Iron ore - Knowledge

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phosphorus, the harder the iron becomes and the more it can be hardened by hammering. Modern steel makers can increase hardness by as much as 30%, without sacrificing shock resistance by maintaining phosphorus levels between 0.07 and 0.12%. It also increases the depth of hardening due to quenching, but at the same time also decreases the solubility of carbon in iron at high temperatures. This would decrease its usefulness in making blister steel (cementation), where the speed and amount of carbon absorption is the overriding consideration.

1992:(Al) are present in many ores including iron ore, sand, and some limestones. The former can be removed by washing the ore prior to smelting. Until the introduction of brick-lined furnaces, the amount of aluminium contamination was small enough that it did not have an effect on either the iron or slag. However, when brick began to be used for hearths and the interior of blast furnaces, the amount of aluminium contamination increased dramatically. This was due to the erosion of the furnace lining by the liquid slag. 438: 37: 1897:

blast furnace more efficient. Others are added because they make the iron more fluid, harder, or give it some other desirable quality. The choice of ore, fuel, and flux determines how the slag behaves and the operational characteristics of the iron produced. Ideally, iron ore contains only iron and oxygen. In reality, this is rarely the case. Typically, iron ore contains a host of elements which are often unwanted in modern steel.

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is achieved at a concentration of 10.2%. For foundry work Turner felt the ideal iron had 0.2–0.55% phosphorus. The resulting iron filled molds with fewer voids and also shrank less. In the 19th century some producers of decorative cast iron used iron with up to 5% phosphorus. The extreme fluidity allowed them to make very complex and delicate castings, but they could not be weight-bearing, as they had no strength.

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to shock at room temperature. A nail that shatters when hit with a hammer or a carriage wheel that breaks when it hit a rock would not sell well. High enough concentrations of phosphorus render any iron unusable. The effects of cold shortness are magnified by temperature. Thus, a piece of iron that is perfectly serviceable in summer might become extremely brittle in winter. There is some evidence that during the

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tons; 7,700,000 short tons) was exported, and 43,100,000 t (42,400,000 long tons; 47,500,000 short tons) of iron ore was exported at a value of $ 4.6 billion. Of the iron ore exported, 38.5% of the volume was iron ore pellets with a value of $ 2.3 billion, and 61.5% was iron ore concentrates with a value of $ 2.3 billion. 46% of Canada's iron ore comes from the

446: 1917:) is almost always present in iron ore. Most of it is slagged off during the smelting process. At temperatures above 1,300 °C (2,370 °F), some will be reduced and form an alloy with the iron. The hotter the furnace, the more silicon will be present in the iron. It is not uncommon to find up to 1.5% Si in European cast iron from the 16th to 18th centuries. 2019:

steel cracks, the exposed surface immediately oxidizes. This layer of oxide prevents the mending of the crack by welding. Large cracks cause the iron or steel to break up. Smaller cracks can cause the object to fail during use. The degree of hot shortness is in direct proportion to the amount of sulfur present. Today, iron with over 0.03% sulfur is avoided.

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technique is usually associated with puddling in the 19th century, and may not have been understood earlier. For instance, Isaac Zane, owner of Marlboro Iron Works, did not appear to know about it in 1772. Given Zane's reputation for keeping abreast of the latest developments, the technique was probably unknown to the ironmasters of

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Hot short iron can be worked, but it must be worked at low temperatures. Working at lower temperatures requires more physical effort from the smith or forgeman. The metal must be struck more often and harder to achieve the same result. A mildly sulfur-contaminated bar can be worked, but it requires a

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Aluminium is difficult to reduce. As a result, aluminium contamination of the iron is not a problem. However, it does increase the viscosity of the slag. This will have a number of adverse effects on furnace operation. The thicker slag will slow the descent of the charge, prolonging the process. High

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Careful control of phosphorus can be of great benefit in casting operations. Phosphorus depresses the liquidus, allowing the iron to remain molten for longer and increasing fluidity. The addition of 1% can double the distance molten iron will flow. The maximum effect, about 500 °C (932 °F),

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The addition of phosphorus has a downside. At concentrations higher than 0.2%, iron becomes increasingly cold short, or brittle at low temperatures. Cold short is especially important for bar iron. Although bar iron is usually worked hot, its uses often require it to be tough, bendable, and resistant

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and Michigan, which combined accounted for 93% of the usable iron ore produced in the United States in 2014. Seven of the nine operational open pit mines in the United States are located in Minnesota as well as two of the three tailings reclamation operations. The other two active open pit mines were

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According to the U.S. Geological Survey's 2021 Report on iron ore, Ukraine is estimated to have produced 62,000,000 t (61,000,000 long tons; 68,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in 2020, placing it as the seventh largest global center of iron ore production, behind Australia, Brazil, China, India,

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in 2019, which halted the production at the two involved mines, production has increased steadily since 2021, when Brazil produced 431,000,000 t (424,000,000 long tons; 475,000,000 short tons). In 2022 it increased to 435,000,000 t (428,000,000 long tons; 480,000,000 short tons) and in 2023

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In cast iron, sulfur promotes the formation of white iron. As little as 0.5% can counteract the effects of slow cooling and a high silicon content. White cast iron is more brittle, but also harder. It is generally avoided, because it is difficult to work, except in China where high-sulfur cast iron,

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According to the U.S. Geological Survey's 2021 Report on iron ore, India is estimated to produce 59,000,000 t (58,000,000 long tons; 65,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in 2020, placing it as the seventh-largest global center of iron ore production, behind Australia, Brazil, China, Russia, South

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began handling negotiations for the importer side. The Chinese government replaced Baosteel with China Iron and Steel Association as lead negotiator in 2009. Traditionally, the first deal reached between these the major producers and the major importers sets a benchmark to be followed by the rest of

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China is currently the largest consumer of iron ore, which translates to be the world's largest steel producing country. It is also the largest importer, buying 52% of the seaborne trade in iron ore in 2004. China is followed by Japan and Korea, which consume a significant amount of raw iron ore and

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There are a number of remedies for sulfur contamination. The first, and the one most used in historic and prehistoric operations, is avoidance. Coal was not used in Europe (unlike China) as a fuel for smelting because it contains sulfur and therefore causes hot short iron. If an ore resulted in hot

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There are two remedies for high-phosphorus iron. The oldest, easiest, and cheapest, is avoidance. If the iron that the ore produced was cold short, one would search for a new source of iron ore. The second method involves oxidizing the phosphorus during the fining process by adding iron oxide. This

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The typical grade of iron at which a magnetite-bearing banded iron formation becomes economic is roughly 25% iron, which can generally yield a 33% to 40% recovery of magnetite by weight, to produce a concentrate grading in excess of 64% iron by weight. The typical magnetite iron ore concentrate has

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allowed the removal of bulk amounts of the element from cast iron in the 1870s, it was a major development because most of the iron ores mined in continental Europe at the time were phosphorous. However, removing all the contaminant by fluxing or smelting is complicated, and so desirable iron ores

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operations are dominated by the countries listed in the table aside. The major constraint to economics for iron ore deposits is not necessarily the grade or size of the deposits, because it is not particularly hard to geologically prove enough tonnage of the rocks exist. The main constraint is the

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will be discharged. Statistics show that there are 130 million tons of iron ore tailings discharged every year. If, for example, the mine tailings contain an average of approximately 11% iron, there would be approximately 1.41 million tons of iron wasted annually. These tailings are also

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Mining iron ore is a high-volume, low-margin business, as the value of iron is significantly lower than base metals. It is highly capital intensive, and requires significant investment in infrastructure such as rail in order to transport the ore from the mine to a freight ship. For these reasons,

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Hot short iron is brittle when hot. This was a serious problem as most iron used during the 17th and 18th centuries was bar or wrought iron. Wrought iron is shaped by repeated blows with a hammer while hot. A piece of hot short iron will crack if worked with a hammer. When a piece of hot iron or

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The inclusion of even small amounts of some elements can have profound effects on the behavioral characteristics of a batch of iron or the operation of a smelter. These effects can be both good and bad, some catastrophically bad. Some chemicals are deliberately added, such as flux, which makes a

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In 2017, Canadian iron ore mines produced 49,000,000 t (48,000,000 long tons; 54,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in concentrate pellets and 13.6 million tons of crude steel. Of the 13,600,000 t (13,400,000 long tons; 15,000,000 short tons) of steel 7,000,000 t (6,900,000 long

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Iron Ore Index (MBIOI) which uses daily price data from a broad spectrum of industry participants and independent Chinese steel consultancy and data provider Shanghai Steelhome's widespread contact base of steel producers and iron ore traders across China. The futures contract has seen monthly

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The seaborne trade in iron ore—that is, iron ore to be shipped to other countries—was 849,000,000 t (836,000,000 long tons; 936,000,000 short tons) in 2004. Australia and Brazil dominate the seaborne trade, with 72% of the market. BHP, Rio and Vale control 66% of this market between them.

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Generally, most magnetite banded iron formation deposits must be ground to between 32 and 45 μm (0.0013 and 0.0018 in) in order to produce a low-silica magnetite concentrate. Magnetite concentrate grades are generally in excess of 70% iron by weight and usually are low in phosphorus,

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of the magnetite, the grade of the iron within the banded iron formation host rock, and the contaminant elements which exist within the magnetite concentrate. The size and strip ratio of most magnetite resources is irrelevant, as a banded iron formation can be hundreds of meters thick, extend

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The strength and hardness of iron increases with the concentration of phosphorus. 0.05% phosphorus in wrought iron makes it as hard as medium-carbon steel. High-phosphorus iron can also be hardened by cold hammering. The hardening effect is true for any concentration of phosphorus. The more

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societies has been mined from predominantly hematite deposits with grades of around 70% Fe. These deposits are commonly referred to as "direct shipping ores" or "natural ores". Increasing iron ore demand, coupled with the depletion of high-grade hematite ores in the United States, led after

1594:) expect it to be gone within 30–50 years and 56 years, respectively. These 2010 estimates require ongoing review to take into account shifting demand for lower-grade iron ore and improving mining and recovery techniques (allowing deeper mining below the groundwater table). 2015:. Sulfur dissolves readily in both liquid and solid iron at the temperatures present in iron smelting. The effects of even small amounts of sulfur are immediate and serious. They were one of the first worked out by iron makers. Sulfur causes iron to be red or hot short. 820:

materials like pavement and filler and building materials such as cement, low-grade glass, and wall materials. While tailings are a relatively low-grade ore, they are also inexpensive to collect, as they do not have to be mined. Because of this, companies such as

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and three being reclamation operations. There were also ten pelletizing plants, nine concentration plants, two direct-reduced iron (DRI) plants, and one iron nugget plant that were operating in 2014. In the United States the majority of iron ore mining is in the

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The two main methods of recycling iron from iron ore tailings are magnetizing roasting and direct reduction. Magnetizing roasting uses temperatures between 700 and 900 °C (1,292 and 1,652 °F) for a time of under 1 hour to produce an iron concentrate

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Li, Chao; Sun, Henghu; Bai, Jing; Li, Longtu (15 February 2010). "Innovative methodology for comprehensive utilization of iron ore tailings: Part 1. The recovery of iron from iron ore tailings using magnetic separation after magnetizing roasting".

2117:, but the operator must know how much sulfur is in the iron because at least five times as much manganese must be added to neutralize it. Some historic irons display manganese levels, but most are well below the level needed to neutralize sulfur. 2112:

The importance attached to low-sulfur iron is demonstrated by the consistently higher prices paid for the iron of Sweden, Russia, and Spain from the 16th to 18th centuries. Today sulfur is no longer a problem. The modern remedy is the addition of

762:. These ores form a niche market, with specialty smelters used to recover the iron, titanium, and vanadium. These ores are beneficiated essentially similarly to banded iron formation ores, but usually are more easily upgraded via 2372:

Troll, Valentin R.; Weis, Franz A.; Jonsson, Erik; Andersson, Ulf B.; Majidi, Seyed Afshin; Högdahl, Karin; Harris, Chris; Millet, Marc-Alban; Chinnasamy, Sakthi Saravanan; Kooijman, Ellen; Nilsson, Katarina P. (12 April 2019).

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determine the grind size to which the rock must be comminuted to enable efficient magnetic separation to provide a high-purity magnetite concentrate. This determines the energy inputs required to run a milling operation.

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reported that silicon also reduces shrinkage and the formation of blowholes, lowering the number of bad castings. However, too much silicon present in the iron leads to increased brittleness and moderate hardness.

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Iron is the world's most commonly used metal—steel, of which iron ore is the key ingredient, represents almost 95% of all metal used per year. It is used primarily in structures, ships, automobiles, and machinery.

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Williams, David E.; Kilburn, Matt R.; Cliff, John; Waterhouse, Geoffrey I.N. (2010). "Composition changes around sulphide inclusions in stainless steels, and implications for the initiation of pitting corrosion".

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The major effect of silicon is to promote the formation of grey iron. Grey iron is less brittle and easier to finish than white iron. It is preferred for casting purposes for this reason. British metallurgist

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process to remove the oxygen. Oxygen-iron bonds are strong, and to remove the iron from the oxygen, a stronger elemental bond must be presented to attach to the oxygen. Carbon is used because the strength of a

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There are a number of solutions to a high-aluminium slag. The first is avoidance; do not use ore or a lime source with a high aluminium content. Increasing the ratio of lime flux will decrease the viscosity.

1074:, and the world. The recent drop in world ore grade is due to significant consumption of low-grade Chinese ores. American ore, on the other hand, is typically upgraded between 61% and 64% before being sold. 848:

because it is harder to separate as it is less magnetic. Direct reduction uses hotter temperatures of over 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) and longer times of 2–5 hours. Direct reduction is used to produce

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are the principal Indian producers of iron ore. World consumption of iron ore grows 10% per year on average with the main consumers being China, Japan, Korea, the United States, and the European Union.

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is the primary ingredient of chemically stripping oxygen from iron. Thus, the iron and carbon smelting must be kept in an oxygen-deficient (reducing) state to promote the burning of carbon to produce

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DSO deposits are typically rarer than the magnetite-bearing BIF or other rocks which form its main source, or protolith rock, but are considerably cheaper to mine and process as they require less

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The origin of iron can be ultimately traced to its formation through nuclear fusion in stars, and most of the iron is thought to have originated in dying stars that are large enough to explode as

2102:), though a common iron mineral, has not been used as an ore for the production of iron metal. Natural weathering was also used in Sweden. The same process, at geological speed, results in the 3139: 853:(Fe) to be used for steel-making. Direct reduction requires more energy, as the temperatures are higher and the time is longer and it requires more reducing agent than magnetizing roasting. 1605:

is the second-largest producer of iron ore after Australia, accounting for 16% of the world's iron ore production. After a somewhat sluggish production volume 2010-2020, partly due to the

2031:, pp. 200), good foundry iron should have less than 0.15% sulfur. In the rest of the world, a high-sulfur cast iron can be used for making castings, but will make poor wrought iron. 2550:"Geological, Geographical and Legal Considerations for the Conservation of Unique Iron Oxide and Sulphur Flows at El Laco and Lastarria Volcanic Complexes, Central Andes, Northern Chile" 341:

minerals, and smelting pure iron from these minerals would require a prohibitive amount of energy. Therefore, all sources of iron used by human industry exploit comparatively rarer iron

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due to the higher iron content. However, DSO ores can contain significantly higher concentrations of penalty elements, typically being higher in phosphorus, water content (especially

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The mine production estimates for China are estimated from the National Bureau of Statistics China's crude ore statistics, rather than usable ore as reported for the other countries.

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the ore to the point where the crystallized magnetite and quartz are fine enough that the quartz is left behind when the resultant powder is passed under a magnetic separator.

48: 1941:, increased fluidity, and cold shortness. Depending on the use intended for the iron, these effects are either good or bad. Bog ore often has a high phosphorus content. 3767:

Newman, R. C.; Isaacs, H. S.; Alman, B. (1982). "Effects of sulfur compounds on the pitting behavior of type 304 stainless steel in near-neutral chloride solutions".

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Sirkeci, A. A.; Gül, A.; Bulut, G.; Arslan, F.; Onal, G.; Yuce, A. E. (April 2006). "Recovery of Co, Ni, and Cu from the tailings of Divrigi Iron Ore Concentrator".

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anion due to its double negative electrical charge, it promotes pit growth. Indeed, the positive electrical charges born by Fe cations released in solution by Fe

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Stewart, J.; Williams, D.E. (1992). "The initiation of pitting corrosion on austenitic stainless steel: on the role and importance of sulphide inclusions".

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which dominate both spot and contract markets. Until 2006, prices were determined in annual benchmark negotiations between the main iron ore producers (

1036: 837:) to be used for iron smelting. For magnetizing roasting, it is important to have a reducing atmosphere to prevent oxidization and the formation of 3143: 2194: 866: 649:, Australia, and Asia. Most large hematite iron ore deposits are sourced from altered banded iron formations and (rarely) igneous accumulations. 392:

Iron ore mining methods vary by the type of ore being mined. There are four main types of iron ore deposits worked currently, depending on the

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is generally considered to be a deleterious contaminant because it makes steel brittle, even at concentrations of as little as 0.6%. When the

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is estimated to have accounted for 2% of the world's iron ore output. In the United States there are twelve iron ore mines, with nine being

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gangue, hematite beneficiation usually involves a combination of beneficiation techniques. One method relies on passing the finely-crushed

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forecasted in 2021 that Brazil's annual production will reach 592,000,000 t (583,000,000 long tons; 653,000,000 short tons) by 2030.

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position of the iron ore relative to market, the cost of rail infrastructure to get it to market, and the energy cost required to do so.

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Jonsson, Erik; Troll, Valentin R.; Högdahl, Karin; Harris, Chris; Weis, Franz; Nilsson, Katarina P.; Skelton, Alasdair (10 April 2013).

1415:. In 2006, China produced 588,000,000 t (579,000,000 long tons; 648,000,000 short tons) of iron ore, with an annual growth of 38%. 2691:

Das, S.K.; Kumar, Sanjay; Ramachandrarao, P. (December 2000). "Exploitation of iron ore tailing for the development of ceramic tiles".

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Stephens, F. M.; Langston, Benny; Richardson, A. C. (1 June 1953). "The Reduction-Oxidation Process For the Treatment of Taconites".

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Goldstein, J.I.; Scott, E.R.D.; Chabot, N.L. (2009). "Iron meteorites: Crystallization, thermal history, parent bodies, and origin".

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Iron is the most abundant element on earth but not in the crust. The extent of the accessible iron ore reserves is not known, though

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produced 57,500,000 t (56,600,000 long tons; 63,400,000 short tons) of iron ore with an estimated value of $ 5.1 billion.

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Ores containing very high quantities of hematite or magnetite, typically greater than about 60% iron, are known as natural ore or

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to improve the concentration of the ore and remove impurities. The results, high-quality fine ore powders, are known as fines.

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Ramanaidou, E. R. and Wells, M. A. (2014). 13.13 "Sedimentary Hosted Iron Ores". In: Holland, H. D. and Turekian, K. K. Eds.,

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Over the last 40 years, iron ore prices have been decided in closed-door negotiations between the small handful of miners and

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Uwadiale, G. G. O. O.; Whewell, R. J. (1 October 1988). "Effect of temperature on magnetizing reduction of agbaja iron ore".

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aluminium will also make it more difficult to tap off the liquid slag. At the extreme, this could lead to a frozen furnace.

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The mining involves moving tremendous amounts of ore and waste. The waste comes in two forms: non-ore bedrock in the mine (

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Gzogyan, T. N.; Gubin, S. L.; Gzogyan, S. R.; Mel’nikova, N. D. (1 November 2005). "Iron losses in processing tailings".

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looked for another ore. When mineral coal was first used in European blast furnaces in 1709 (or perhaps earlier), it was

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suggested in 2006 that iron ore could run out within 64 years (that is, by 2070), based on 2% growth in demand per year.

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Mining of banded iron formations involves coarse crushing and screening, followed by rough crushing and fine grinding to

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and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow, or deep purple to rusty red. The iron is usually found in the form of

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is greater than that of the iron-oxygen bond at high temperatures. Thus, the iron ore must be powdered and mixed with

1295:" ore derived by mechanical erosion of primary banded-iron formations and accumulated in alluvial channels such as at 412: 3512:"Mining the Future 2030: A Plan for Growth in the Newfoundland and Labrador Mining Industry | McCarthy Tétrault" 1719:; however, the last iron ore mine in Utah shut down in 2014 and the last iron ore mine in Alabama shut down in 1975. 541:

or interburden locally known as mullock), and unwanted minerals, which are an intrinsic part of the ore rock itself (

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H.T. Shen, B. Zhou, et al. "Roasting-magnetic separation and direct reduction of a refractory oolitic-hematite ore"

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India's iron ore production in 2023 was 285,000,000 metric tonnes and was the fourth largest producer in the world.

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anions as intermediate species, and because the thiosulfate anion has a higher equivalent electromobility than the

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which increases its density. When the density of the slurry is properly calibrated, the hematite will sink and the

2011:(S) is a frequent contaminant in coal. It is also present in small quantities in many ores, but can be removed by 4004: 2165: 1304: 1264:

10 short tons) of raw ore annually. The world's largest producer of iron ore is the Brazilian mining corporation

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crystals and form masses of magnetite suitable for economic concentration. A few iron ore deposits, notably in

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quoted Christopher LaFemina, mining analyst at Barclays Capital, saying that iron ore is "more integral to the

3335: 3118: 2257: 3072: 3018: 2133: 2067:), which either escapes into the atmosphere or can be washed out. In warm climates, it is possible to leave 1610: 1495: 1464: 1269: 906: 891: 231: 3361: 1323:. Other types of ore are coming to the fore recently, such as oxidised ferruginous hardcaps, for instance 1277: 822: 733: 732:

Other sources of magnetite iron ore include metamorphic accumulations of massive magnetite ore such as at

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as a source of iron ore. Prior to the industrial revolution, most iron was obtained from widely-available

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is approximately 844,000,000 t (831,000,000 long tons; 930,000,000 short tons) per year and rising.

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This move follows a switch to index-based quarterly pricing by the world's three largest iron ore miners—

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volumes over 1,500,000 t (1,500,000 long tons; 1,700,000 short tons) after eight months of trading.

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Muwanguzi, Abraham J. B.; Karasev, Andrey V.; Byaruhanga, Joseph K.; Jönsson, Pär G. (3 December 2012).

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the very wealthy may have had a high-phosphorus sword for summer and a low-phosphorus sword for winter.

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10 short tons). Another estimate places Australia's reserves of iron ore at 52,000,000,000 t (5.1

3733: 3689: 3178: 2837: 2786: 2735: 2700: 2649: 2561: 2494: 2386: 2333: 1938: 1606: 1531: 1520: 767: 253: 3270:(Report). Government of Western Australia Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety. 2022. 3069:

China's Vulnerability Paradox: How the World's Largest Consumer Transformed Global Commodity Markets

2442:"Characterization of Chemical Composition and Microstructure of Natural Iron Ore from Muko Deposits" 850: 365: 170: 36: 3999: 3901: 3893: 3395: 2810: 2759: 2673: 2577: 2463: 2156:

zone inside the pit must be quickly compensated / neutralized by negative charges brought by the

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have started reclamation projects where they use iron ore tailings as a source of metallic iron.

3486: 3282: 2375:"Global Fe–O isotope correlation reveals magmatic origin of Kiruna-type apatite-iron-oxide ores" 2168:. The higher the anion electrokinetic migration rate, the higher the rate of pitting corrosion. 2087:, which are water-soluble and leached out. However, historically (at least), iron sulfide (iron 2027:

some as high as 0.57%, made with coal and coke, was used to make bells and chimes. According to

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minerals and capable of producing a high-grade concentrate with very low levels of impurities.

561:, which is chemically inert. This material is stored in large, regulated water settling ponds. 3784: 3749: 3705: 3444: 3206: 3076: 2991: 2985: 2853: 2802: 2751: 2665: 2622: 2530: 2512: 2422: 2404: 2306: 2298: 2125: 2121: 1579: 1320: 751: 489: 3885: 3847: 3829: 3776: 3741: 3697: 3196: 3186: 2845: 2794: 2743: 2708: 2657: 2614: 2569: 2520: 2502: 2453: 2412: 2394: 2341: 2290: 2161: 1882: 1775: 1308: 1024: 976: 501: 469: 437: 330: 3818:"Viscosity Measurement of Molten Slag- Properties of Slag at Elevated Temperature (Part 1)" 799:

For every one ton of iron ore concentrate produced, approximately 2.5–3.0 tons of iron ore

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Rostoker, William; Bronson, Bennet; Dvorak, James (1984). "The Cast-Iron Bells of China".

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and iron atoms bonded together into molecules. To convert it to metallic iron, it must be

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containing more than 15% iron composed predominantly of thinly-bedded iron minerals and

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deposits have been worked in the past as high-grade iron ore deposits requiring little

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is thought to consist mainly of iron, but this is inaccessible from the surface. Some

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Government of Western Australia - Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety

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10 short tons), of which Western Australia accounts for 28,000,000,000 t (2.8

578:, and can easily come to more than three billion or more tonnes of contained ore. 3958: 3745: 3468:

Lewis S. Dean, Minerals in the economy of Alabama 2007Archived 2015-09-24 at the

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within pisolites). Export-grade DSO ores are generally in the 62–64% Fe range.

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The grain size of the magnetite and its degree of commingling with the silica

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accumulations of magnetite in streams leading from these volcanic formations.

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Frey, Perry A.; Reed, George H. (21 September 2012). "The Ubiquity of Iron".

2231: 2172:

of ions inside the pit can be the rate-limiting step in the pit growth rate.

3191: 3040: 3019:"Iron Ore - Monthly Price - Commodity Prices - Price Charts, Data, and News" 2189: 2164:

processes occurring in a capillary pit are the same as those encountered in

2149: 2114: 2076: 2044: 2012: 1989: 1703: 1666: 1539: 1468: 1399: 1375: 1371: 1359: 1288: 1095: 1055: 1016: 961: 741: 726: 683: 626: 598: 591: 521: 513: 445: 408: 382: 338: 198: 86: 3210: 2933:"Global iron ore production data; Clarification of reporting from the USGS" 2626: 2534: 2426: 2310: 1937:(P) has four major effects on iron: increased hardness and strength, lower 1558:

10 short tons), or 30% of the world's estimated 170,000,000,000 t (1.7

381:

to the development of lower-grade iron ore sources, principally the use of

3981: 2894:

The "Limits to Growth" and 'Finite' Mineral Resources, p. 5, Gavin M. Mudd

2458: 2441: 1502:—in early 2010, breaking a 40-year tradition of benchmark annual pricing. 770:. The typical titanomagnetite concentrate grades 57% Fe, 12% Ti, and 0.5% 3312: 2358:

Harry Klemic, Harold L. James, and G. Donald Eberlein, (1973) "Iron," in

2181: 2145: 2106: 2072: 1962: 1771: 1761: 1708: 1662: 1472: 1347: 1324: 1253:

iron ore production is concentrated in the hands of a few major players.

1008: 1004: 965: 800: 759: 755: 737: 722: 703: 691: 657: 638: 602: 554: 530: 525: 497: 493: 450: 401: 386: 357: 353: 346: 334: 326: 182: 156: 144: 136: 111: 25: 3897: 2849: 2798: 2137: 2084: 1745: 1716: 1614:

to 440,000,000 t (430,000,000 long tons; 490,000,000 short tons).

1575: 1155: 1000: 763: 672: 361: 245: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 67: 21: 3780: 2507: 2294: 528:) are the principal iron mineral. Banded iron formations are known as 2103: 2088: 2068: 2008: 1767: 1602: 1395: 1379: 1245: 1195: 1175: 1135: 1105: 1067: 1059: 1047: 969: 813: 809: 805: 618: 614: 610: 587: 558: 542: 477: 473: 29: 3889: 1280:

Ltd, has helped bring Australia's production to first in the world.

1120:

375,000,000 t (369,000,000 long tons; 413,000,000 short tons)*

2136:. Under oxidizing conditions and in the presence of moisture, when 1661:

Russia, and South Africa. Producers of iron ore in Ukraine include

1218:

132,000,000 t (130,000,000 long tons; 146,000,000 short tons)

1130:

156,000,000 t (154,000,000 long tons; 172,000,000 short tons)

1110:

397,000,000 t (391,000,000 long tons; 438,000,000 short tons)

1100:

817,000,000 t (804,000,000 long tons; 901,000,000 short tons)

3265:

Western Australian Mineral and Petroleum Statistics Digest 2021–22

2153: 1591: 1444: 1424: 1335: 1140:

101,000,000 t (99,000,000 long tons; 111,000,000 short tons)

1125: 1115: 1051: 1041: 750:

Another, minor, source of iron ores are magmatic accumulations in

721:. There are several granite-associated deposits of this nature in 710: 687: 625:, and there is a nascent and large magnetite iron ore industry in 617:. Magnetite-bearing banded iron formation is mined extensively in 444: 436: 342: 318: 186: 71: 47: 41: 35: 20: 3639: 3637: 3549: 3547: 3545: 1712: 1618: 1210:

21,000,000 t (21,000,000 long tons; 23,000,000 short tons)

1200:

25,000,000 t (25,000,000 long tons; 28,000,000 short tons)

1190:

27,000,000 t (27,000,000 long tons; 30,000,000 short tons)

1185: 1180:

46,000,000 t (45,000,000 long tons; 51,000,000 short tons)

1170:

46,000,000 t (45,000,000 long tons; 51,000,000 short tons)

1160:

67,000,000 t (66,000,000 long tons; 74,000,000 short tons)

1150:

73,000,000 t (72,000,000 long tons; 80,000,000 short tons)

622: 74: 1244:

Iron-rich rocks are common worldwide, but ore-grade commercial

637:

Direct-shipping iron ore (DSO) deposits (typically composed of

1499: 1460: 1383: 1273: 1012: 870: 214: 189:—98% of the mined iron ore is used to make steel. In 2011 the 78: 3612: 3610: 991:

aluminium, titanium, and silica and demand a premium price.

569:

The key parameters for magnetite ore being economic are the

3041:"Global price of Iron Ore | FRED | St. Louis Fed" 329:. Although iron is the fourth-most abundant element in the 2984:

Qazi, Shabir Ahmad; Qazi, Navaid Shabir (1 January 2008).

2362:, US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 820, p.298-299. 1079:

Usable iron ore production in million metric tons for 2015

441:

Banded iron rock, estimated at being 2.1 billion years old

3884:(4). The Society for the History of Technology: 750–767. 3308:"Mine production of iron ore in Brazil from 2010 to 2023" 40:

Stockpiles of iron ore pellets like this one are used in

3097:"SMX to list world's first index based iron ore futures" 2987:

Natural Resource Conservation and Environment Management

694:

flows containing significant accumulations of magnetite

3917:(2nd ed.). Charles Griffin & Company, Limited. 3412: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2953: 1820:

Carbon monoxide (CO) is the principal reduction agent.

1042: 52:

An illustration of iron ore being unloaded at docks in

2160:

migration of anions in the capillary pit. Some of the

396:

and geology of the ore deposits. These are magnetite,

3822:

Transactions of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan

3655: 1574:

10 short tons). The current production rate from the

1291:, iron ore is won from three main sources: pisolite " 621:

as of 2019, which exports significant quantities to

333:, composing about 5%, the vast majority is bound in 3167:"Chemical composition of Earth, Venus, and Mercury" 2642:

Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review

1980:must generally be low in phosphorus to begin with. 1471:) and Japanese importers. In 2006, Chinese company 1256:

World production averages 2,000,000,000 t (2.0

641:) are currently exploited on all continents except 423:1,000 km (620 mi) in diameter or larger. 3336:"Iron ore production in Brazil and major projects" 2253: 2251: 2249: 2071:ore out in the rain. The combined action of rain, 1621:of 2% between 2023 and 2027, and industry analyst 1617:The Brazilian production is expected to rise by a 937:Lower-grade sources of iron ore generally require 3869:Pre-Industrial Iron: Its Technology and Ethnology 2883:Gaudin, A.M, Principles of Mineral Dressing, 1937 2548:Guijón, R.; Henríquez, F.; Naranjo, J.A. (2011). 698:. Chilean magnetite iron ore deposits within the 372:. Historically, much of the iron ore utilized by 185:, which is one of the main raw materials to make 3934:History of the Iron Ore Trade on the Great Lakes 3643: 3565: 3553: 3171:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2224:"Iron Ore – Hematite, Magnetite & Taconite" 480:). Banded iron formations occur exclusively in 453:pellets with reddish surface oxidation used in 2059:and washing. Roasting oxidizes sulfur to form 1434: China import/inbound iron ore spot price 1334:The total recoverable reserves of iron ore in 3846:(Second Edition). Oxford: Elsevier. 313–355. 3485:Canada, Natural Resources (23 January 2018). 1046:Evolution of the extracted iron ore grade in 488:. Banded iron formations may contain iron in 8: 484:rocks, and are commonly weakly-to-intensely 461:(diameter: 24 mm ) shown for scale 3867:Rostoker, William; Bronson, Bennet (1990). 1299:; and the dominant metasomatically altered 905:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 660:sedimentary accumulations), and aluminium ( 597:As of 2019, magnetite iron ore is mined in 557:. Taconite tailings are mostly the mineral 173:, and can be fed directly into iron-making 3616: 3601: 3413:"List of countries by iron ore production" 3119:"ICE Futures Singapore - Futures Exchange" 3071:. New York, NY, United States of America: 317:Metallic iron is virtually unknown on the 3833: 3200: 3190: 2524: 2506: 2457: 2416: 2398: 1027:fragments will float and can be removed. 925:Learn how and when to remove this message 549:, and the gangue is separated during the 305:Learn how and when to remove this message 197:than any other commodity, except perhaps 3982:World's Largest Iron Ore Producers, 2023 1077: 1037:list of countries by iron ore production 321:'s surface except as iron-nickel alloys 3978:'s National Minerals Information Center 2258:Iron ore pricing emerges from stone age 2206: 2195:Environmental impact of iron ore mining 1787:, to be burnt in the smelting process. 1740:, with secondary sources including the 867:Environmental impact of iron ore mining 3667: 3628: 3589: 3577: 3536: 3524: 3062: 3060: 3058: 2124:(MnS) can also be the cause of severe 2028: 1813:Air blast and charcoal (coke): 2 C + O 968:, and hence easily separated from the 3816:Kato, Makoto; Minowa, Susumu (1969). 3811:. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 3480: 3478: 3445:"USGS Minerals Information: Iron Ore" 3439: 3437: 3435: 3433: 3390: 3388: 3228:. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 109. 2599: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2591: 1338:are about 9,602,000,000 t (9.450 545:). The mullock is mined and piled in 7: 3947:Pioneers of the Cleveland Iron Trade 3828:. Tokyo: Nihon Tekko Kyokai: 31–38. 903:adding citations to reliable sources 804:high in other useful metals such as 516:), but in those mined as iron ores, 419:are thought to have originated from 243:adding citations to reliable sources 3972:Iron Ore Statistics and Information 3860:Principles of Extractive Metallurgy 3656:Rostoker, Bronson & Dvorak 1984 2055:Sulfur can be removed from ores by 1268:, followed by Australian companies 1035:For a more comprehensive list, see 325:and very rare forms of deep mantle 77:can be economically extracted. The 3871:. Archeomaterials Monograph No. 1. 3852:10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.01115-3 3835:10.2355/isijinternational1966.9.31 3165:Morgan, J. W.; Anders, E. (1980). 2907:"Mineral Commodity Summaries 2017" 1511:Available world iron ore resources 941:, using techniques like crushing, 16:Ore rich in iron or the element Fe 14: 3472:, Alabama Geological Survey, 2008 3281:Pincock, Stephen (14 July 2010). 2023:great deal more time and effort. 1538:" of iron currently amount to 24 1276:. A further Australian supplier, 947:gravity or heavy media separation 682:were sometimes used to segregate 3362:"Global Iron Ore Mining Outlook" 2043:. Only with the introduction of 1687:Iron mining in the United States 875: 645:, with the largest intensity in 219: 3396:"USGS Report on Iron Ore, 2021" 2360:United States Mineral Resources 1859:Stage Three: FeO + CO → Fe + CO 1542:, or 24,000,000,000 t (2.4 1536:economic demonstrated resources 1534:calculates that the country's " 1451:25 October 2010 - 4 August 2022 1350:and 3,408,000,000 t (3.354 758:-bearing magnetite, often with 668:Magmatic magnetite ore deposits 633:Direct-shipping (hematite) ores 230:needs additional citations for 2607:Journal of Hazardous Materials 1877:Lime acting as flux: CaO + SiO 1297:Pannawonica, Western Australia 1: 3984:, analysis from James F. King 3967:Federal Reserve Economic Data 2713:10.1016/S0956-053X(00)00034-9 2619:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.09.018 2228:Mineral Information Institute 2047:from 1829 was raw coal used. 1702:. These iron ranges occur in 1480:Singapore Mercantile Exchange 574:hundreds of kilometers along 28:, the main iron ore found in 3800:General and cited references 3746:10.1016/j.corsci.2010.07.021 3702:10.1016/0010-938X(92)90074-D 2779:Metallurgical Transactions B 2346:10.1016/j.chemer.2009.01.002 3963:International Monetary Fund 3862:. McGraw-Hill Book Company. 3858:Rosenqvist, Terkel (1983). 3644:Rostoker & Bronson 1990 3566:Rostoker & Bronson 1990 3554:Rostoker & Bronson 1990 1440: Global iron ore price 816:, and they can be used for 352:Prehistoric societies used 4021: 3939:Cleveland State University 3807:Gordon, Robert B. (1996). 2400:10.1038/s41467-019-09244-4 2213:Ramanaidou and Wells, 2014 1755: 1730:Iron Ore Company of Canada 1429:Iron ore prices (monthly) 1226:2,280,000,000 t (2.24 1034: 1031:Production and consumption 860: 754:which contain a typically 553:process and is removed as 430: 364:, for example, during the 208: 3007:– via Google Books. 2748:10.1007/s10913-006-0022-y 2728:Journal of Mining Science 2662:10.1080/08827500600563343 2574:10.1007/s12371-011-0045-x 2166:capillary electrophoresis 1867:Limestone calcining: CaCO 1303:-related ores such as at 1015:over a slurry containing 3959:Global price of Iron Ore 3844:Treatise on Geochemistry 3067:Massot, Pascale (2024). 2938:. U.S. Geological Survey 2912:. U.S. Geological Survey 2170:Electrokinetic transport 1977:Gilchrist–Thomas process 1671:ArcelorMittal Kryvyi Rih 949:, screening, and silica 740:, formed by shearing of 400:, massive hematite, and 3913:Turner, Thomas (1900). 3809:American Iron 1607–1900 3192:10.1073/pnas.77.12.6973 3073:Oxford University Press 1611:Brumadinho dam disaster 1449:Iron ore prices (daily) 1327:iron ore deposits near 1072:Soviet Union and Russia 1019:or other agent such as 1007:relative to associated 3976:U.S. Geological Survey 3915:The Metallurgy of Iron 3878:Technology and Culture 3602:Kato & Minowa 1969 3224:Brown, Lester (2006). 2874:, 28 (2008), pp. 30-43 2446:ISRN Materials Science 2140:oxidizes, it produces 2128:problems in low-grade 1681:In 2014, mines in the 1452: 1442: 1331:in Western Australia. 1278:Fortescue Metals Group 1075: 534:within North America. 466:Banded iron formations 462: 442: 427:Banded iron formations 56: 45: 33: 3965:, made available via 3944:James Stephen Jeans, 3929:Historical documents 3043:. Fred.stlouisfed.org 2379:Nature Communications 2120:Sulfide inclusion as 1766:Iron ores consist of 1639:Africa, and Ukraine. 1448: 1428: 1301:banded iron formation 1045: 448: 440: 433:Banded iron formation 209:Further information: 51: 39: 24: 2968:Iron ore pricing war 2283:ACS Chemical Biology 2264:, October 26, 2009 1607:Mariana dam disaster 1590:) and Jonathon Law ( 1532:Geoscience Australia 1521:Worldwatch Institute 1506:Abundance by country 1342:10 long tons; 1.0584 1293:channel iron deposit 899:improve this section 404:ironstone deposits. 345:minerals, primarily 239:improve this article 81:are usually rich in 3955:Modern information 3738:2010Corro..52.3702W 3694:1992Corro..33..457S 3592:, pp. 202–204. 3514:. 19 November 2018. 3183:1980PNAS...77.6973M 3146:on 25 February 2021 3099:. 29 September 2010 2931:Tuck, Christopher. 2905:Tuck, Christopher. 2842:1953JOM.....5f.780S 2791:1988MTB....19..731U 2740:2005JMinS..41..583G 2705:2000WaMan..20..725D 2654:2006MPEMR..27..131S 2566:2011Geohe...3..299G 2499:2013NatSR...3E1644J 2459:10.5402/2012/174803 2391:2019NatCo..10.1712T 2338:2009ChEG...69..293G 1354:10 long tons; 3.757 1083: 590:, and less than 3% 366:American Revolution 171:direct shipping ore 3283:"Iron Ore Country" 2990:. APH Publishing. 2974:, October 14, 2009 2850:10.1007/BF03397539 2799:10.1007/BF02650192 2487:Scientific Reports 2268:2011-03-22 at the 2186:Iron ore in Africa 1781:carbon-oxygen bond 1774:or sent through a 1453: 1443: 1413:metallurgical coal 1358:10 short tons) of 1346:10 short tons) of 1230:10 long tons; 2.51 1078: 1076: 863:Mineral processing 752:layered intrusions 690:, are formed from 463: 443: 177:. Iron ore is the 57: 46: 34: 3781:10.5006/1.3577348 3732:(11): 3702–3716. 3726:Corrosion Science 3682:Corrosion Science 3449:minerals.usgs.gov 3419:, 31 October 2023 3340:Mining Technology 3082:978-0-19-777140-2 2508:10.1038/srep01644 2295:10.1021/cb300323q 2126:pitting corrosion 2122:manganese sulfide 1988:Small amounts of 1853:+ CO → 3 FeO + CO 1580:Western Australia 1570:10 long tons; 3.1 1562:10 long tons; 1.9 1554:10 long tons; 5.7 1546:10 long tons; 2.6 1321:Western Australia 1260:10 long tons; 2.2 1238: 1237: 1082: 935: 934: 927: 702:have also formed 470:sedimentary rocks 337:or, more rarely, 315: 314: 307: 289: 4012: 4005:Economic geology 3918: 3909: 3872: 3863: 3839: 3837: 3812: 3793: 3792: 3764: 3758: 3757: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3677: 3671: 3665: 3659: 3653: 3647: 3641: 3632: 3626: 3620: 3614: 3605: 3599: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3575: 3569: 3563: 3557: 3551: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3508: 3502: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3487:"Iron ore facts" 3482: 3473: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3457: 3455: 3441: 3428: 3427: 3426: 3424: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3400: 3392: 3383: 3382: 3380: 3378: 3373:. 26 August 2021 3366: 3358: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3332: 3326: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3304: 3298: 3297: 3295: 3293: 3278: 3272: 3271: 3269: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3236: 3230: 3229: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3204: 3194: 3162: 3156: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3142:. Archived from 3140:"mbironoreindex" 3136: 3130: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3115: 3109: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3093: 3087: 3086: 3064: 3053: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3037: 3031: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3015: 3009: 3008: 3006: 3004: 2981: 2975: 2965: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2937: 2928: 2922: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2911: 2902: 2896: 2890: 2884: 2881: 2875: 2868: 2862: 2861: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2774: 2768: 2767: 2723: 2717: 2716: 2693:Waste Management 2688: 2682: 2681: 2637: 2631: 2630: 2601: 2586: 2585: 2545: 2539: 2538: 2528: 2510: 2478: 2472: 2471: 2461: 2437: 2431: 2430: 2420: 2402: 2369: 2363: 2356: 2350: 2349: 2321: 2315: 2314: 2289:(9): 1477–1481. 2278: 2272: 2255: 2244: 2243: 2241: 2239: 2234:on 17 April 2006 2230:. Archived from 2220: 2214: 2211: 2101: 2100: 2099: 2079:the sulfides to 1916: 1915: 1914: 1808: 1807: 1806: 1796: 1776:direct reduction 1609:in 2015 and the 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1439: 1433: 1357: 1353: 1345: 1341: 1309:Chichester Range 1263: 1259: 1233: 1229: 1084: 1080: 1025:silicate mineral 999:Due to the high 930: 923: 919: 916: 910: 879: 871: 790: 789: 788: 780: 779: 310: 303: 299: 296: 290: 288: 247: 223: 215: 165: 154: 142: 134: 133: 132: 124: 123: 109: 108: 107: 99: 98: 4020: 4019: 4015: 4014: 4013: 4011: 4010: 4009: 3990: 3989: 3926: 3921: 3912: 3890:10.2307/3104621 3875: 3866: 3857: 3815: 3806: 3802: 3797: 3796: 3766: 3765: 3761: 3722: 3721: 3717: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3666: 3662: 3654: 3650: 3642: 3635: 3627: 3623: 3617:Rosenqvist 1983 3615: 3608: 3600: 3596: 3588: 3584: 3576: 3572: 3564: 3560: 3552: 3543: 3535: 3531: 3523: 3519: 3510: 3509: 3505: 3495: 3493: 3491:www.nrcan.gc.ca 3484: 3483: 3476: 3470:Wayback Machine 3467: 3463: 3453: 3451: 3443: 3442: 3431: 3422: 3420: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3398: 3394: 3393: 3386: 3376: 3374: 3370:Fitch Solutions 3364: 3360: 3359: 3355: 3345: 3343: 3334: 3333: 3329: 3319: 3317: 3316:. 19 April 2024 3306: 3305: 3301: 3291: 3289: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3267: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3248: 3246: 3238: 3237: 3233: 3223: 3222: 3218: 3177:(12): 6973–77. 3164: 3163: 3159: 3149: 3147: 3138: 3137: 3133: 3123: 3121: 3117: 3116: 3112: 3102: 3100: 3095: 3094: 3090: 3083: 3066: 3065: 3056: 3046: 3044: 3039: 3038: 3034: 3024: 3022: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2983: 2982: 2978: 2972:Financial Times 2966: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2935: 2930: 2929: 2925: 2915: 2913: 2909: 2904: 2903: 2899: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2878: 2869: 2865: 2827: 2826: 2822: 2776: 2775: 2771: 2725: 2724: 2720: 2690: 2689: 2685: 2639: 2638: 2634: 2603: 2602: 2589: 2547: 2546: 2542: 2480: 2479: 2475: 2439: 2438: 2434: 2371: 2370: 2366: 2357: 2353: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2280: 2279: 2275: 2270:Wayback Machine 2262:Financial Times 2256: 2247: 2237: 2235: 2222: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2208: 2203: 2178: 2162:electrochemical 2130:stainless steel 2098: 2095: 2094: 2093: 2091: 2066: 2053: 2006: 1986: 1932: 1913: 1910: 1909: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1894: 1886: 1880: 1874: 1870: 1862: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1823:Stage One: 3 Fe 1816: 1805: 1802: 1801: 1800: 1798: 1794: 1791:Carbon monoxide 1764: 1756:Main articles: 1754: 1742:Mary River Mine 1725: 1679: 1658: 1653: 1648: 1636: 1631: 1623:Fitch Solutions 1600: 1588:RMIT University 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1529: 1513: 1508: 1450: 1441: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1421: 1419:Iron ore market 1355: 1351: 1343: 1339: 1313:Hamersley Range 1270:Rio Tinto Group 1261: 1257: 1234:10 short tons) 1231: 1227: 1215:Other countries 1040: 1033: 997: 959: 951:froth flotation 931: 920: 914: 911: 896: 880: 869: 859: 846: 842: 836: 832: 797: 787: 784: 783: 782: 778: 775: 774: 773: 771: 709:Some magnetite 670: 635: 613:, and northern 582:less than 0.1% 567: 435: 429: 417:iron meteorites 398:titanomagnetite 370:Napoleonic Wars 323:from meteorites 311: 300: 294: 291: 248: 246: 236: 224: 213: 207: 191:Financial Times 164: 160: 152: 148: 140: 131: 128: 127: 126: 122: 119: 118: 117: 115: 106: 103: 102: 101: 97: 94: 93: 92: 90: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4018: 4016: 4008: 4007: 4002: 3992: 3991: 3988: 3987: 3986: 3985: 3979: 3969: 3961:data from the 3953: 3952: 3951: 3942: 3925: 3924:External links 3922: 3920: 3919: 3910: 3873: 3864: 3855: 3840: 3813: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3795: 3794: 3775:(5): 261–265. 3759: 3715: 3688:(3): 457–474. 3672: 3670:, pp. 77. 3660: 3658:, p. 760. 3648: 3633: 3621: 3619:, p. 311. 3606: 3594: 3582: 3570: 3568:, p. 194. 3558: 3541: 3529: 3527:, p. 287. 3517: 3503: 3474: 3461: 3429: 3404: 3384: 3353: 3327: 3299: 3273: 3256: 3231: 3216: 3157: 3131: 3110: 3088: 3081: 3054: 3032: 3010: 2996: 2976: 2949: 2923: 2897: 2885: 2876: 2872:Min. Met. Eng. 2863: 2836:(6): 780–785. 2820: 2785:(5): 731–735. 2769: 2734:(6): 583–587. 2718: 2699:(8): 725–729. 2683: 2648:(2): 131–141. 2632: 2613:(1–3): 71–77. 2587: 2540: 2473: 2432: 2364: 2351: 2332:(4): 293–325. 2316: 2273: 2245: 2215: 2205: 2204: 2202: 2199: 2198: 2197: 2192: 2187: 2184: 2177: 2174: 2158:electrokinetic 2134:AISI 304 steel 2096: 2064: 2061:sulfur dioxide 2052: 2049: 2005: 2002: 1985: 1982: 1931: 1928: 1911: 1902: 1899: 1893: 1892:Trace elements 1890: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1868: 1865: 1864: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1843: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1818: 1814: 1803: 1753: 1750: 1724: 1721: 1691:open pit mines 1678: 1675: 1657: 1654: 1652: 1649: 1647: 1644: 1635: 1632: 1630: 1627: 1599: 1596: 1528: 1525: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1484:Metal Bulletin 1476:the industry. 1436: 1430: 1420: 1417: 1392:Andhra Pradesh 1368:Madhya Pradesh 1236: 1235: 1224: 1220: 1219: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1208: 1202: 1201: 1198: 1192: 1191: 1188: 1182: 1181: 1178: 1172: 1171: 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4000:Iron ores 3974:from the 3906:112143315 3789:0010-9312 3769:Corrosion 3754:0010-938X 3710:0010-938X 3417:Knowledge 2942:21 August 2916:21 August 2858:1543-1851 2815:135733613 2807:1543-1916 2764:129896853 2756:1573-8736 2670:0882-7508 2582:129179725 2517:2045-2322 2409:2041-1723 2303:1554-8929 2201:Citations 2190:Ironstone 2150:oxidation 2115:manganese 2045:hot blast 2013:calcining 1990:aluminium 1984:Aluminium 1732:mine, in 1704:Minnesota 1667:Metinvest 1527:Australia 1496:Rio Tinto 1469:Vale S.A. 1465:Rio Tinto 1400:Rajasthan 1376:Jharkhand 1372:Karnataka 1360:magnetite 1289:Australia 1096:Australia 1056:Australia 1017:magnetite 985:comminute 962:Magnetite 957:Magnetite 886:does not 768:screening 742:ophiolite 727:Indonesia 684:magnetite 627:Australia 599:Minnesota 592:aluminium 522:magnetite 514:grunerite 502:silicates 421:asteroids 402:pisolitic 383:magnetite 339:carbonate 327:xenoliths 295:July 2021 87:magnetite 60:Iron ores 30:Brazilian 3313:Statista 3249:6 August 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2562:Bibcode 2526:3622134 2495:Bibcode 2418:6461606 2387:Bibcode 2334:Bibcode 2238:7 April 2152:on the 2138:sulfide 2077:oxidize 2069:pyritic 1939:solidus 1901:Silicon 1772:smelted 1746:Nunavut 1717:Alabama 1698:around 1656:Ukraine 1576:Pilbara 1519:of the 1156:Ukraine 1087:Country 1001:density 943:milling 907:removed 892:sources 673:Granite 605:in the 586:, 3–7% 457:with a 362:bog ore 279:scholar 205:Sources 141:FeO(OH) 3950:(1875) 3904: 3896: 3787: 3752: 3708: 3209: 3202:350422 3199: 3079: 2994: 2856: 2813: 2805: 2762: 2754: 2676: 2668: 2625: 2580: 2533: 2523: 2515: 2466: 2425: 2415: 2407: 2309: 2301: 2154:anodic 2109:ores. 2104:gossan 2089:pyrite 2009:Sulfur 2004:Sulfur 1817:→ 2 CO 1768:oxygen 1723:Canada 1669:, and 1646:Russia 1603:Brazil 1598:Brazil 1498:, and 1467:, and 1438: 1432: 1402:, and 1396:Kerala 1380:Odisha 1311:, the 1307:, the 1305:Newman 1246:mining 1196:Sweden 1176:Canada 1136:Russia 1106:Brazil 1070:, the 1068:Sweden 1060:Brazil 1048:Canada 970:gangue 814:cobalt 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