616:
456:, Germany. Stein's fortepianos had (what we, or Cristofori, would call) "backwards" hammers, with the striking end closer to the player than the hinged end. This action came to be called the "Viennese" action, and was widely used in Vienna, even on pianos up to the mid 19th century. The Viennese action was simpler than the Cristofori action, and very sensitive to the player's touch. According to Edwin M. Ripin (see references below), the force needed to depress a key on a Viennese fortepiano was only about a fourth of what it is on a modern piano, and the descent of the key only about half as much. Thus playing the Viennese fortepiano involved nothing like the athleticism exercised by modern piano virtuosos, but did require exquisite sensitivity of touch.
39:
574:. Starting in the middle to late 1760s, Zumpe made inexpensive square pianos that had a very simple action, lacking an escapement, (sometimes known as the "old man's head"). Although hardly a technological advancement in the fortepiano, Zumpe's instruments proved very popular, being imitated outside England, and playing a major role in the displacement of the harpsichord by the fortepiano. The square pianos were also the medium of the first public performances on the instrument in the 1760s, notably by
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498:, a friend of Mozart, who built instruments with a somewhat more powerful sound than Stein's. Although Mozart very much admired the Stein fortepianos, as the 1777 letter mentioned above makes clear, his own piano was a Walter. Haydn also owned a Walter piano, and even Beethoven expressed a wish to buy one. The fortepianos of Stein and Walter are widely used today as models for the construction of new instruments, discussed below. Still another important builder in that period was
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877:"A frequent initial reaction to the sound of the fortepiano is that it is less beautiful than that of a fine modern concert grand piano. I believe that such a reaction will usually be changed if the player listens to good recordings. The clear sound and relatively short sustain of the fortepiano tends to favor the special elements of style in the music of Haydn and Mozart. The sound is different but not inferior." (Howland Auchincloss)
601:, with an escapement and check, enabled a louder, more robust sound than the Viennese one, though it required deeper touch and was less sensitive. The early English grand pianos by those builders physically resembled Shudi harpsichords, being very imposing, with elegant, restrained veneer work on the exterior. Unlike contemporary Viennese instruments, English grand fortepianos had three strings per note, rather than two.
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666:, including a revival of interest in the fortepiano. Old instruments were restored, and many new ones were built along the lines of the old. Fortepiano kits also became available. The ability of builders to recreate the fortepiano drew on the accumulating expertise of the builders who were making harpsichords of historical design; for instance fortepiano pioneer
169:-like strings. It has a much lighter case construction than the modern piano and, except for later examples of the early nineteenth century (already evolving towards the modern piano), it has no metal frame or bracing. The action and hammers are lighter, giving rise to a much lighter touch, which in well-constructed fortepianos is also very expressive.
874:"Although I am a lover of performances on authentic instruments the fortepiano was one of the least successful instruments and the most deserving of improvement. I am not always comfortable with the sound made by many fortepianos and however fine a performance may be I find it difficult at times to get past the often unpleasant sound." (Michael Cookson)
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produced a very weak tone. Cristofori's instruments instead used thicker, tenser strings, mounted on a frame considerably more robust than that of contemporary harpsichords. As with virtually all later pianos, in
Cristofori's instruments the hammers struck more than one string at a time; Cristofori used pairs of strings throughout the range.
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635:, a noted piano virtuoso active in London in the 1790s, developed pianos that gradually increased the range to six octaves. Dussek was one of the first pianists to receive a 5½ foot piano and, in 1793, he wrote the first work for piano "with extra keys", a piano concert (C 97). The firm shipped a piano to
349:. That publication was an isolated phenomenon, and James Parakilas conjectures that the publication was meant as an honor for the composer on the part of his royal patrons. Certainly there could have been no commercial market for fortepiano music while the instrument continued to be an exotic specimen.
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Cristofori's instrument spread quite slowly at first, probably because, being more elaborate and harder to build than a harpsichord, it was very expensive. For a time, the piano was the instrument of royalty, with
Cristofori-built or -styled instruments played in the courts of Portugal and Spain.
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Cristofori is perhaps best admired today for his ingenious piano action, which in some ways was more subtle and effective than that of many later instruments. However, other innovations were also needed to make the piano possible. Merely attaching the
Cristofori action to a harpsichord would have
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Fortepianos also tend to have quite different tone quality in their different registers – slightly buzzing in the bass, "tinkling" in the high treble, and more rounded (closest to the modern piano) in the mid range. In comparison, modern pianos are rather more uniform in tone through their range.
487:. The two were friends of Beethoven, and one of the composer's pianos was a Streicher. Later on, in the early 19th century, more robust instruments, with greater range, were built in Vienna, by (for example) the Streicher firm, which continued through two more generations of Streichers. Composer
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around 1736, but later instruments encountered by Bach in his Berlin visit of 1747 apparently met with the composer's approval. It has been conjectured that the improvement in
Silbermann's instruments resulted from his having seen an actual Cristofori piano, rather than merely reading Scipione
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Stein put the wood used in his instruments through a very severe weathering process, generating cracks in the wood, into which he would insert wedges. That gave his instruments a considerable longevity, on which Mozart commented, and several instruments survive today.
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into a piano, the mechanism by which the hammers are made to strike fewer than the maximum number of strings, for which
Cristofori used a hand stop. It is not clear whether the modern soft pedal descends directly from Cristofori's work or arose independently.
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It appears that the fortepiano did not achieve full popularity until the 1760s, from which time the first records of public performances on the instrument are dated, and when music described as being for the fortepiano was first widely published.
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Marshall (2003, 20) describes these qualities thus: "the top notes are dry and short sustaining, the middle register more vocal, and basses reedy. Whether or not built-in timbre was intentional, it tickles the ear, infusing the music with
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Ripin, Edwin M., Stewart
Pollens, Philip R. Belt, Maribel Meisel, Alfons Huber, Michael Cole, Gert Hecher, Beryl Kenyon De Pascual, Cynthia Adams Hoover, Cyril Ehrlich, And Edwin M. Good (2001). "Pianoforte I: History of the Instrument".
884:'s patron Queen Maria Barbara of Spain makes a gorgeous sound. Yes it can be metallic and subdued in climaxes but it has a marvellous delicacy and, especially in the expressive sonatas, a profoundly beautiful sound." (Gary Higginson)
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Like the modern piano, the fortepiano can vary the sound volume of each note, depending on the player's touch. The tone of the fortepiano is quite different from that of the modern piano, however, being softer, with less
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does not record this usage, noting only that "fortepiano" is "an early name of the pianoforte". During the age of the fortepiano, "fortepiano" and "pianoforte" were used interchangeably, as the OED's attestations show.
689:
The reintroduction of the fortepiano has permitted performance of 18th- and early 19th-century music on the instruments for which it was written, yielding new insights into this music (for detailed discussion, see
404:, which removes the dampers from all the strings at once, permitting them to vibrate freely. Silbermann's device was only a hand stop, and so could only be changed during a pause in the music. Throughout the
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of Venice. The article included a diagram of the action, the core of
Cristofori's invention. That article was republished 1719 in a volume of Maffei's work, and then in a German translation (1725) in
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reflect a gradually expanding range; his last piano compositions are for an instrument of about six and a half octaves. The range of most modern pianos, attained in the 19th century, is 7⅓ octaves.
1550:
Scipione Maffei, Articolo IX. “Nuova invenzione d’un
Gravecembalo col piano e forte; aggiunte alcune considerazioni sopra gli strumenti musicali”. Gionale De’ Letterati d’Italia, vol. V. pp. 144-159
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to designate the same instrument. Thus, usages like "Cristofori invented the piano" or "Mozart's piano concertos" are currently common and would probably be considered acceptable by most musicians.
420:, the device that permits the hammer to fall to rest position even when the key has been depressed. Such instruments were the subject of criticism, particularly in a widely quoted 1777 letter from
1026:, who lived in the age of the fortepiano and herself played the instrument, used "pianoforte" (also: "piano-forte", "piano forte") for the many occurrences of the instrument in her writings.
995:"Fortepiano" is Italian for "loud-soft", just as the formal name for the modern piano, "pianoforte", is "soft-loud". Both are abbreviations of Cristofori's original name for his invention:
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People's opinions about the sound of the fortepiano vary widely, both from person to person and from instrument to instrument. Here are three representative opinions about fortepianos:
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family (who were
Cristofori's patrons), dated 1700. Cristofori continued to develop the instrument until the 1720s, the time from which the surviving three Cristofori instruments date.
149:. The earlier fortepiano became obsolete and was absent from the musical scene for many decades. In the later 20th century, the fortepiano was revived, following the rise of interest in
1601:
502:(1782–1851), who made Beethoven's last piano. Graf was one of the first Viennese makers to build pianos in quantity, as a large business enterprise. His instruments were played by
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rear guide, projects from the end of the key, works in a groove to keep the key steady, 4) hammer, 5) whalebone jack, called the 'mopstick', 6) damper, 7) whalebone damper spring
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built three fortepianos. However, that attempted revival of the instrument was evidently several decades ahead of its time, and did not lead to its widespread adoption.
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of builder Gerard
Tuinman include sound files of three of his Anton Walter replicas, illustrating the evolution of fortepiano sound during the career of this builder.
209:
1498:
558:
Zumpe's, or Masons, action drawn from the instrument of 1766. 1) key, 2) jack, a wire with leather stud on top, known by the workmen as the "old man's head", 3)
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in 1700 up to the early 19th century. Most typically, however, it is used to refer to the mid-18th to early-19th century instruments, for which composers of the
615:
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is used in contexts where it is important to make the precise identity of the instrument clear, as in (for instance) "a fortepiano recital by Malcolm Bilson".
1825:
880:"This reproduction of a 1730 Cristofori – the greatest of all makers and often the most underrated – by Denzil Wraight based on one made for
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1214:
408:, even when the more flexible knee levers or pedals had been installed, the lifting of all the dampers was used primarily as a coloristic device.
210:
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The fortepiano builders who followed Silbermann introduced actions that were simpler than the Cristofori action, even to the point of lacking an
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accents tend to stand out more than on the modern piano, because they differ from softer notes in timbre as well as volume, and decay rapidly.
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From the late 18th century, the fortepiano underwent extensive technological development and evolved into the modern piano (for details, see
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Starting in Beethoven's time, the fortepiano began a period of steady evolution, culminating in the late 19th century with the modern
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319:. The latter publication was perhaps the triggering event in the spread of the fortepiano to German-speaking countries (see below).
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82:
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O'Donnell, Peter S. (1996) "Philip Belt - fortepiano maker," Iowa City Early Keyboard Newsletter, October issue. Posted on line at
694:). More and more music schools offer courses of study in the fortepiano. There are several fortepiano competitions, including the
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August, 1887. Litzmann, Berthold, 1906. Clara Schumann, ein Künstlerleben. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, vol 3, pp.493–94.
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in Germany, began to make pianos based on Cristofori's design around 1730. (His previous experience had been in building
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John Broadwood married the master's daughter (Barbara Shudi, 1769) and ultimately took over and renamed the Shudi firm.
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Maffei's article. The piano action Maffei described does not match that found in surviving 18th-century instruments.
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674:, a prominent builder of historical harpsichords. Other builders also took up fortepiano construction, including
570:, a maker who had immigrated from Germany and worked for a while in the workshop of the great harpsichord maker
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A number of modern harpsichordists and pianists have achieved distinction in fortepiano performance, including
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Giraffes, black dragons, and other pianos: a technological history from Cristofori to the modern concert grand
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122:. In principle, the word "fortepiano" can designate any piano dating from the invention of the instrument by
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The Pianofortes of Bartolomeo Cristofori, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The use of "fortepiano" to refer specifically to early pianos appears to be recent. Even the authoritative
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of modern pianos, but they were not always pedals; sometimes hand stops or knee levers were used instead.
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One of the most distinguished fortepiano builders in the era following Silbermann was one of his pupils,
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1359:. By Chopin, Frédéric, 1810-1849; Voynich, E. L. (Ethel Lillian), 1864-1960; Opienski, Henryk, 1870-1942
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who brought the construction of fortepianos to the German-speaking nations. Silbermann, who worked in
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Conrad Graf, Echtheitsbestätigung für den Flügel Ludwig van Beethovens, Wien, 26. Juni 1849, Autograph
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2007:
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627:(which survives to this day) was an important innovator in the evolution of the fortepiano into the
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the Sweelinck Collection at Museum geelvinck Hinlopen Huis in Amsterdam: over 80 historic pianos
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Cristofori's invention attracted public attention as the result of a journal article written by
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is somewhat specialist in its connotations, and does not preclude using the more general term
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1525:"SCARLATTI Sonatas Nicholson CAPRICCIO 67112 [GH]: Classical CD Reviews- March 2005"
1463:"Deepwater Horizon, Crisis in Six Scenes, Melvyn Tan, Maria Semple, Front Row - BBC Radio 4"
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651:). The older type of instrument eventually ceased to be made. In the late 19th century, the
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John A. Rice, "Stein's 'Favorite Instrument': A Vis-à-vis Piano-Harpsichord in Naples"
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Stein's fortepiano business was carried on in Vienna with distinction by his daughter
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1426:. Encyclopedia of keyboard instruments. Vol. 2. Taylor and Francis. p. 114.
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Fortepiano by Johann Andreas Stein (Augsburg, 1775) – Berlin, Musikinstrumentenmuseum
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1481:"HAYDN Sonatas Staier DHM 82876 67376 2[MC]: Classical CD Reviews- May 2005"
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Adlam, Derek (2003). Palmieri, Robert; Palmieri, Margaret W.; Kipnis, Igor (eds.).
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This article is about the early version of the piano. For the musical dynamic, see
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wrote his piano music for instruments of about five octaves. The piano works of
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1981:
1907:
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Ludwig van Beethoven, Brief an Nikolaus Zmeskall, Wien, November 1802, Autograph
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In the second half of the 20th century, a great upsurge of interest occurred in
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284:. The first reliable record of his invention appears in the inventory of the
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10-minute video crash course introduction to the Viennese 5-octave fortepiano
597:, two of Shudi's workmen, produced a more advanced action than Zumpe's. That
1986:
1887:
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139:
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The first music specifically written for piano dates from this period: the
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An 1810 Broadwood grand, kept in the Musical Instrument Museum in Brussels
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1949:
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923: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1192:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 281.
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Geelvinck Muziek Musea | Piano's met karakter, muziek met een verhaal
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Photos of historical pianos and their parts / discussion in the forum
1438:"I Międzynarodowy Konkurs Chopinowski na Instrumentach Historycznych"
518:
285:
173:
135:
1759:
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Silbermann is credited with the invention of the forerunner of the
381:.) Like Cristofori, Silbermann had royal support, in his case from
153:. Fortepianos are built for that purpose, in specialist workshops.
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Images of fortepianos in the Abell Gallery, National Music Museum
1579:(Fourth ed.). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
1499:"PMI : Products : Historic Keyboards Kontakt 16-bit CD"
1411:. Los Angeles: University of Southern California. pp. 53–54.
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spent two years early in his career working as an apprentice for
1702:
1807:
1764:
1163:"Neupert Fortepiano after Gottfried Silbermann (Freiberg 1747)"
331:. One of the first private individuals to own a piano was the
1787:
1382:
892:
32:
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1650:
1628:
1409:
A Biography and Thematic Catalog of the works of J.L. Dussek
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Marshall, Robert (2003) 18th Century Piano Music, Routledge.
428:, but were simple to make and were widely incorporated into
195:
Fortepianos from the start often had devices similar to the
1047:"Italian piano maker sees craft threatened with extinction"
1780:
1691:
Photo and discussion of the action of Viennese fortepianos
1645:, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Also in
1623:, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Also in
700:
International Chopin Competition on Chopin era instruments
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The English fortepiano had a humble origin in the work of
467:
Fortepiano by Conrad Graf in the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen,
1705:, from the Ira F. Brilliant Center for Beethoven Studies
1751:
Cornell University Fortepianos including Broadwood 1827
1697:
One of Arnold Dolmetsch's late 19th century fortepianos
1112:
Piano roles: three hundred years of life with the piano
1041:
1039:
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Cristofori was also the first to incorporate a form of
1755:
Fortepianos in the Museum of the University of Leipzig
176:
at the time of its invention and gradually increased.
1437:
392:
Silbermann's instruments were famously criticized by
338:, who inherited one from Maria Barbara on her death.
1567:, Stanford, Calif. : Stanford University Press.
1190:
Bartolomeo Cristofori and the invention of the piano
101:
Fortepiano by Paul McNulty after Walter & Sohn,
2186:
2165:
2130:
2092:
2059:
2031:
1995:
1845:
1114:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 19.
639:in Vienna, which the composer evidently treasured.
268:
in New York City. It is the oldest surviving piano.
1572:
1703:Image and discussion of 1795 Dulcken fortepiano
1643:The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
1621:The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
1776:More information on early keyboard instruments
1771:Modern fortepiano builder Paul McNulty website
26:For the modern version of the instrument, see
1819:
8:
1794:Radbon Fortepiano Collection c. 1760 to 1860
1311:"Permanent Exhibition: Haydnhaus Eisenstadt"
1077:Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra & Chorale
1731:Piano by Ferdinand Hofmann, Vienna, c. 1790
1105:
1103:
172:The range of the fortepiano was about four
1826:
1812:
1804:
1736:Piano by Johann Schmidt, Salzburg, c. 1790
1619:Ripin, Edwin M. (2001). "Fortepiano (i)".
1610:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
521:during the era of the fortepiano included
983:Learn how and when to remove this message
83:Learn how and when to remove this message
614:
553:
46:This article includes a list of general
1649:, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 19 June 2008),
1627:, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 19 June 2008),
1280:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.29863
1227:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.26631
1035:
494:Another important Viennese builder was
264:A 1720 fortepiano by Cristofori in the
1575:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music
1123:
1121:
389:, who bought many of his instruments.
191:Danilo Mascetti, fortepiano specialist
1741:Piano by Joseph Böhm, Vienna, c. 1820
1613:Ripin, Edwin M. (1986) "Piano", 1986
1053:. Agence France-Presse. 14 April 2021
692:Piano history and musical performance
113:
7:
999:, "harpsichord with soft and loud".
921:adding citations to reliable sources
631:. Broadwood, in collaboration with
491:also preferred pianos by Streicher.
327:, who was the pupil of the composer
1726:Piano by Conrad Graf, Vienna, 1838
1571:Kennedy, Michael (1996). "Piano".
52:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
1129:"The Gottfried Silbermann Legacy"
517:Prominent piano makers among the
151:historically informed performance
1670:
1372:. Cornell University Press, 1987
897:
37:
1693:, from Carey Beebe Harpsichords
1215:"Stein, Johann (Georg) Andreas"
908:needs additional citations for
1721:The Metropolitan Museum of Art
997:gravicembalo col piano e forte
309:Giornale de'letterati d'Italia
272:The piano was invented by the
1:
710:Modern fortepiano specialists
102:
325:Queen Maria Barbara of Spain
21:Fortepiano (musical dynamic)
2220:Italian musical instruments
1383:"John Broadwood & Sons"
1370:The Weimar years, 1848-1861
412:Viennese school of builders
165:-covered hammers and thin,
142:, wrote their piano music.
2251:
1711:, Vermillion, South Dakota
1529:Musicweb-international.com
1485:Musicweb-international.com
1368:Alan Walker, Franz Liszt:
856:Katia and Marielle Labèque
608:
343:Sonate da cimbalo di piano
266:Metropolitan Museum of Art
253:
25:
18:
16:Early version of the piano
2215:Early musical instruments
1765:fortepiano – photoarchive
1719:Other historic pianos at
1387:John Broadwood & Sons
1268:"Walter, (Gabriel) Anton"
1266:Latcham, Michael (2001).
1213:Latcham, Michael (2001).
1188:Pollens, Stewart (2017).
1110:Parakilas, James (1999).
1019:Oxford English Dictionary
854:, Kristian Bezuidenhout,
812:Costantino Mastroprimiano
582:Backers/Broadwood/Stodart
483:, along with her husband
222:François-Adrien Boieldieu
1606:Pollens, Stewart (1995)
1595:18th Century Piano Music
1593:Marshall, Robert (2003)
1424:Early piano: replication
643:Obsolescence and revival
485:Johann Andreas Streicher
224:, played on a fortepiano
2145:Piano Technicians Guild
1699:, from Dolmetsch Online
1615:Encyclopædia Britannica
704:Warsaw Chopin Institute
533:’s favorite maker) and
115:[ˌfɔrteˈpjaːno]
67:more precise citations.
2230:Orchestral instruments
1563:Good, Edwin M. (1982)
620:
563:
471:
445:
357:Silbermann fortepianos
323:Several were owned by
307:and published 1711 in
269:
225:
192:
106:
1651:(subscription access)
1629:(subscription access)
1407:Craw, Howard (1964).
625:The Broadwood company
618:
576:Johann Christian Bach
557:
466:
443:
394:Johann Sebastian Bach
278:Bartolomeo Cristofori
263:
256:Bartolomeo Cristofori
213:
190:
124:Bartolomeo Cristofori
100:
2166:Amplifiers, speakers
2008:Generalized keyboard
1839:keyboard instruments
1760:Cobbe Collection, UK
1608:The Early Pianoforte
917:improve this article
846:, Natalia Valentin,
794:, Morgane Le Corre,
599:English grand action
450:Johann Andreas Stein
363:Gottfried Silbermann
2013:Isomorphic keyboard
2003:Enharmonic keyboard
1893:Electronic keyboard
1656:16 May 2008 at the
1634:16 May 2008 at the
889:Etymology and usage
836:Viviana Sofronitsky
792:Trudelies Leonhardt
716:Susan Alexander-Max
702:, organized by the
633:Jan Ladislav Dussek
383:Frederick the Great
217:Le calife de Bagdad
161:The fortepiano has
2235:String instruments
2173:Keyboard amplifier
2093:Piano construction
1647:Grove Music Online
1625:Grove Music Online
1541:Kennedy 1996, 560.
1272:Grove Music Online
1219:Grove Music Online
784:Geoffrey Lancaster
664:period instruments
621:
564:
481:Nannette Streicher
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329:Domenico Scarlatti
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107:
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1236:978-1-56159-263-0
1199:978-1-107-09657-8
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860:Vladimir Feltsman
848:Jos van Immerseel
776:Jenny Soonjin Kim
720:Paul Badura-Skoda
696:MAfestival Brugge
678:, Rodney Regier,
347:Lodovico Giustini
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768:Christoph Hammer
752:Ursula Dütschler
740:Wolfgang Brunner
732:Ronald Brautigam
676:Margaret F. Hood
657:Arnold Dolmetsch
587:Americus Backers
545:English builders
452:, who worked in
313:Johann Mattheson
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1991:
1972:Piano accordion
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832:David Schrader
828:Trevor Pinnock
800:Alexei Lubimov
760:Richard Fuller
736:David Breitman
728:Hendrik Bouman
724:Malcolm Bilson
711:
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595:Robert Stodart
591:John Broadwood
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568:Johannes Zumpe
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541:’s favorite).
476:
475:Other builders
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317:Critica Musica
254:Main article:
251:
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973:February 2023
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934: –
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906:This section
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430:square pianos
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406:Classical era
403:
402:sustain pedal
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73:February 2019
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2023:Short octave
1903:Harmonichord
1897:
1678:Music portal
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1597:, Routledge.
1594:
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1507:. Retrieved
1503:the original
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1457:
1445:. Retrieved
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1408:
1402:
1392:16 September
1390:. Retrieved
1377:
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1341:
1330:
1318:. Retrieved
1315:haydnhaus.at
1314:
1305:
1293:. Retrieved
1271:
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1240:. Retrieved
1218:
1208:
1189:
1183:
1171:. Retrieved
1167:the original
1157:
1148:
1136:. Retrieved
1132:
1111:
1092:
1080:. Retrieved
1076:
1073:"Fortepiano"
1067:
1055:. Retrieved
1051:france24.com
1050:
1016:
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1007:
1003:
1001:
996:
994:
979:
970:
960:
953:
946:
939:
932:"Fortepiano"
927:
915:Please help
910:verification
907:
869:
804:Steven Lubin
796:Robert Levin
780:Piet Kuijken
713:
688:
684:Paul McNulty
661:
646:
622:
598:
585:
572:Burkat Shudi
565:
516:
496:Anton Walter
493:
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415:
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375:harpsichords
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316:
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194:
171:
160:
157:Construction
144:
118:is an early
110:
108:
94:
79:
70:
51:
2132:Maintenance
2105:Innovations
2051:Split sharp
2041:Frequencies
1982:Synthesizer
1908:Harpsichord
1846:Instruments
1024:Jane Austen
816:Zvi Meniker
772:Robert Hill
744:Gary Cooper
680:Chris Maene
668:Philip Belt
653:early music
550:Zumpe/Shudi
508:Mendelssohn
500:Conrad Graf
379:clavichords
274:harpsichord
167:harpsichord
65:introducing
2209:Categories
2069:Expression
1938:Reed organ
1933:Pipe organ
1898:Fortepiano
1878:Clavichord
1138:6 December
1057:5 February
1030:References
1012:Fortepiano
1004:fortepiano
943:newspapers
844:Melvyn Tan
748:Jörg Demus
611:Finchcocks
609:See also:
418:escapement
345:(1732) by
297:soft pedal
250:Cristofori
220:(1809) by
130:, such as
111:fortepiano
48:references
2100:Acoustics
1888:Claviharp
1002:The term
882:Scarlatti
637:Beethoven
605:Broadwood
560:whalebone
535:Boisselot
336:Farinelli
235:Sforzando
182:Beethoven
140:Beethoven
1987:Virginal
1918:Melodica
1863:Carillon
1858:Calliope
1654:Archived
1632:Archived
1442:iccpi.eu
866:Opinions
698:and the
655:pioneer
512:Schumann
469:Mannheim
454:Augsburg
367:Freiberg
333:castrato
282:Florence
2115:Aliquot
2079:Sustain
1996:Layouts
1950:Orphica
1868:Celesta
1835:Musical
1788:website
1558:Sources
1447:19 June
1320:19 June
1295:19 June
1242:19 June
1173:26 June
1097:color."
1082:25 June
957:scholar
589:, with
424:to his
387:Prussia
361:It was
245:History
231:sustain
174:octaves
163:leather
61:improve
2155:Wrench
2150:Tuning
2140:Action
2110:Wiring
2061:Pedals
1977:Spinet
1913:Keytar
1583:
1509:5 June
1286:
1233:
1196:
959:
952:
945:
938:
930:
682:, and
531:Chopin
527:Pleyel
519:French
504:Chopin
426:father
422:Mozart
377:, and
371:organs
286:Medici
276:maker
197:pedals
178:Mozart
136:Mozart
50:, but
2225:Piano
2120:Cross
1955:Piano
1923:Organ
1873:Chime
1008:piano
964:JSTOR
950:books
649:Piano
629:piano
539:Liszt
523:Erard
436:Stein
203:Sound
147:grand
132:Haydn
120:piano
28:Piano
2074:Soft
2033:Keys
1837:and
1786:The
1581:ISBN
1511:2005
1449:2021
1394:2019
1322:2021
1297:2021
1284:ISBN
1244:2021
1231:ISBN
1194:ISBN
1175:2014
1140:2009
1084:2020
1059:2022
936:news
593:and
510:and
105:1805
1467:BBC
1276:doi
1223:doi
919:by
385:of
315:'s
280:in
2211::
1527:.
1483:.
1465:.
1440:.
1385:.
1313:.
1282:.
1274:.
1270:.
1229:.
1221:.
1217:.
1131:.
1120:^
1102:^
1075:.
1049:.
1038:^
862:.
850:,
842:,
838:,
834:,
830:,
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