Wildlife trade and zoonoses

39: 348: 97:-borne viral zoonotic diseases. Zoonotic diseases are complex infections residing in animals and can be transmitted to humans. The emergence of zoonotic diseases usually occurs in three stages. Initially the disease is spread through a series of spillover events between domesticated and wildlife populations living in close quarters. Diseases then spread through series of direct contact methods, indirect contact methods, contaminated foods, or vector-borne transmissions. After one of these transmission methods occurs, the disease then rises exponentially in human populations living in close proximities. 332: 570: 2760:

be as plugged into the State Department as any Washington Post columnist, was shown documents dating back to 2015 revealing how the U.S. government was worried about safety standards at that Wuhan lab. Rogin's reporting suggests that government officials were well aware of the research being conducted in the lab on bat coronaviruses and were worried that the lab still had sub-par safety standards.

124:, called for a global ban on wildlife markets to prevent future pandemics. Others have also called for a total ban on the global wildlife trade or for already existing bans to be enforced, in order both to reduce cruelty to animals as well as to reduce health risks to humans, or to implement other disease control intervention measures in lieu of total bans. 31: 673:

count and their ability to detect and ward off potentially harmful diseases. Dispersal of the disease includes acts of consuming infected bushmeat, pathogens coming into contact with open wounds, and through infected blood transfers. The two major strains of HIV, HIV-1 and HIV-2, are both believed to

470:, but it was not the site of the initial outbreak. The results of a WHO investigation yielded similar results, confirming what most scientists expected, that the location of the first contact with the virus was still unknown but unlikely to be the Huanan market due to the existence of earlier cases. 306:

standards are not maintained, live animal markets can transmit zoonoses. Because of the openness, newly introduced animals may come in direct contact with sales clerks, butchers, and customers or to other animals which they would never interact with in the wild. This may allow for some animals to act

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activities are able to produce an income by selling to vendors all around the world. However, hunters are highly susceptible to encountering infected droplets, water sources, soils, carcasses, and viral airborne pathogens while traveling through the bush. Once they have successfully hunted and killed

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After the novel coronavirus broke out in Wuhan, China in late December 2019, it didn't take long for conspiracy theorists to claim it was manufactured in a nearby lab. Scientific consensus, on the other hand, is that the virus — SARS-CoV-2 — is a zoonotic disease that jumped from animal to human. It

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For months, anyone who said the new SARS coronavirus might have come out of a virology research lab in Wuhan, China was dismissed as a right wing xenophobe But on Tuesday, the narrative flipped. It's no longer a story shared by China bears and President Trump fans. Today, Josh Rogin, who is said to

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combined with unsanitary wildlife markets and the culture of eating exotic mammals in southern China as a "time-bomb". In April 2020, scientist Peter Daszak described a Chinese wildlife market as follows: "it is a bit of shock to go to a wildlife market and see this huge diversity of animals live in

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claimed that there is "enormous evidence" that the coronavirus outbreak originated in a Chinese laboratory. However, Pompeo later distanced himself from the claim, while virologists have stated that available data overwhelmingly suggest that there was no chance of scientific misconduct or negligence

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emerged in January that the viruses were instead artificially created in a laboratory, but these claims were largely rejected by scientists and news outlets as unfounded rumours and conspiracy theories. In April 2020, United States intelligence officials launched examinations into unverified reports

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announced in April 2020 that it was developing as requirements for wet markets in general to open. Other proposals include less homogeneous policies that are specialized for local social, cultural, and financial factors, as well as new proposed rapid assessment tools for monitoring the hygiene and

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The greatest possibility of contracting deadly zoonotic diseases occurs during the bushmeat cooking process. Cooking exotic bushmeat requires sharp knives, steady handwork, and skilled techniques when correctly butchering an animal. Consumers often purchase bushmeat directly from African poachers.

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transmission may happen either from ingesting pathogens or through open wound contact. Indirect contact transmissions occur when humans interact within an infected species' habitat. Humans are often exposed to contaminated soils, plants, and surfaces where bacterial germs are present. Contaminated

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The horrific coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic that we are experiencing, of which we still do not fully understand the likely economic, political, and social global impacts, is linked to wildlife trade. It is imperative that wildlife trade for human consumption is considered a gigantic

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Shiferaw, Miriam L.; Doty, Jeffrey B.; Maghlakelidze, Giorgi; Morgan, Juliette; Khmaladze, Ekaterine; Parkadze, Otar; Donduashvili, Marina; Wemakoy, Emile Okitolonda; Muyembe, Jean-Jacques; Mulumba, Leopold; Malekani, Jean; Kabamba, Joelle; Kanter, Theresa; Boulanger, Linda Lucy; Haile, Abraham;

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The U.S. intelligence community is examining whether the coronavirus that caused the global pandemic emerged accidentally from a Chinese research lab studying diseases in bats Separately, the idea that the virus emerged at an animal market in Wuhan continues to be debated by experts. Dr. Ronald

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Wildlife trade, both legal and illegal and in all jurisdictions, must be abolished. All this must be done with due respect for differently resourced low- and middle-income countries and for the needs of those indigenes who through physical need and customary tradition engage in (non-commodified)

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We found published evidence from cases of serological and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positivity of EVD in non- human mammal, or of EVD-linked mortality, in 28 mammal species: 10 primates, three rodents, one shrew, eight bats, one carnivore, and five

718:, is a zoonotic RNA virus within the filovirus family. It is closely related to the Ebola virus and is transmitted by wild animals to humans. African monkeys and fruit bats are believed to be the main carries of the infectious disease. In 2012 the most recent outbreak occurred in 2960:

Waldman, a former official at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and a public health expert at George Washington University, said the theory has fallen out of favor in some quarters, in part because one of the early infected persons had no connection to the market.

505:, wet markets have been portrayed during the COVID-19 pandemic without distinguishing between general wet markets, live animal wet markets, and wildlife markets, using montages of explicit images from different markets across Asia without identifying locations. 540:

disease that occurs in both humans and animals. It often accumulates in wild animals and is transmitted by close contact within animal trade. It is most commonly found in central and west Africa where it is carried in a number of infected species including

774:, and wild species of the bush are prone to the infection. Wildlife game markets and other exotic animal trade methods continue to spread transmission. These trade operations have introduced dangerous repercussions as the disease becomes more adaptive to 830:

studies have called for disease control intervention measures to be implemented at live animal markets in lieu of complete bans. These include proposals for "standardised global monitoring of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) conditions", which the

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needs to be specific about wildlife markets, such as the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market. Media focus on foreign wet markets has also been blamed for distracting public attention from public health threats, such as local sources of zoonotic diseases.

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were heavily criticized in media outlets as a potential source for the virus. Media reports urging for permanent blanket bans on all wet markets, as opposed to solely live animal markets or wildlife markets, have been criticized for undermining

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The urbanization of new environments in Africa increases the migration patterns of humans. New settlements and tourist attractions near these wildlife habitats bring vulnerable individuals with no disease immunity closer to areas of diseases.

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and believed pathogens were not life-threatening. Researchers found that the pastoral communities were more concerned with keeping cultural practices of producing cooked meals rather than the potential infections harvested from the animals.

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Tsai P, Scott KA, Gonzalez MC, Pappaioanou M, Keusch GT, et al. (National Research Council (US) Committee on Achieving Sustainable Global Capacity for Surveillance and Response to Emerging Diseases of Zoonotic Origin) (2009).

591:, is a highly contagious zoonotic respiratory illness causing extreme breathing difficulties. Factors attributing to widespread dispersal include the destruction of wildlife natural ecosystems, overextended urbanization effects on 2383:...what we do know is that wet markets such as Wuhan, and for that matter Agartala's Golbazar or the thousands such that exist in Asia and Africa allow for easy transmission of viruses and other pathogens from animals to humans. 1247:

Souto, Wedson Medeiros Silva; Barboza, Raynner Rilke Duarte; Fernandes-Ferreira, Hugo; Júnior, Arnaldo José Correia Magalhães; Monteiro, Julio Marcelino; Abi-chacra, Érika de Araújo; Alves, Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega (2018-09-17).

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revealed major gaps in locals knowledge of zoonotic diseases. Individuals in these pastoral communities acknowledged health symptoms commonly found in both humans and animals, however they did not have a synthesized term for

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Annually, 15.8% of human deaths have been associated with dangerous infectious disease outbreaks linked to exotic trafficking. Researchers, zoologists, and environmentalists determine that financially poor countries in

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Ashley S, Brown S, Ledford J, Martin J, Nash AE, Terry A, Tristan T, Warwick C (2014-10-02). "Morbidity and mortality of invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals at a major exotic companion animal wholesaler".

2337: 53:. Exotic wildlife trafficking is a multi-billion dollar industry that involves the removal and shipment of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, and fish all over the world. Traded wild animals are used for 2915: 2436: 2370: 3117: 82:, and certain reptile species are acquired through legal and illegal trade operations in order to continue these historic cultural healing practices. Within the last decade nearly 975 different wild animal 806: 322:

as major health hazards in China and across the world. In March and April 2020, some reports have said that wildlife markets in Asia, Africa, and in general all over the world are prone to health risks.

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practices. Dating back centuries, people from Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and Europe have used animal bones, horns, or organs for their believed healing effects on the human body. Wild

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This means they have no way of knowing whether the wild animal is carrying dangerous zoonotic pathogens. On average people cut themselves 38% of the time when butchering bushmeat, allowing for infected

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threat to both human health and wildlife conservation. Therefore, it has to be completely banned, and the ban strictly enforced, especially in China, Vietnam, Indonesia, and other countries in Asia

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epidemic in recent history, killing a total of 16,000 individuals between 2014 and 2015. Wildlife poachers have the greatest chance of contracting and dispersing this disease at they return from

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Knights hoped China would also play a role to help "countries around the world. It's no good simply banning the trade in China. The same risks are very much out there in Asia as well as Africa."

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can be traced to live animal markets where the potential for zoonotic transmission is greatly increased. In a 2007 study, Chinese scientists identified the presence of SARS-CoV-like viruses in

561:. In an attempt to reduce the rate of disease spread, researchers believe minimizing direct and indirect contact rates between species in wildlife trade markets is the most practical solution. 2470: 195:

that spell potential life-threatening results for human populations if contracted. Researchers believe eliminating the transmission of infectious diseases is not plausible. Instead, creating

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is a rare infectious disease that is likely transmitted to humans by wild animals. The natural reservoirs of Ebola virus are unknown, but possible reservoirs include fruit bats, non-human

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Kurpiers, Laura A.; Schulte-Herbrüggen, Björn; Ejotre, Imran; Reeder, DeeAnn M. (2016). "Bushmeat and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Lessons from Africa". In Angelici, Francesco M. (ed.).

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Most of the attention so far has been focused on the interface between humans and the intermediate host, with fingers of blame being pointed at Chinese wet markets and eating habits,...

678:(SIV), which infects various non-human primate species. Some of these primates affected by SIV are often hunted and trafficked for bushmeat, traditional medicine practices, and for 2989: 794: 3554: 3176: 2242: 1483: 3266: 415:

in Wuhan. although a 2021 WHO investigation concluded that the Huanan market was unlikely to be the origin due to the existence of earlier cases. The Huanan market sold "live

2329: 2404: 2905: 2140: 1051:"Zootherapeutic uses of animals and their parts: an important element of the traditional knowledge of the Tangsa and Wancho of eastern Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India" 86:

groups have been legally and illegally exported out of Africa and imported into areas like China, Japan, Indonesia, the United States, Russia, Europe, and South America.

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the wild animal, they run the risk of blood or bodily fluid transfer from close contact with possible infected species. They're also at an increased risk of harvesting

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systems to monitor all stages of wildlife trade, from sources to markets. Other suggestions include education about proper storage, handling, and cooking of wildlife.

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Olivero, Jesús; Fa, John E.; Real, Raimundo; Farfán, Miguel Ángel; Márquez, Ana Luz; Vargas, J. Mario; Gonzalez, J. Paul; Cunningham, Andrew A.; Nasi, Robert (2017).

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transmissions for reasons like socio-culture livelihood interests, livestock farming, land use methods, globalization influences, and consumption behavior practices.

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Huang, Chaolin; Wang, Yeming; Li, Xingwang; Ren, Lili; Zhao, Jianping; Hu, Yi; Zhang, Li; Fan, Guohui; Xu, Jiuyang; Gu, Xiaoying; Cheng, Zhenshun (24 January 2020).

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Managing the risk of zoonotic diseases includes educating those in the wildlife trade about potential disease hazards. Other ways to manage risk include creating

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People in Africa are exposed to an increased risk of contracting and dispatching life-threatening zoonotic infections. The continent is considered a hot spot for

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Transmission of this virus likely occurs when individuals live closely to infected habitats, exchange bodily liquids, or consume infected animals. West Africa's

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cages on top of each other with a pile of guts that have been pulled out of an animal and thrown on the floor These are perfect places for viruses to spread."

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food transmissions occur when humans eat infected bushmeat, vegetables, fruits, or drink contaminated water. Often these food and water supplies are tainted by

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feeding on infected dead birds. The infection then circulates within the mosquito and is transferred to humans or animals when bitten by the infected insect.

3202: 2938: 2649: 1307: 4051: 2066: 3302: 390: 105: 934: 813:. In April 2021, the World Health Organization called for a total ban on the sale of live animals in food markets in order to prevent future pandemics. 3576: 2773: 2524:

Hui, David S.; I Azhar, Esam; Madani, Tariq A.; Ntoumi, Francine; Kock, Richard; Dar, Osman; Ippolito, Giuseppe; Mchugh, Timothy D.; Memish, Ziad A.;

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secretary general Zhou Jinfeng called in April 2020 for the global closure of wildlife markets due to the potential for zoonotic diseases and risk to

703:, which are thought to originate in northern Africa carry the bacteria and transmit the disease by biting and infecting both humans and wild animals. 4084: 2460: 2221: 738: 4215: 3325: 2308: 607:

Chinese environmentalists, researchers and state media have called for stricter regulation of exotic animal trade in the markets. Medical experts

2191: 2169: 1575: 2839: 2530:"The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health – The latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China" 466:, said animal samples collected from the seafood market had tested negative for the virus, indicating that the market was the site of an early 2034: 121: 3232: 3034: 288:. African women are more likely to contract these dangerous zoonotic pathogens because they are the ones handling and cooking the bushmeat. 1250:"Zootherapeutic uses of wildmeat and associated products in the semiarid region of Brazil: general aspects and challenges for conservation" 802: 745:

within humans. The first outbreak was recorded in Uganda and other areas of West Africa in 1937. Disease transmission is primarily through

347: 1975:"Changing Patterns of Emerging Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife, Domestic Animals, and Humans Linked to Biodiversity Loss and Globalization" 2973: 2279: 770:. The disease is a reoccurring issue in many rural parts of Africa and over 500,000 individuals currently carry the disease. Livestock, 726:. Rising numbers of deforestation, urbanization, and exotic animal trade have increased the likeliness of spreading this viral disease. 506: 3168: 3140: 2497: 1921:"Prioritizing Zoonoses for Global Health Capacity Building-Themes from One Health Zoonotic Disease Workshops in 7 Countries, 2014-2016" 89:

Consuming or owning exotic animals can propose unexpected and dangerous health risks. A number of animals, wild or domesticated, carry

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services is critical for minimizing transmission rates among populations and infected wildlife species involved in trafficking.

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outlets during the first half of 2020 as "ignorant or worse", pointing to sensationalist coverage utilizing graphic images for

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Simarro PP, Cecchi G, Paone M, Franco JR, Diarra A, Ruiz JA, Fèvre EM, Courtin F, Mattioli RC, Jannin JG (November 2010).

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Lipton, Eric; Sanger, David E.; Haberman, Maggie; Shear, Michael D.; Mazzetti, Mark; Barnes, Julian E. (11 April 2020).

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Due to the suspicions that wet markets could have played a role in the emergence of COVID-19, a group of US lawmakers,

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virus can change by genetic reassortment as it travels between different hosts in its range. The presence of different

4220: 2806: 444: 331: 220: 1343: 1308:"Zootherapy: A study from the Northwestern region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan" 1850: 935:"Traditional-Medical Knowledge and Perception of Pangolins (Manis sps) among the Awori People, Southwestern Nigeria" 3172: 381:

outbreaks can be traced to live animal markets where the potential for zoonotic transmission is greatly increased.

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transmissions occur when humans encounter first hand contaminated feces, urine, water sources, or bodily fluids.

3203:"Wet markets are not the problem – focus on the billion-dollar international trade in wild animals, experts say" 1326: 439:

that the virus may have originated from accidental exposure of scientists studying coronaviruses in bats at the

845: 319: 3292: 3887:"The Atlas of human African trypanosomiasis: a contribution to global mapping of neglected tropical diseases" 1523: 1344:"A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ZOOTHERAPEUTIC REMEDIES FROM SELECTED AREAS IN ALBANIA, ITALY, SPAIN AND NEPAL" 757: 723: 435: 132: 71: 956: 3861: 2213: 117: 742: 715: 145: 94: 3665: 2300: 4166: 2161: 4111: 3551:"How did coronavirus break out? Theories abound as researchers race to solve genetic detective story" 1615: 863: 787: 394: 196: 62: 46: 2529: 999:"Animal-based medicines: biological prospection and the sustainable use of zootherapeutic resources" 1509: 857: 632: 537: 90: 4167:"On-site hygiene and biosecurity assessment: A new tool to assess live bird stalls in wet markets" 3012:"Pompeo backs away from theory he and Trump were pushing that coronavirus originated in Wuhan lab" 955:

Da Nóbrega Alves, Rômulo Romeu; Da Silva Vieira, Washington Luiz; Santana, Gindomar Gomes (2008).

3065: 1602:"Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction" 1318: 979: 916: 810: 762: 647: 643: 3970:

Bekele, Abyot; Bekele, Meseret; Tafese, Kasahun; McCollum, Andrea A.; Reynolds, Mary G. (2017).

3503:"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus as an Agent of Emerging and Reemerging Infection" 17: 4210: 4186: 4001: 3918: 3843: 3720: 3532: 3459: 3407: 3297: 3094: 2981: 2686: 2630: 2612: 2569: 2551: 2525: 2074: 2030: 1996: 1950: 1898: 1831: 1813: 1769: 1751: 1709: 1691: 1643: 1535: 1446: 1395: 1289: 1271: 1229: 1211: 1170: 1152: 1113: 1072: 1031: 1023: 908: 700: 494: 485: 400: 176: 101: 50: 4021:"'Shut down those things right away': Calls to close 'wet markets' ramp up pressure on China" 3383: 2271: 4178: 3991: 3983: 3949: 3908: 3898: 3833: 3825: 3710: 3702: 3643: 3522: 3514: 3449: 3441: 3084: 3074: 2939:"U.S. intel community examining whether coronavirus emerged accidentally from a Chinese lab" 2620: 2602: 2559: 2541: 2502: 2040: 2022: 1986: 1940: 1932: 1888: 1880: 1821: 1805: 1759: 1743: 1699: 1683: 1633: 1623: 1543: 1527: 1436: 1426: 1385: 1377: 1279: 1261: 1219: 1201: 1190:"The faunal drugstore: Animal-based remedies used in traditional medicines in Latin America" 1160: 1144: 1103: 1062: 1013: 971: 900: 827: 670: 510: 61:, animal skin clothing accessories, home trophy decorations, privately owned zoos, and for 4143: 3954: 3937: 3330: 3207: 775: 734: 722:, where fifteen individuals contracted the disease and four ultimately died from elevated 695: 297: 2589:"Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China" 2330:"A sea change in China's attitude towards wildlife exploitation may just save the planet" 699:

and is transmitted through open wound contact or exposure to contaminated bodily fluids.

3738: 2874: 1619: 1510:"Wildlife Trade and COVID-19: Towards a Criminology of Anthropogenic Pathogen Spillover" 367:

Unsanitary conditions with different species packed tightly are known to spread disease.

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Due to unhygienic sanitation standards and the connection to the spread of zoonoses and

4085:"Sen. Lindsey Graham, among others, urge global ban of live wildlife markets and trade" 3996: 3971: 3913: 3886: 3838: 3813: 3715: 3690: 3527: 3502: 3454: 3429: 3357: 3089: 3060: 2910: 2843: 2650:"Expert reaction to first clinical data from initial cases of new coronavirus in China" 2625: 2588: 2564: 2045: 1945: 1920: 1893: 1868: 1826: 1793: 1764: 1731: 1704: 1671: 1638: 1601: 1548: 1441: 1414: 1390: 1365: 1284: 1249: 1224: 1189: 1165: 1132: 771: 690: 616: 600: 577: 411:, China due to reports that two-thirds of the initial cases had direct exposure to the 308: 232: 164: 79: 3706: 2607: 1809: 1747: 1687: 248:. Often ticks can be found on the wild animal or in its surrounding wildlife habitat. 4204: 3262: 2363:"Crackdown on wet markets and illegal wildlife trade could prevent the next pandemic" 798: 711: 666: 608: 502: 467: 459: 168: 1322: 1018: 983: 920: 580:

in close proximity makes wildlife markets a high risk environment for such zoonoses.

569: 4182: 4056: 2778: 2774:"Bat soup, dodgy cures and 'diseasology': the spread of coronavirus misinformation" 2465: 592: 180: 872: – Market selling perishable goods, including meat, produce, and food animals 3079: 2026: 904: 235:

due to the high market demand for exotic animals. These individuals partaking in

3762: 3259:"The coronavirus likely came from China's wet markets. They're reopening anyway" 2861:

most likely originated in a bat, possibly before passing through another mammal.

1466: 822: 554: 518: 514: 479: 451: 428: 420: 4139:"WHO calls for ban on sale of live animals in food markets to combat pandemics" 3035:"Pressure grows on China for independent investigation into pandemic's origins" 2840:"Coronavirus Pandemic Linked to Destruction of Wildlife and World's Ecosystems" 2546: 1067: 1050: 998: 3936:

Lee, Tien Ming; Sigouin, Amanda; Pinedo-Vasquez, Miguel; Nasi, Robert (2020).

2593: 1869:"The consequences of human actions on risks for infectious diseases: a review" 1381: 1266: 1148: 1108: 1091: 975: 869: 767: 679: 522: 489: 354: 303: 285: 148:

transmissions occur when individuals are bitten by infected parasites such as

136: 58: 4190: 4108:"What we've got wrong about China's 'wet markets' and their link to COVID-19" 3787: 2985: 2690: 2648:

Keevil, William; Lang, Trudie; Hunter, Paul; Solomon, Tom (24 January 2020).

2616: 2555: 2078: 1817: 1755: 1695: 1539: 1275: 1215: 1156: 1117: 1076: 1049:

Jugli, Salomi; Chakravorty, Jharna; Meyer-Rochow, Victor Benno (2019-06-15).

1027: 3477: 3326:"Mainstream media's racist trope: Blaming COVID-19 on China's "wet markets"" 1628: 860: – Organization and management of preventive measures against pandemics 588: 573: 533: 403:

is yet to be confirmed as of February 2021 and was originally linked to the

241: 192: 4005: 3987: 3922: 3903: 3847: 3724: 3601: 3536: 3463: 3445: 3098: 2634: 2573: 2429:"New Coronavirus 'Won't Be the Last' Outbreak to Move from Animal to Human" 2000: 1954: 1936: 1902: 1835: 1773: 1713: 1647: 1450: 1431: 1399: 1293: 1233: 1174: 1133:"Wildlife trade, consumption and conservation awareness in southwest China" 1035: 912: 3689:

Egbetade AO, Sonibare AO, Meseko CA, Jayeola OA, Otesile EB (2015-10-11).

1991: 1974: 1531: 1206: 3972:"Frameworks for Preventing, Detecting, and Controlling Zoonotic Diseases" 3829: 3691:"Implications of Ebola virus disease on wildlife conservation in Nigeria" 3518: 2942: 2906:"He Could Have Seen What Was Coming: Behind Trump's Failure on the Virus" 2811: 1884: 1366:"Summarizing the evidence on the international trade in illegal wildlife" 746: 651: 315: 262: 257: 236: 208: 153: 75: 54: 3938:"The Harvest of Tropical Wildlife for Bushmeat and Traditional Medicine" 3577:"Wuhan coronavirus another reason to ban China's wildlife trade forever" 30: 2461:"Calls for global ban on wild animal markets amid coronavirus outbreak" 957:"Reptiles used in traditional folk medicine: conservation implications" 636: 612: 358: 338: 172: 3647: 2807:"Twitter bans Zero Hedge after it posts coronavirus conspiracy theory" 866: – Worse effects of disease to populations with no prior exposure 175:

practices, irrigation increases, sexual activity between individuals,

4052:"Ban wildlife markets to avert pandemics, says UN biodiversity chief" 3169:"Why shutting down Chinese 'wet markets' could be a terrible mistake" 2741: 2719:"Wet markets are not wildlife markets, so stop calling for their ban" 2067:"Ban wildlife markets to avert pandemics, says UN biodiversity chief" 1600:

Ceballos, Gerardo; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Raven, Peter H. (June 1, 2020).

1484:"Ban wildlife markets to avert pandemics, says UN biodiversity chief" 719: 558: 542: 424: 204: 3114:"Virus Researchers Cast Doubt On Theory Of Coronavirus Lab Accident" 2974:"Mike Pompeo: 'enormous evidence' coronavirus came from Chinese lab" 760:

or sleeping sickness is caused by a microscopic parasite called the

2243:"Coronavirus expert calls for shut down of Asia's wildlife markets" 1919:

Salyer SJ, Silver R, Simone K, Barton Behravesh C (December 2017).

766:, which is transferred to humans and animals through the bite of a 568: 440: 408: 141: 113: 83: 67: 37: 29: 1415:"Emergence of zoonotic arboviruses by animal trade and migration" 1092:"An overview of international wildlife trade from Southeast Asia" 619:

have also called for the closure of wildlife markets since 2010.

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Colpitts TM, Conway MJ, Montgomery RR, Fikrig E (October 2012).

1606: 416: 245: 157: 149: 2878: 2498:"EXPLAINER: What the WHO coronavirus experts learned in Wuhan" 2432: 2397:"Fact-check: Is Chinese culture to blame for the coronavirus?" 662: 550: 546: 3814:"West Nile Virus: biology, transmission, and human infection" 3233:"Wuhan Is Returning to Life. So Are Its Disputed Wet Markets" 3141:"China Rules Out Animal Market and Lab as Coronavirus Origin" 2272:"Wild Animal Markets Spark Fear in Fight Against Coronavirus" 2021:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 507–551. 4165:

Soon, Jan Mei; Abdul Wahab, Ikarastika Rahayu (2021-09-01).

2875:"Coronavirus: Is there any evidence for lab release theory?" 517:. These depictions have been criticized as exaggerated and 395:

Wet markets in China § Links to the origin of COVID-19

3293:"No, China's fresh food markets did not cause coronavirus" 2133:"Building a factory farmed future, one pandemic at a time" 1794:"Zoonoses and wet markets: beyond technical interventions" 854: – Overview of globalization and disease transmission 674:

have originated in West or Central Africa from strains of

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Other factors for escalated disease transmissions include

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Fujiyama, Emily Wang; Moritsugu, Ken (11 February 2021).

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Petrikova, Ivica; Cole, Jennifer; Farlow, Andrew (2020).

595:, and contact with bacterially contaminated objects. The 318:, critics have grouped live animal markets together with 27:

Health risks associated with the trade in exotic wildlife

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Cages with pangolins and snakes at a wildlife market in

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Karesh WB, Cook RA, Bennett EL, Newcomb J (July 2005).

3629:"Mammalian biogeography and the Ebola virus in Africa" 2730: 2728: 1672:"A call for global monitoring of WASH in wet markets" 3162: 3160: 3158: 215:

Cultural determinants and disease exposure in Africa

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The possibilities for zoonotic disease transmissions

3167:Lynteris, Christos; Fearnley, Lyle (2 March 2020). 1576:"Canberra to push China to ban wildlife meat trade" 1188:Alves, Rômulo RN; Alves, Humberto N. (2011-03-07). 207:may attribute to nearly 44% of these deaths due to 1792:Barnett, Tony; Fournié, Guillaume (January 2021). 1725: 1723: 34:Wildlife poachers assembling tusks for ivory trade 2491: 2489: 2487: 2455: 2453: 2301:"Africa Risks Virus Outbreak From Wildlife Trade" 2192:"China Is Reopening Its Wet Markets. That's Good" 464:Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention 3478:"WHO | SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)" 3415:The Center for Food Security & Public Health 2104:"China's Wet Markets, America's Factory Farming" 1787: 1785: 1783: 3227: 3225: 3112:Brumfiel, Geoff; Kwong, Emily (23 April 2020). 3059:Graham, Rachel L.; Baric, Ralph S. (May 2020). 2937:Dilanian, Ken; Kube, Courtney (16 April 2020). 848: – Hypothetical global-scale disaster risk 823:Wet markets § Disease control intervention 805:biodiversity chief Elizabeth Maruma Mrema, and 191:Exotic wildlife trafficking admits a number of 93:and approximately 75% of wildlife diseases are 3788:"Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever (Marburg HF) | CDC" 3196: 3194: 3010:Hansler, Jennifer; Cole, Devan (17 May 2020). 2679:"Is factory farming to blame for coronavirus?" 2214:"China Could End the Global Trade in Wildlife" 836:biosecurity of live animal stalls in markets. 639:, rodents, shrews, carnivores, and ungulates. 587:(SARS), often referred to as a severe form of 447:rather than a wildlife market. On 3 May 2020, 3430:"Wildlife trade and global disease emergence" 3252: 3250: 3061:"SARS-CoV-2: Combating Coronavirus Emergence" 2528:; Zumla, Alimuddin; Petersen, Eskild (2020). 1732:"COVID-19, wet markets, and planetary health" 1670:Nadimpalli, Maya L; Pickering, Amy J (2020). 665:is a life-threatening virus that attacks the 8: 3291:St. Cavendish, Christopher (11 March 2020). 2737:"China Lab In Focus Of Coronavirus Outbreak" 2721:. Quartz Media, Inc. 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(26 May 2020). 2838:Shield, Charli (16 April 2020). 2190:Fickling, David (3 April 2020). 1471:. National Academies Press (US). 449:United States Secretary of State 346: 330: 4137:Forrest, Adam (13 April 2021). 3695:The Pan African Medical Journal 3257:Samuel, Sigal (15 April 2020). 2992:from the original on 4 May 2020 2805:Kate Gibson (3 February 2020). 2772:Josh Taylor (31 January 2020). 1574:Bonyhady, Nick (4 April 2020). 1019:10.1590/S0001-37652005000100004 413:Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market 405:Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market 110:Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market 18:Wildlife smuggling and zoonoses 4216:Environmental impact by effect 4183:10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108108 4106:Beech, Peter (18 April 2020). 4019:Forgey, Quint (3 April 2020). 3602:"What is Ebola Virus Disease?" 2873:Rincon, Paul (16 April 2020). 997:Costa-Neto, Eraldo M. (2005). 252:Livestock and land use methods 1: 3818:Clinical Microbiology Reviews 3507:Clinical Microbiology Reviews 3201:Boyle, Louise (15 May 2020). 2972:Borger, Julian (2020-05-03). 2677:Spinney, Laura (2020-03-28). 2608:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5 1810:10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30294-1 1748:10.1016/s2542-5196(20)30122-4 1688:10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30204-7 1137:Biodiversity and Conservation 1096:Biodiversity and Conservation 964:Biodiversity and Conservation 676:simian immunodeficiency virus 3976:Emerging Infectious Diseases 3434:Emerging Infectious Diseases 3080:10.1016/j.immuni.2020.04.016 2027:10.1007/978-3-319-22246-2_24 1973:Aguirre AA (December 2017). 1925:Emerging Infectious Diseases 1468:Drivers of Zoonotic Diseases 905:10.1080/10888705.2014.918511 817:Disease control intervention 292:Zoonoses in wildlife markets 100:After the appearance of the 57:consumption, unconventional 1798:The Lancet Planetary Health 1736:The Lancet Planetary Health 1676:The Lancet Planetary Health 693:is caused by the bacterium 445:Wuhan Institute of Virology 4237: 3324:Cho, Joshua (8 May 2020). 2547:10.1016/j.ijid.2020.01.009 2162:"One welfare and Covid-19" 1508:Beirne, Piers (May 2021). 1068:10.1007/s10668-019-00404-6 820: 477: 388: 295: 286:bodily fluid transmissions 3739:"What is HIV? - HIV/AIDS" 2401:Austin American-Statesman 1580:The Sydney Morning Herald 1382:10.1007/s10393-010-0317-y 1267:10.1186/s13002-018-0259-y 1149:10.1007/s10531-008-9358-8 1109:10.1007/s10531-009-9758-4 976:10.1007/s10531-007-9305-0 852:Globalization and disease 833:World Health Organization 782:Prevention and management 739:single stranded RNA virus 525:and "Chinese otherness". 431:" amongst other species. 3581:South China Morning Post 3417:. Iowa State University. 2540:. Elsevier BV: 264–266. 846:Global catastrophic risk 669:. The virus weakens the 399:The exact origin of the 108:have been linked to the 1629:10.1073/pnas.1922686117 1524:Oxford University Press 1419:Parasites & Vectors 1351:Journal of Ethnobiology 1090:Nijman V (2010-04-01). 758:African trypanosomiasis 753:African trypanosomiasis 597:2002–2004 SARS outbreak 434:Alternate theories and 270:Globalization influence 3988:10.3201/eid2313.170601 3904:10.1186/1476-072X-9-57 3446:10.3201/eid1107.050194 3237:Bloomberg Australia-NZ 2469:. London. 2020-01-24. 2166:Sustainable Food Trust 1937:10.3201/eid2313.170418 1432:10.1186/1756-3305-3-35 581: 462:, the director of the 171:of trade, accelerated 118:Elizabeth Maruma Mrema 43: 35: 3666:"Ebola virus disease" 3143:. Wall Street Journal 1207:10.1186/1746-4269-7-9 821:Further information: 743:neurological diseases 716:Marburg virus disease 572: 478:Further information: 389:Further information: 279:Consumption behaviors 256:A study conducted in 244:pathogens carried in 41: 33: 4112:World Economic Forum 3830:10.1128/CMR.00045-12 3519:10.1128/CMR.00023-07 2654:Science Media Centre 2019:Problematic Wildlife 1885:10.3402/iee.v5.30048 1562:subsistence hunting. 864:Virgin soil epidemic 788:disease surveillance 536:is a viral zoonotic 468:superspreading event 63:traditional medicine 47:Wildlife trafficking 2395:Mekelburg, Madlin. 2247:Nine News Australia 1992:10.1093/ilar/ilx035 1620:2020PNAS..11713596C 1614:(24): 13596–13602. 1532:10.1093/bjc/azaa084 858:Pandemic prevention 633:Ebola virus disease 538:double stranded DNA 193:infectious diseases 91:infectious diseases 4221:Wildlife smuggling 3501:Cheng, VC (2007). 2601:(10223): 497–506. 2526:Drosten, Christian 2431:. Goats and Soda. 811:endangered species 763:Trypanosoma brucei 724:hemorrhagic fevers 701:Oriental rat fleas 648:infectious disease 582: 578:intermediate hosts 309:intermediate hosts 211:related diseases. 177:blood transfusions 44: 36: 3866:www.cabdirect.org 3648:10.1111/mam.12074 3608:. 5 November 2019 3298:Los Angeles Times 2036:978-3-319-22245-5 1682:(10): e439–e440. 495:infection control 488:in 2020, Chinese 486:COVID-19 pandemic 401:COVID-19 pandemic 102:COVID-19 pandemic 51:zoonotic diseases 16:(Redirected from 4228: 4195: 4194: 4162: 4156: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4134: 4128: 4127: 4125: 4123: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4080: 4074: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4047: 4041: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4016: 4010: 4009: 3999: 3966: 3960: 3959: 3957: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3916: 3906: 3882: 3876: 3875: 3873: 3872: 3858: 3852: 3851: 3841: 3809: 3803: 3802: 3800: 3799: 3784: 3778: 3777: 3775: 3774: 3759: 3753: 3752: 3750: 3749: 3735: 3729: 3728: 3718: 3686: 3680: 3679: 3677: 3676: 3662: 3656: 3655: 3633: 3624: 3618: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3589: 3588: 3573: 3567: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3547: 3541: 3540: 3530: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3489: 3488: 3474: 3468: 3467: 3457: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3412: 3404: 3398: 3397: 3395: 3394: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3349: 3343: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3288: 3279: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3254: 3245: 3244: 3239:. 8 April 2020. 3229: 3220: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3198: 3189: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3173:The Conversation 3164: 3153: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3136: 3130: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3109: 3103: 3102: 3092: 3082: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3030: 3024: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3007: 3001: 3000: 2998: 2997: 2969: 2963: 2962: 2956: 2954: 2934: 2928: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2870: 2864: 2863: 2857: 2855: 2835: 2829: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2769: 2763: 2762: 2756: 2754: 2732: 2723: 2722: 2715: 2709: 2708: 2703: 2702: 2674: 2665: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2645: 2639: 2638: 2628: 2610: 2584: 2578: 2577: 2567: 2549: 2521: 2515: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2503:Associated Press 2493: 2482: 2481: 2479: 2478: 2457: 2448: 2447: 2445: 2444: 2425: 2416: 2415: 2413: 2412: 2392: 2386: 2385: 2380: 2378: 2359: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2345: 2326: 2320: 2319: 2317: 2316: 2297: 2291: 2290: 2288: 2287: 2268: 2262: 2261: 2259: 2258: 2239: 2233: 2232: 2230: 2229: 2210: 2204: 2203: 2187: 2181: 2180: 2178: 2177: 2158: 2152: 2151: 2149: 2148: 2129: 2123: 2122: 2120: 2119: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2091: 2090: 2062: 2051: 2050: 2048: 2014: 2005: 2004: 1994: 1970: 1959: 1958: 1948: 1916: 1907: 1906: 1896: 1864: 1858: 1857: 1855: 1846: 1840: 1839: 1829: 1789: 1778: 1777: 1767: 1742:(6): e213–e214. 1727: 1718: 1717: 1707: 1667: 1656: 1655: 1641: 1631: 1597: 1591: 1590: 1588: 1586: 1571: 1565: 1564: 1558: 1556: 1551: 1505: 1499: 1498: 1496: 1494: 1479: 1473: 1472: 1461: 1455: 1454: 1444: 1434: 1410: 1404: 1403: 1393: 1361: 1355: 1354: 1348: 1340: 1334: 1333: 1331: 1325:. Archived from 1312: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1287: 1269: 1244: 1238: 1237: 1227: 1209: 1185: 1179: 1178: 1168: 1143:(6): 1493–1516. 1128: 1122: 1121: 1111: 1102:(4): 1101–1114. 1087: 1081: 1080: 1070: 1061:(5): 4699–4734. 1046: 1040: 1039: 1021: 1003: 994: 988: 987: 970:(8): 2037–2049. 961: 952: 946: 945: 939: 931: 925: 924: 887: 828:Planetary health 682:trade purposes. 671:white blood cell 511:mainstream media 350: 334: 221:emerging disease 197:health screening 152:or insects like 21: 4236: 4235: 4231: 4230: 4229: 4227: 4226: 4225: 4201: 4200: 4199: 4198: 4164: 4163: 4159: 4149: 4147: 4144:The Independent 4136: 4135: 4131: 4121: 4119: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4090: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4077: 4067: 4065: 4049: 4048: 4044: 4034: 4032: 4018: 4017: 4013: 3968: 3967: 3963: 3935: 3934: 3930: 3884: 3883: 3879: 3870: 3868: 3860: 3859: 3855: 3811: 3810: 3806: 3797: 3795: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3772: 3770: 3761: 3760: 3756: 3747: 3745: 3737: 3736: 3732: 3701:(Suppl 1): 16. 3688: 3687: 3683: 3674: 3672: 3664: 3663: 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776:drug resistance 755: 741:that can cause 735:West Nile virus 732: 730:West Nile virus 714:, which causes 709: 696:Yersinia pestis 688: 660: 630: 625: 567: 531: 482: 476: 397: 387: 376: 374:Avian influenza 371: 370: 369: 368: 364: 363: 362: 351: 343: 342: 335: 320:factory farming 300: 294: 281: 272: 254: 242:arthropod-borne 229: 217: 189: 130: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4234: 4232: 4224: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4203: 4202: 4197: 4196: 4157: 4129: 4098: 4075: 4042: 4011: 3961: 3928: 3877: 3853: 3804: 3779: 3754: 3743:www.hiv.va.gov 3730: 3681: 3657: 3619: 3593: 3568: 3542: 3493: 3469: 3420: 3399: 3375: 3358:Foreign Policy 3344: 3316: 3280: 3246: 3221: 3190: 3154: 3131: 3104: 3073:(5): 734–736. 3051: 3039:Science | AAAS 3025: 3002: 2964: 2929: 2911:New York Times 2896: 2865: 2844:Deutsche Welle 2830: 2797: 2764: 2724: 2710: 2666: 2640: 2579: 2516: 2483: 2449: 2435:. 2020-02-05. 2417: 2387: 2369:. 2020-03-25. 2367:Mongabay India 2354: 2336:. 2020-03-02. 2334:Daily Maverick 2321: 2307:. 2020-02-28. 2292: 2263: 2234: 2220:. 2020-03-26. 2205: 2182: 2153: 2124: 2110:. 2020-04-09. 2095: 2052: 2035: 2006: 1985:(3): 315–318. 1960: 1908: 1859: 1841: 1779: 1719: 1657: 1592: 1566: 1500: 1474: 1456: 1405: 1356: 1335: 1332:on 2019-02-20. 1299: 1239: 1180: 1123: 1082: 1041: 989: 947: 926: 881: 880: 878: 875: 874: 873: 867: 861: 855: 849: 841: 838: 818: 815: 783: 780: 754: 751: 731: 728: 708: 705: 691:Bubonic plague 687: 686:Bubonic plague 684: 659: 656: 629: 626: 624: 623:Other zoonoses 621: 617:Yuen Kwok-yung 601:horseshoe bats 566: 563: 530: 527: 475: 474:Media coverage 472: 436:misinformation 386: 383: 379:H5N1 avian flu 375: 372: 366: 365: 352: 345: 344: 336: 329: 328: 327: 326: 325: 293: 290: 280: 277: 271: 268: 253: 250: 233:wildlife trade 228: 225: 216: 213: 188: 185: 165:climate change 133:Direct contact 129: 126: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4233: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4208: 4206: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4161: 4158: 4146: 4145: 4140: 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