: 3649: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3629: 3625:and cat-like 3624: 3620: 3616: 3615: 3610: 3606: 3601: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3562:macrauchenids 3559: 3558:notoungulates 3555: 3551: 3546: 3544: 3543: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3484: 3483: 3480: 3479: 3475: 3469: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3442: 3437: 3436: 3431: 3430: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3404: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3393:Ground sloths 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3363:chalicotheres 3360: 3359:protoceratids 3356: 3352: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3309: 3298: 3291: 3284: 3281: 3267: 3265: 3249: 3248:Modern humans 3243: 3238: 3237: 3227: 3221: 3216: 3215: 3205: 3199: 3194: 3193: 3184: 3180: 3179:Earliest fire 3175: 3170: 3169: 3160: 3155: 3150: 3149: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3129: 3120: 3119: 3111: 3106: 3105: 3096: 3091: 3086: 3085: 3076: 3075: 3068: 3063: 3062: 3053: 3052: 3045: 3040: 3039: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3019: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2999: 2990: 2989:Gorilla split 2985: 2980: 2979: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2959: 2956: 2942: 2927: 2914: 2913: 2911: 2899: 2897: 2883: 2881: 2875: 2873: 2867: 2865: 2864:H. antecessor 2858: 2857: 2855: 2842: 2840: 2834: 2832: 2825: 2824: 2822: 2809: 2807: 2806:Au. anamensis 2801: 2799: 2798:Au. afarensis 2793: 2791: 2790:Au. africanus 2784: 2783: 2781: 2768: 2766: 2753: 2751: 2739: 2738: 2736: 2723: 2721: 2720:O. tugenensis 2715: 2713: 2701: 2699: 2688: 2686: 2675: 2673: 2662: 2660: 2649: 2647: 2636: 2634: 2622: 2620: 2614: 2612: 2605: 2603: 2592: 2590: 2579: 2577: 2565: 2564: 2553: 2551: 2540: 2538: 2527: 2525: 2515: 2408: 2407: 2401: 2396: 2394: 2389: 2387: 2382: 2381: 2375: 2371: 2364: 2358: 2352: 2351: 2346: 2342: 2341: 2334: 2329: 2325: 2322: 2318: 2317: 2309: 2304: 2300: 2293: 2288: 2284: 2283: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2265: 2257: 2252: 2248: 2247: 2243: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2217: 2212: 2208: 2207: 2203: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2185: 2177: 2172: 2165: 2160: 2157: 2153: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2136: 2133: 2129: 2128: 2124: 2117: 2112: 2108:Image gallery 2107: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2094: 2085: 2082: 2074: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2050: 2049: 2045: 2040:This section 2038: 2034: 2029: 2028: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1980: 1977: 1969: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1940: 1935:This section 1933: 1929: 1924: 1923: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1880: 1876: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1859:modern humans 1856: 1855: 1850: 1849: 1845: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1820: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1801: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1782: 1780: 1775: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1729:South America 1726: 1716: 1709: 1707: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1691: 1689: 1685: 1680: 1675: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1640: 1637: 1633: 1632:Loess Plateau 1625: 1621: 1617: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1547: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1507:Pre-Pastonian 1504: 1500: 1496: 1491: 1488: 1484: 1477:(3.0–1.2 Ma). 1476: 1472: 1471:Chapadmalalan 1468: 1467:Montehermosan 1464: 1461: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1443: 1442: 1441: 1438: 1432: 1429: 1426: 1423: 1422: 1421: 1419: 1415: 1406: 1399: 1397: 1395: 1390: 1378: 1367: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1355:Charles Lyell 1349: 1347: 1344: 1339: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1304: 1291: 1234: 1222: 1217: 1215: 1210: 1208: 1203: 1202: 1200: 1199: 1193: 1184: 1178: 1177: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1141: 1138: 1136: 1133: 1132: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1121: 1116: 1115: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1038: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1006: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 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7447:(299–359 Ma) 7416:(252–299 Ma) 7404:(252–539 Ma) 7368:(201–252 Ma) 7337:(145–201 Ma) 7296:Mesozoic Era 7245: 7196:Cenozoic Era 7116:Greenlandian 6984:Serravallian 6958: 6878: 6830: 6816:. 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