163:
vehicle's electrical system as possible. The relay(s) modulated the width of a current pulse to regulate the voltage output of the generator by controlling the average field current in the rotating machine which determines strength of the magnetic field produced which determines the unloaded output voltage per rpm. Capacitors are not used to smooth the pulsed voltage as described earlier. The large inductance of the field coil stores the energy delivered to the magnetic field in an iron core so the pulsed field current does not result in as strongly pulsed a field. Both types of rotating machine produce a rotating magnetic field that induces an alternating current in the coils in the stator. A generator uses a mechanical commutator, graphite brushes running on copper segments, to convert the AC produced into DC by switching the external connections at the shaft angle when the voltage would reverse. An alternator accomplishes the same goal using rectifiers that do not wear down and require replacement.
564:
generate output voltages which are higher than the input, or of opposite polarityāsomething not possible with a linear design. In switched regulators, the pass transistor is used as a "controlled switch" and is operated at either cutoff or saturated state. Hence the power transmitted across the pass device is in discrete pulses rather than a steady current flow. Greater efficiency is achieved since the pass device is operated as a low impedance switch. When the pass device is at cutoff, there is no current and it dissipates no power. Again when the pass device is in saturation, a negligible voltage drop appears across it and thus dissipates only a small amount of average power, providing maximum current to the load. In either case, the power wasted in the pass device is very little and almost all the power is transmitted to the load. Thus the efficiency of a switched-mode power supply is remarkably high-in the range of 70ā90%.
190:
solid-state devices. An AVR is a feedback control system that measures the output voltage of the generator, compares that output to a set point, and generates an error signal that is used to adjust the excitation of the generator. As the excitation current in the field winding of the generator increases, its terminal voltage will increase. The AVR will control current by using power electronic devices; generally a small part of the generator's output is used to provide current for the field winding. Where a generator is connected in parallel with other sources such as an electrical transmission grid, changing the excitation has more of an effect on the
594:(SCRs) as the series device. Whenever the output voltage is below the desired value, the SCR is triggered, allowing electricity to flow into the load until the AC mains voltage passes through zero (ending the half cycle). SCR regulators have the advantages of being both very efficient and very simple, but because they can not terminate an ongoing half cycle of conduction, they are not capable of very accurate voltage regulation in response to rapidly changing loads. An alternative is the SCR shunt regulator which uses the regulator output as a trigger. Both series and shunt designs are noisy, but powerful, as the device has a low on resistance.
249:, have also been used to regulate the voltage on AC power distribution lines. These regulators operate by using a servomechanism to select the appropriate tap on an autotransformer with multiple taps, or by moving the wiper on a continuously variable auto transfomer. If the output voltage is not in the acceptable range, the servomechanism switches the tap, changing the turns ratio of the transformer, to move the secondary voltage into the acceptable region. The controls provide a dead band wherein the controller will not act, preventing the controller from constantly adjusting the voltage ("hunting") as it varies by an acceptably small amount.
414:
118:, to produce a higher output voltageāby dropping less of the input voltage (for linear series regulators and buck switching regulators), or to draw input current for longer periods (boost-type switching regulators); if the output voltage is too high, the regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage. However, many regulators have over-current protection, so that they will entirely stop sourcing current (or limit the current in some way) if the output current is too high, and some regulators may also shut down if the input voltage is outside a given range (see also:
629:
131:
950:
1095:
manage it for a limited time such as 60 seconds (usually specified in the data sheet). For instance, this situation can occur when a three terminal regulator is incorrectly mounted on a PCB, with the output terminal connected to the unregulated DC input and the input connected to the load. Mirror-image insertion protection is also important when a regulator circuit is used in battery charging circuits, when external power fails or is not turned on and the output terminal remains at battery voltage.
91:
147:
518:. Linear designs have the advantage of very "clean" output with little noise introduced into their DC output, but are most often much less efficient and unable to step-up or invert the input voltage like switched supplies. All linear regulators require a higher input than the output. If the input voltage approaches the desired output voltage, the regulator will "drop out". The input to output voltage differential at which this occurs is known as the regulator's drop-out voltage.
402:
209:
182:
106:(or series of diodes). Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the voltage across the diode changes only slightly due to changes in current drawn or changes in the input. When precise voltage control and efficiency are not important, this design may be fine. Since the forward voltage of a diode is small, this kind of voltage regulator is only suitable for low voltage regulated output. When higher voltage output is needed, a
1088:) occurs. Some regulators will tend to oscillate or have a slow response time which in some cases might lead to undesired results. This value is different from the regulation parameters, as that is the stable situation definition. The transient response shows the behaviour of the regulator on a change. This data is usually provided in the technical documentation of a regulator and is also dependent on output capacitance.
31:
1108:
263:
155:
strengthening the magnetic field produced by the coil and pulling the core towards the field. The magnet is physically connected to a mechanical power switch, which opens as the magnet moves into the field. As voltage decreases, so does the current, releasing spring tension or the weight of the core and causing it to retract. This closes the switch and allows the power to flow once more.
114:
tends to increase regulation accuracy but reduce stability. (Stability is the avoidance of oscillation, or ringing, during step changes.) There will also be a trade-off between stability and the speed of the response to changes. If the output voltage is too low (perhaps due to input voltage reducing or load current increasing), the regulation element is commanded,
139:
229:
545:
466:. Shunt regulators are often (but not always) passive and simple, but always inefficient because they (essentially) dump the excess current which is not available to the load. When more power must be supplied, more sophisticated circuits are used. In general, these active regulators can be divided into several classes:
1035:
automatic voltage regulators may draw and output several times their normal full-load current for a few cycles of the input waveform when first energized or switched on. Power converters also often have inrush currents much higher than their steady state currents, due to the charging current of the input capacitance.
1094:
means that a regulator is designed for use when a voltage, usually not higher than the maximum input voltage of the regulator, is applied to its output pin while its input terminal is at a low voltage, volt-free or grounded. Some regulators can continuously withstand this situation. Others might only
563:
is transferred to the load. This is controlled by a similar feedback mechanism as in a linear regulator. Because the series element is either fully conducting, or switched off, it dissipates almost no power; this is what gives the switching design its efficiency. Switching regulators are also able to
371:
Efficiency at full load is typically in the range of 89% to 93%. However, at low loads, efficiency can drop below 60%. The current-limiting capability also becomes a handicap when a CVT is used in an application with moderate to high inrush current, like motors, transformers or magnets. In this case,
81:
and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn
1023:
is the minimum difference between input voltage and output voltage for which the regulator can still supply the specified current. The input-output differential at which the voltage regulator will no longer maintain regulation is the dropout voltage. Further reduction in input voltage will result in
607:
generated by the switching regulator. Other designs may use an SCR regulator as the "pre-regulator", followed by another type of regulator. An efficient way of creating a variable-voltage, accurate output power supply is to combine a multi-tapped transformer with an adjustable linear post-regulator.
602:
Many power supplies use more than one regulating method in series. For example, the output from a switching regulator can be further regulated by a linear regulator. The switching regulator accepts a wide range of input voltages and efficiently generates a (somewhat noisy) voltage slightly above the
351:
Older designs of ferroresonant transformers had an output with high harmonic content, leading to a distorted output waveform. Modern devices are used to construct a perfect sine wave. The ferroresonant action is a flux limiter rather than a voltage regulator, but with a fixed supply frequency it can
220:
When the movable coil is positioned perpendicular to the fixed coil, the magnetic forces acting on the movable coil balance each other out and voltage output is unchanged. Rotating the coil in one direction or the other away from the center position will increase or decrease voltage in the secondary
194:
produced by the generator than on its terminal voltage, which is mostly set by the connected power system. Where multiple generators are connected in parallel, the AVR system will have circuits to ensure all generators operate at the same power factor. AVRs on grid-connected power station generators
698:
is usually about 0.7 V for a silicon transistor, depending on the load current. If the output voltage drops for any external reason, such as an increase in the current drawn by the load (causing an increase in the collectorāemitter voltage to observe KVL), the transistor's baseāemitter voltage
421:
Voltage regulators or stabilizers are used to compensate for voltage fluctuations in mains power. Large regulators may be permanently installed on distribution lines. Small portable regulators may be plugged in between sensitive equipment and a wall outlet. Automatic voltage regulators on generator
224:
This type of regulator can be automated via a servo control mechanism to advance the movable coil position in order to provide voltage increase or decrease. A braking mechanism or high-ratio gearing is used to hold the rotating coil in place against the powerful magnetic forces acting on the moving
154:
In electromechanical regulators, voltage regulation is easily accomplished by coiling the sensing wire to make an electromagnet. The magnetic field produced by the current attracts a moving ferrous core held back under spring tension or gravitational pull. As voltage increases, so does the current,
113:
Feedback voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element in such a way as to reduce the voltage error. This forms a negative feedback control loop; increasing the open-loop gain
162:
Early automobile generators and alternators had a mechanical voltage regulator using one, two, or three relays and various resistors to stabilize the generator's output at slightly more than 6.7 or 13.4 V to maintain the battery as independently of the engine's rpm or the varying load on the
158:
If the mechanical regulator design is sensitive to small voltage fluctuations, the motion of the solenoid core can be used to move a selector switch across a range of resistances or transformer windings to gradually step the output voltage up or down, or to rotate the position of a moving-coil AC
343:
to produce a nearly constant average output voltage with a varying input current or varying load. The circuit has a primary on one side of a magnet shunt and the tuned circuit coil and secondary on the other side. The regulation is due to magnetic saturation in the section around the secondary.
189:
Generators, as used in power stations, ship electrical power production, or standby power systems, will have automatic voltage regulators (AVR) to stabilize their voltages as the load on the generators changes. The first AVRs for generators were electromechanical systems, but a modern AVR uses
995:
is the degree to which output voltage changes with input (supply) voltage changesāas a ratio of output to input change (for example, "typically 13 mV/V"), or the output voltage change over the entire specified input voltage range (for example, "plus or minus 2% for input voltages between
1034:
usually lasts for half a second, or a few milliseconds, but it is often very high, which makes it dangerous because it can degrade and burn components gradually (over months or years), especially if there is no inrush current protection. Alternating current transformers or electric motors in
347:
The ferroresonant approach is attractive due to its lack of active components, relying on the square loop saturation characteristics of the tank circuit to absorb variations in average input voltage. Saturating transformers provide a simple rugged method to stabilize an AC power supply.
453:
If the stabilizer must provide more power, the shunt output is only used to provide the standard voltage reference for the electronic device, known as the voltage stabilizer. The voltage stabilizer is the electronic device, able to deliver much larger currents on demand.
446:. Each of these devices begins conducting at a specified voltage and will conduct as much current as required to hold its terminal voltage to that specified voltage by diverting excess current from a non-ideal power source to ground, often through a relatively low-value
861:
375:
Minimum maintenance is required, as transformers and capacitors can be very reliable. Some units have included redundant capacitors to allow several capacitors to fail between inspections without any noticeable effect on the device's performance.
422:
sets to maintain a constant voltage for changes in load. The voltage regulator compensates for the change in load. Power distribution voltage regulators normally operate on a range of voltages, for example 150ā240 V or 90ā280 V.
379:
Output voltage varies about 1.2% for every 1% change in supply frequency. For example, a 2 Hz change in generator frequency, which is very large, results in an output voltage change of only 4%, which has little effect for most loads.
571:
to control the average value of the output voltage. The average value of a repetitive pulse waveform depends on the area under the waveform. If the duty cycle is varied, the average value of the voltage changes proportionally.
216:
This is an older type of regulator used in the 1920s that uses the principle of a fixed-position field coil and a second field coil that can be rotated on an axis in parallel with the fixed coil, similar to a variocoupler.
984:
is the change in output voltage for a given change in load current (for example, "typically 15 mV, maximum 100 mV for load currents between 5 mA and 1.4 A, at some specified temperature and input
1041:
are defined for regulator components, specifying the continuous and peak output currents that may be used (sometimes internally limited), the maximum input voltage, maximum power dissipation at a given temperature,
409:
bank of voltage regulators used to control the voltage on long AC power distribution lines. This bank is mounted on a wooden pole structure. Each regulator weighs about 1200 kg and is rated 576 kVA.
956:
In this case, the operational amplifier drives the transistor with more current if the voltage at its inverting input drops below the output of the voltage reference at the non-inverting input. Using the
525:
Entire linear regulators are available as integrated circuits. These chips come in either fixed or adjustable voltage types. Examples of some integrated circuits are the 723 general purpose regulator and
719:
current for both the Zener diode and the transistor. The current in the diode is minimal when the load current is maximal. The circuit designer must choose a minimum voltage that can be tolerated across
494:
are based on devices that operate in their linear region (in contrast, a switching regulator is based on a device forced to act as an on/off switch). Linear regulators are also classified in two types:
579:
that acts as the energy storage element. The IC regulators combine the reference voltage source, error op-amp, pass transistor with short circuit current limiting and thermal overload protection.
1013:
of a voltage regulator (or simply "the voltage accuracy") reflects the error in output voltage for a fixed regulator without taking into account temperature or aging effects on output accuracy.
1070:
in a regulator circuit is the current drawn internally, not available to the load, normally measured as the input current while no load is connected and hence a source of inefficiency (some
450:
to dissipate the excess energy. The power supply is designed to only supply a maximum amount of current that is within the safe operating capability of the shunt regulating device.
756:
368:
Because it regenerates an output voltage waveform, output distortion, which is typically less than 4%, is independent of any input voltage distortion, including notching.
582:
Switching regulators are more prone to output noise and instability than linear regulators. However, they provide much better power efficiency than linear regulators.
1366:
575:
Like linear regulators, nearly complete switching regulators are also available as integrated circuits. Unlike linear regulators, these usually require an
2240:
110:
or series of zener diodes may be employed. Zener diode regulators make use of the zener diode's fixed reverse voltage, which can be quite large.
1881:
1136:
1798:
603:
ultimately desired output. That is followed by a linear regulator that generates exactly the desired voltage and eliminates nearly all the
1030:
or input surge current or switch-on surge is the maximum, instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first turned on.
1579:
1359:
430:
Many simple DC power supplies regulate the voltage using either series or shunt regulators, but most apply a voltage reference using a
383:
It accepts 100% single-phase switch-mode power-supply loading without any requirement for derating, including all neutral components.
284:
1562:
1458:
1315:
1199:
310:
1702:
1429:
1750:
1549:
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1352:
288:
195:
may have additional control features to help stabilize the electrical grid against upsets due to sudden load loss or faults.
359:(CVTs) or "ferros", are also good surge suppressors, as they provide high isolation and inherent short-circuit protection.
522:(LDOs) allow an input voltage that can be much lower (i.e., they waste less energy than conventional linear regulators).
1781:
1533:
591:
74:
977:
The output voltage can only be held constant within specified limits. The regulation is specified by two measurements:
2404:
1585:
1522:
273:
2414:
2245:
1792:
1126:
539:
393:
Drawbacks of CVTs are their larger size, audible humming sound, and the high heat generation caused by saturation.
1214:"Analysis on the Reason of Low Voltage Problem and the Effectiveness of Voltage Regulation in a Distribution Area"
628:
372:
the CVT has to be sized to accommodate the peak current, thus forcing it to run at low loads and poor efficiency.
292:
277:
130:
1999:
1713:
1556:
1441:
387:
1866:
2409:
2008:
1718:
1574:
1151:
706:) increases, turning the transistor on further and delivering more current to increase the load voltage again.
170:
technology (transistors) to perform the same function that the relays perform in electromechanical regulators.
2019:
1739:
1538:
78:
2188:
1755:
1620:
1596:
939:
625:
amplifier is used with the base of the regulating transistor connected directly to the voltage reference:
568:
443:
856:{\displaystyle R_{\text{v}}={\frac {\min V_{R}}{\min I_{\text{D}}+\max I_{\text{L}}/(h_{\text{FE}}+1)}},}
362:
A ferroresonant transformer can operate with an input voltage range Ā±40% or more of the nominal voltage.
2257:
2209:
2030:
1846:
1761:
1692:
1528:
943:
519:
463:
173:
Electromechanical regulators are used for mains voltage stabilisationāsee AC voltage stabilizers below.
146:
1007:
of the output voltage is the change with temperature (perhaps averaged over a given temperature range).
949:
1074:
are, surprisingly, more efficient at very low current loads than switch-mode designs because of this).
2331:
2075:
1970:
1744:
1637:
1491:
1452:
1383:
1375:
1225:
958:
727:, bearing in mind that the higher this voltage requirement is, the higher the required input voltage
59:
90:
2051:
1959:
1851:
1687:
1664:
401:
63:
2356:
2216:
1924:
1891:
1707:
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1569:
1243:
1146:
1141:
1131:
1113:
515:
208:
670:
by a sufficient margin and that the power handling capacity of the transistor is not exceeded.
181:
2351:
2272:
2163:
2115:
1944:
1871:
1311:
1195:
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119:
55:
51:
2067:
2014:
1876:
1841:
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1229:
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1071:
1061:
486:
462:
Active regulators employ at least one active (amplifying) component such as a transistor or
352:
maintain an almost constant average output voltage even as the input voltage varies widely.
2344:
2277:
2130:
1861:
1771:
1615:
734:, and hence the lower the efficiency of the regulator. On the other hand, lower values of
560:
439:
335:
is a type of saturating transformer used as a voltage regulator. These transformers use a
1238:
1213:
1024:
reduced output voltage. This value is dependent on load current and junction temperature.
741:
lead to higher power dissipation in the diode and to inferior regulator characteristics.
1338:
2319:
2100:
2090:
1856:
1659:
1031:
191:
67:
30:
1080:
is the reaction of a regulator when a (sudden) change of the load current (called the
2398:
2381:
2204:
2120:
1939:
1766:
1734:
1247:
212:
Basic design principle and circuit diagram for the rotating-coil AC voltage regulator
2262:
2250:
2138:
2105:
1934:
1919:
1502:
1486:
365:
Output power factor remains in the range of 0.96 or higher from half to full load.
336:
47:
77:
where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
17:
2304:
2046:
1995:
1901:
1886:
1669:
1631:
1060:
noise (mains "hum" or switch-mode "hash" noise) may be given as peak-to-peak or
1049:
674:
635:
A simple transistor regulator will provide a relatively constant output voltage
622:
507:
435:
406:
262:
107:
1107:
2376:
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2299:
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2143:
2110:
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2057:
1929:
1909:
1787:
1649:
1626:
1512:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1103:
938:
The stability of the output voltage can be significantly increased by using a
556:
511:
510:
were commonly used as the variable resistance. Modern designs use one or more
2339:
2183:
2178:
2168:
2095:
1975:
1809:
1804:
1729:
1654:
340:
548:
Switching regulator integrated circuit LM2676, 3 A step-down converter
2361:
2309:
2289:
2267:
2153:
2148:
2036:
2025:
1954:
1724:
1263:
Texas
Instruments LM2825 Integrated Power Supply 1 A DC-DC Converter
576:
447:
99:
1344:
2221:
2158:
1980:
1965:
1819:
1776:
1424:
961:(R1, R2 and R3) allows choice of the arbitrary output voltage between U
716:
138:
43:
228:
2294:
1985:
1949:
1914:
1474:
1446:
1419:
1394:
390:
even when supplying nonlinear loads with more than 100% current THD.
1282:
1261:
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2041:
1814:
1607:
1469:
1464:
604:
544:
412:
400:
227:
180:
137:
103:
62:. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more
29:
142:
A voltage stabilizer using electromechanical relays for switching
2314:
1697:
1643:
1544:
1497:
1435:
896:
is the minimum current to be maintained through the Zener diode,
527:
1348:
134:
Circuit design for a simple electromechanical voltage regulator
256:
1212:
Guo, Min; Jin, Qingren; Yao, Zhiyang; Chen, Weidong (2020).
1192:
Standard
Handbook for Electrical Engineers Eleventh Edition
948:
627:
1310:. New York and London: John Wiley & Sons. p. 534.
94:
Block scheme for voltage regulator in an electronic circuit
73:
Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as
1056:
may be specified as graphs versus frequency, while output
677:
voltage minus the baseāemitter voltage of the transistor,
42:
is a system designed to automatically maintain a constant
355:
The ferroresonant transformers, which are also known as
1172:
Voltage
Stabilizer or Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
1218:
98:
A simple voltage/current regulator can be made from a
759:
673:
The output voltage of the stabilizer is equal to the
2330:
2230:
2197:
2129:
2066:
1994:
1900:
1832:
1678:
1606:
1511:
1393:
1382:
855:
590:Regulators powered from AC power circuits can use
339:composed of a high-voltage resonant winding and a
1334:Linear & Switching Voltage Regulator Handbook
807:
791:
776:
915:is the forward current gain of the transistor (
879:is the minimum voltage to be maintained across
555:rapidly switch a series device on and off. The
1301:
1299:
386:Input current distortion remains less than 8%
27:System designed to maintain a constant voltage
1360:
1336:; ON Semiconductor; 118 pages; 2002; HB206/D.
8:
649:of the power source and for changes in load
291:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1390:
1367:
1353:
1345:
996:90 V and 260 V, 50ā60 Hz").
1237:
832:
820:
814:
798:
783:
773:
764:
758:
311:Learn how and when to remove this message
1306:Alley, Charles; Atwood, Kenneth (1973).
543:
207:
145:
129:
89:
1162:
1064:voltages, or in terms of their spectra.
934:Regulator with a differential amplifier
150:Graph of voltage output on a time scale
34:An integrated circuit voltage regulator
1137:List of LM-series integrated circuits
7:
1799:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
1284:Linear Technology Ī¼Module Regulators
289:adding citations to reliable sources
241:Electromechanical regulators called
1580:Programmable unijunction transistor
906:is the maximum design load current,
1481:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
204:Coil-rotation AC voltage regulator
25:
1459:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
1190:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty,
1092:Mirror-image insertion protection
567:Switched mode regulators rely on
417:Three phase wye voltage regulator
1703:Heterostructure barrier varactor
1430:Chemical field-effect transistor
1106:
1000:Other important parameters are:
598:Combination or hybrid regulators
261:
185:Voltage regulator for generators
1751:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
1084:) or input voltage (called the
1239:10.1088/1755-1315/440/3/032128
844:
825:
1:
942:, possibly implemented as an
592:silicon controlled rectifiers
357:constant-voltage transformers
86:Electronic voltage regulators
1782:Silicon controlled rectifier
1644:Organic light-emitting diode
1534:Diffused junction transistor
612:Example of linear regulators
559:of the switch sets how much
333:constant-voltage transformer
253:Constant-voltage transformer
126:Electromechanical regulators
1586:Static induction transistor
1523:Bipolar junction transistor
1475:MOS field-effect transistor
1447:Fin field-effect transistor
642:for changes in the voltage
514:instead, perhaps within an
177:Automatic voltage regulator
2431:
1793:Static induction thyristor
1127:Constant current regulator
540:Switched-mode power supply
537:
484:
1962:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
1714:Hybrid integrated circuit
1557:Light-emitting transistor
506:In the past, one or more
440:avalanche breakdown diode
325:ferroresonant transformer
2009:Backward-wave oscillator
1719:Light emitting capacitor
1575:Point-contact transistor
1545:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
1152:Voltage regulator module
1054:output dynamic impedance
1039:Absolute maximum ratings
470:Linear series regulators
232:Magnetic mains regulator
2020:Crossed-field amplifier
1539:Field-effect transistor
1230:2020E&ES..440c2128G
1005:Temperature coefficient
973:Regulator specification
621:In the simplest case a
329:ferroresonant regulator
166:Modern designs now use
75:computer power supplies
2189:Voltage-regulator tube
1756:MOS integrated circuit
1621:Constant-current diode
1597:Unijunction transistor
1308:Electronic Engineering
1194:, Mc Graw Hill, 1978,
953:
940:differential amplifier
857:
632:
569:pulse-width modulation
549:
520:Low-dropout regulators
444:voltage regulator tube
426:DC voltage stabilizers
418:
410:
233:
213:
199:AC voltage stabilizers
186:
151:
143:
135:
95:
79:automobile alternators
50:design or may include
46:. It may use a simple
35:
2258:Electrolytic detector
2031:Inductive output tube
1847:Low-dropout regulator
1762:Organic semiconductor
1693:Printed circuit board
1529:Darlington transistor
1376:Electronic components
952:
944:operational amplifier
858:
631:
547:
464:operational amplifier
416:
404:
231:
211:
184:
149:
141:
133:
93:
60:electronic components
33:
2076:Beam deflection tube
1745:Metal-oxide varistor
1638:Light-emitting diode
1492:Thin-film transistor
1453:Floating-gate MOSFET
757:
617:Transistor regulator
553:Switching regulators
534:Switching regulators
473:Switching regulators
285:improve this section
2052:Traveling-wave tube
1852:Switching regulator
1688:Printed electronics
1665:Step recovery diode
1442:Depletion-load NMOS
1339:(Free PDF download)
243:voltage stabilizers
2405:Voltage regulation
2357:Crystal oscillator
2217:Variable capacitor
1892:Switched capacitor
1834:Voltage regulators
1708:Integrated circuit
1592:Tetrode transistor
1570:Pentode transistor
1563:Organic LET (OLET)
1550:Organic FET (OFET)
1147:Voltage comparator
1142:Third-brush dynamo
1132:DC-to-DC converter
1114:Electronics portal
1078:Transient response
954:
853:
633:
550:
516:integrated circuit
419:
411:
397:Power distribution
234:
214:
187:
152:
144:
136:
96:
36:
18:Voltage stabilizer
2415:Voltage stability
2392:
2391:
2352:Ceramic resonator
2164:Mercury-arc valve
2116:Video camera tube
2068:Cathode-ray tubes
1828:
1827:
1436:Complementary MOS
1341:
1122:Charge controller
1072:linear regulators
1068:Quiescent current
848:
835:
817:
801:
767:
499:series regulators
492:Linear regulators
481:Linear regulators
458:Active regulators
321:
320:
313:
237:Electromechanical
102:in series with a
56:electromechanical
52:negative feedback
40:voltage regulator
16:(Redirected from
2422:
2246:electrical power
2131:Gas-filled tubes
2015:Cavity magnetron
1842:Linear regulator
1391:
1369:
1362:
1355:
1346:
1337:
1322:
1321:
1303:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1241:
1209:
1203:
1188:
1182:
1181:
1180:
1179:
1167:
1116:
1111:
1110:
1021:
1020:
1011:Initial accuracy
993:input regulation
862:
860:
859:
854:
849:
847:
837:
836:
833:
824:
819:
818:
815:
803:
802:
799:
789:
788:
787:
774:
769:
768:
765:
656:, provided that
502:shunt regulators
487:Linear regulator
316:
309:
305:
302:
296:
265:
257:
120:crowbar circuits
54:. It may use an
21:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2410:Analog circuits
2395:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2326:
2241:audio and video
2226:
2193:
2125:
2062:
1990:
1971:Photomultiplier
1896:
1824:
1772:Quantum circuit
1680:
1674:
1616:Avalanche diode
1602:
1514:
1507:
1396:
1385:
1378:
1373:
1330:
1328:Further reading
1325:
1318:
1305:
1304:
1297:
1289:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1268:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1211:
1210:
1206:
1189:
1185:
1177:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1112:
1105:
1102:
1019:Dropout voltage
1018:
1017:
989:Line regulation
982:Load regulation
975:
968:
964:
959:voltage divider
936:
928:
921:
914:
905:
895:
885:
878:
828:
810:
794:
790:
779:
775:
760:
755:
754:
749:
740:
733:
726:
714:
705:
697:
690:
683:
669:
662:
655:
648:
641:
619:
614:
600:
588:
542:
536:
489:
483:
460:
432:shunt regulator
428:
399:
317:
306:
300:
297:
282:
266:
255:
239:
206:
201:
179:
128:
88:
82:from the line.
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2428:
2426:
2418:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2397:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2336:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2320:Wollaston wire
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2234:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2201:
2199:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2135:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2101:Selectron tube
2098:
2093:
2091:Magic eye tube
2088:
2083:
2078:
2072:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2055:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2028:
2023:
2017:
2012:
2005:
2003:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1906:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1838:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1785:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1753:
1748:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1716:
1711:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1660:Schottky diode
1657:
1652:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1601:
1600:
1594:
1589:
1583:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1554:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1519:
1517:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1489:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1456:
1450:
1444:
1439:
1433:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1401:
1399:
1388:
1380:
1379:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1364:
1357:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1316:
1295:
1274:
1253:
1204:
1183:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1089:
1086:line transient
1082:load transient
1075:
1065:
1043:
1036:
1032:Inrush current
1028:Inrush current
1025:
1014:
1008:
998:
997:
986:
974:
971:
966:
962:
935:
932:
931:
930:
926:
919:
912:
907:
903:
897:
893:
887:
883:
874:
864:
863:
852:
846:
843:
840:
831:
827:
823:
813:
809:
806:
797:
793:
786:
782:
778:
772:
763:
747:
738:
731:
724:
712:
703:
695:
688:
681:
667:
660:
653:
646:
639:
618:
615:
613:
610:
599:
596:
587:
586:SCR regulators
584:
535:
532:
504:
503:
500:
485:Main article:
482:
479:
478:
477:
476:SCR regulators
474:
471:
459:
456:
427:
424:
398:
395:
319:
318:
269:
267:
260:
254:
251:
238:
235:
221:movable coil.
205:
202:
200:
197:
192:reactive power
178:
175:
127:
124:
87:
84:
58:mechanism, or
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2427:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2383:
2382:mercury relay
2380:
2378:
2375:
2374:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2205:Potentiometer
2203:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2122:
2121:Williams tube
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1940:Fleming valve
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1767:Photodetector
1765:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1735:Memtransistor
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1677:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1605:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:Semiconductor
1381:
1377:
1370:
1365:
1363:
1358:
1356:
1351:
1350:
1347:
1340:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1327:
1319:
1317:0-471-02450-3
1313:
1309:
1302:
1300:
1296:
1286:
1285:
1278:
1275:
1265:
1264:
1257:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1224:(3): 032128.
1223:
1219:
1215:
1208:
1205:
1201:
1200:0-07-020974-X
1197:
1193:
1187:
1184:
1174:
1173:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1026:
1022:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1003:
1002:
1001:
994:
990:
987:
983:
980:
979:
978:
972:
970:
960:
951:
947:
945:
941:
933:
925:
918:
911:
908:
902:
898:
892:
888:
882:
877:
873:
869:
868:
867:
850:
841:
838:
829:
821:
811:
804:
795:
784:
780:
770:
761:
753:
752:
751:
746:
742:
737:
730:
723:
718:
711:
707:
702:
694:
687:
680:
676:
671:
666:
659:
652:
645:
638:
630:
626:
624:
616:
611:
609:
606:
597:
595:
593:
585:
583:
580:
578:
573:
570:
565:
562:
558:
554:
546:
541:
533:
531:
530:/79xx series
529:
523:
521:
517:
513:
509:
501:
498:
497:
496:
493:
488:
480:
475:
472:
469:
468:
467:
465:
457:
455:
451:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
425:
423:
415:
408:
403:
396:
394:
391:
389:
384:
381:
377:
373:
369:
366:
363:
360:
358:
353:
349:
345:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
315:
312:
304:
301:November 2020
294:
290:
286:
280:
279:
275:
270:This section
268:
264:
259:
258:
252:
250:
248:
244:
236:
230:
226:
222:
218:
210:
203:
198:
196:
193:
183:
176:
174:
171:
169:
164:
160:
156:
148:
140:
132:
125:
123:
121:
117:
116:up to a point
111:
109:
105:
101:
92:
85:
83:
80:
76:
71:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
32:
19:
2139:Cold cathode
2106:Storage tube
1996:Vacuum tubes
1945:Neutron tube
1920:Beam tetrode
1902:Vacuum tubes
1833:
1487:Power MOSFET
1333:
1307:
1288:, retrieved
1283:
1277:
1267:, retrieved
1262:
1256:
1221:
1217:
1207:
1202:, page 7-30
1191:
1186:
1176:, retrieved
1171:
1165:
1091:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1067:
1057:
1053:
1046:Output noise
1045:
1038:
1027:
1016:
1010:
1004:
999:
992:
988:
981:
976:
955:
937:
923:
916:
909:
900:
890:
880:
875:
871:
865:
750:is given by
744:
743:
735:
728:
721:
709:
708:
700:
692:
685:
678:
672:
664:
657:
650:
643:
636:
634:
620:
601:
589:
581:
574:
566:
552:
551:
524:
508:vacuum tubes
505:
491:
490:
461:
452:
431:
429:
420:
392:
385:
382:
378:
374:
370:
367:
364:
361:
356:
354:
350:
346:
337:tank circuit
332:
328:
324:
322:
307:
298:
283:Please help
271:
247:tap-changers
246:
242:
240:
223:
219:
215:
188:
172:
167:
165:
161:
157:
153:
115:
112:
97:
72:
48:feed-forward
39:
37:
2305:Transformer
2047:Sutton tube
1887:Charge pump
1740:Memory cell
1670:Zener diode
1632:Laser diode
1515:transistors
1397:transistors
1050:white noise
715:provides a
675:Zener diode
623:common base
512:transistors
436:Zener diode
407:three-phase
168:solid state
159:regulator.
108:zener diode
2399:Categories
2377:reed relay
2367:Parametron
2300:Thermistor
2278:resettable
2237:Connector
2198:Adjustable
2174:Nixie tube
2144:Crossatron
2111:Trochotron
2086:Iconoscope
2081:Charactron
2058:X-ray tube
1930:Compactron
1910:Acorn tube
1867:Buckāboost
1788:Solaristor
1650:Photodiode
1627:Gunn diode
1623:(CLD, CRD)
1405:Transistor
1290:2011-03-08
1269:2010-09-19
1178:2024-04-26
1158:References
985:voltage").
557:duty cycle
538:See also:
434:such as a
70:voltages.
2340:Capacitor
2184:Trigatron
2179:Thyratron
2169:Neon lamp
2096:Monoscope
1976:Phototube
1960:Pentagrid
1925:Barretter
1810:Trancitor
1805:Thyristor
1730:Memristor
1655:PIN diode
1432:(ChemFET)
1248:216305194
1048:(thermal
341:capacitor
272:does not
2362:Inductor
2332:Reactive
2310:Varistor
2290:Resistor
2268:Antifuse
2154:Ignitron
2149:Dekatron
2037:Klystron
2026:Gyrotron
1955:Nuvistor
1872:Split-pi
1758:(MOS IC)
1725:Memistor
1483:(MuGFET)
1477:(MOSFET)
1449:(FinFET)
1100:See also
691:, where
663:exceeds
577:inductor
448:resistor
100:resistor
2263:Ferrite
2231:Passive
2222:Varicap
2210:digital
2159:Krytron
1981:Tetrode
1966:Pentode
1820:Varicap
1801:(3D IC)
1777:RF CMOS
1681:devices
1455:(FGMOS)
1386:devices
1226:Bibcode
293:removed
278:sources
44:voltage
2295:Switch
1986:Triode
1950:Nonode
1915:Audion
1795:(SITh)
1679:Other
1646:(OLED)
1608:Diodes
1559:(LET)
1541:(FET)
1513:Other
1461:(IGBT)
1438:(CMOS)
1425:BioFET
1420:BiCMOS
1314:
1246:
1198:
1058:ripple
1052:) and
866:where
561:charge
225:coil.
2372:Relay
2345:types
2283:eFUSE
2054:(TWT)
2042:Maser
2033:(IOT)
2022:(CFA)
2011:(BWO)
1935:Diode
1882:SEPIC
1862:Boost
1815:TRIAC
1784:(SCR)
1747:(MOV)
1721:(LEC)
1640:(LED)
1599:(UJT)
1588:(SIT)
1582:(PUT)
1525:(BJT)
1494:(TFT)
1470:LDMOS
1465:ISFET
1244:S2CID
965:and U
605:noise
442:, or
104:diode
2315:Wire
2273:Fuse
1857:Buck
1710:(IC)
1698:DIAC
1634:(LD)
1503:UMOS
1498:VMOS
1415:PMOS
1410:NMOS
1395:MOS
1312:ISBN
1196:ISBN
1042:etc.
899:max
889:min
870:min
717:bias
528:78xx
323:The
276:any
274:cite
1877:Äuk
1234:doi
1222:440
1062:RMS
991:or
808:max
792:min
777:min
668:out
640:out
388:THD
331:or
287:by
245:or
122:).
66:or
2401::
2251:RF
2000:RF
1298:^
1242:.
1232:.
1220:.
1216:.
969:.
967:in
946::
929:).
913:FE
834:FE
732:in
704:BE
696:BE
689:BE
684:ā
661:in
647:in
438:,
405:A
327:,
68:DC
64:AC
38:A
2002:)
1998:(
1368:e
1361:t
1354:v
1320:.
1250:.
1236::
1228::
963:z
927:B
924:I
922:/
920:C
917:I
910:h
904:L
901:I
894:D
891:I
886:,
884:v
881:R
876:R
872:V
851:,
845:)
842:1
839:+
830:h
826:(
822:/
816:L
812:I
805:+
800:D
796:I
785:R
781:V
771:=
766:v
762:R
748:v
745:R
739:v
736:R
729:U
725:v
722:R
713:v
710:R
701:U
699:(
693:U
686:U
682:Z
679:U
665:U
658:U
654:L
651:R
644:U
637:U
314:)
308:(
303:)
299:(
295:.
281:.
20:)
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