818:
1948:
1625:
1569:
1521:
1121:
131:
1018:
1191:, a small crustacean that inhabits ponds and rivers, is one invertebrate that the thorny-headed worm may occupy. In recent years the occurrence of infections from these parasites have been increasing in Asian aquaculture practices. This crustacean is preyed on by ducks and hides by avoiding light and staying away from the surface. However, when infected by a thorny-headed worm it becomes attracted toward light and swims to the surface.
774:
965:
721:
854:-strands inserted into the tip of the proboscis at one end and into the septum at the other. Their contraction causes the proboscis to be invaginated into its cavity. The whole proboscis apparatus can also be, at least partially, withdrawn into the body cavity, and this is effected by two retractor muscles which run from the posterior aspect of the septum to the body wall.
109:
839:
shapes, usually: longer, more slender hooks are arranged along the length of the proboscis, with several rows of more sturdy, shorter nasal hooks around the base of the proboscis. The proboscis is used to pierce the gut wall of the final host, and hold the parasite fast while it completes its life cycle.
926:
run into the cavity of the body, alongside the proboscis cavity. Each consists of a prolongation of the syncytial material of the proboscis skin, penetrated by canals and sheathed with a muscular coat. They seem to act as reservoirs into which the fluid which is used to keep the proboscis "erect" can
921:
Except for the absence of the longitudinal fibres the skin of the proboscis resembles that of the body, but the fluid-containing tubules of the proboscis are shut off from those of the body. The canals of the proboscis open into a circular vessel which runs round its base. From the circular canal two
1477:
Perrot-Minnot, Marie-Jeanne; Cozzarolo, Camille-Sophie; Amin, Omar; Barčák, Daniel; Bauer, Alexandre; Filipović Marijić, Vlatka; García-Varela, Martín; Servando Hernández-Orts, Jesús; Yen Le, T.T.; Nachev, Milen; Orosová, Martina; Rigaud, Thierry; Šariri, Sara; Wattier, Rémi; Reyda, Florian; Sures,
1195:
will even go so far as to find a rock or a plant on the surface, clamp its mouth down, and latch on, making it easy prey for the duck. The duck is the definitive host for the acanthocephalan parasite. In order to be transmitted to the duck, the parasite's intermediate host (the gammarid) must be
838:
that is usually covered with spiny hooks (hence the common name: thorny or spiny headed worm). The proboscis bears rings of recurved hooks arranged in horizontal rows, and it is by means of these hooks that the animal attaches itself to the tissues of its host. The hooks may be of two or three
935:
The central ganglion of the nervous system lies behind the proboscis sheath or septum. It innervates the proboscis and projects two stout trunks posteriorly which supply the body. Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and this nerve-muscle complex is called a
1869:
Weber, M.; Wey-Fabrizius
Alexandra, R.; Podsiadlowski, L.; Witek, A.; Schill Ralph, O.; Sugár, L.; Herlyn, H.; Hankeln, T. (January 2013). "Phylogenetic analysis of endoparasitic Acanthocephala based on mitochondrial genomes suggests secondary loss of sense organs".
1153:
as a first intermediate host). Inside the intermediate host, the acanthor is released from the egg and develops into an acanthella. It then penetrates the gut wall, moves into the body cavity, encysts, and begins transformation into the infective
511:
Acanthocephalans are highly adapted to a parasitic mode of life, and have lost many organs and structures through evolutionary processes. This makes determining relationships with other higher taxa through morphological comparison problematic.
2359:
1313:. The reason for this was discovered by Schneider in 1871 when he found that an intermediate host, the scarabaeid beetle grub, was commonly eaten raw. The first report of clinical symptoms was by Calandruccio who in 1888 while in
1196:
eaten by the duck. This modification of gammarid behavior by the acanthocephalan is thought to increase the rate of transmission of the parasite to its next host by increasing the susceptibility of the gammarid to predation.
1104:. The bell "swallows" the matured eggs and passes them on into the uterus. (Immature embryos are passed back into the body cavity through the dorsal opening.) From the uterus, mature eggs leave the female's body via her
1317:
infected himself by ingesting larvae. He reported gastrointestinal disturbances and shed eggs in two weeks. Subsequent natural infections have since been reported. Eight species have been isolated from humans to date.
1272:
in Canada were probably acquired from crabs that form an important dietary item of lobsters. Cystacanths occurring in lobsters can cause economic loss to fishermen. There are no known methods of prevention or control.
871:, which measures from 10 to 65 centimetres (3.9 to 25.6 in). A curious feature shared by both larva and adult is the large size of many of the cells, e.g. the nerve cells and cells forming the uterine bell.
1215:
clamps down on the female and holds on for days. Researchers have additionally found that blocking serotonin releases clamping. Another experiment found that serotonin also reduces the photophobic behavior in
1822:
Sielaff, M.; Schmidt, H.; Struck, T. H.; Rosenkranz, D.; Mark Welch, D. B.; Hankeln, T; Herlyn, H. (March 2016). "Phylogeny of
Syndermata (syn. Rotifera): Mitochondrial gene order verifies epizoic
1728:"First record of Acanthocephala parasites eggs in coprolites preliminary assigned to Crocodyliformes from the Adamantina Formation (Bauru Group, Upper Cretaceous), São Paulo, Brazil"
1161:
The parasite is released when the first intermediate host is ingested. This can be by a suitable final host, in which case the cystacanth develops into a mature adult, or by a
1065:. The male also possesses three pairs of cement glands, found behind the testes, which pour their secretions through a duct into the vasa deferentia. These unite and end in a
4730:
688:
A study of the gene order in the mitochondria suggests that
Seisonidea and Acanthocephala are sister clades and that the Bdelloidea are the sister clade to this group.
3984:
2259:
Amin, O. M. (1987). "Key to the families and subfamilies of
Acanthocephala, with erection of a new class (Polyacanthocephala) and a new order (Polyacanthorhynchida)".
4602:
1480:"Hooking the scientific community on thorny-headed worms: interesting and exciting facts, knowledge gaps and perspectives for research directions on Acanthocephala"
1169:, everts its proboscis and pierces the gut wall. It then feeds, grows and develops its sexual organs. Adult worms then mate. The male uses the excretions of its
4628:
1961:
2167:
Tada, I; Otsuji, Y; Kamiya, H.; Mimori, T.; Sakaguchi, Y.; Makizumi, S (February 1983). "The first case of a human infected with an acanthocephalan parasite,
857:
Some of the acanthocephalans (perforating acanthocephalans) can insert their proboscis in the intestine of the host and open the way to the abdominal cavity.
1137:
Having been expelled by the female, the acanthocephalan egg is released along with the feces of the host. For development to occur, the egg, containing the
1662:
Freeman, Scott, Lizabeth
Allison, Michael Black, Greg Podgorski, and Kim Quillin. Biological Sciences. 5th ed. Glenview, Il: Pearson, 2014. 638. Print.
910:. Inside the syncytium is an irregular layer of circular muscle fibres, and within this again some rather scattered longitudinal fibres; there is no
4576:
805:
by the host, directly, through their body surface. The acanthocephalans lack an excretory system, although some species have been shown to possess
4615:
3690:
2368:
1989:"First report of acanthocephalan parasite, Longicollum pagrosomi Yamaguti, 1935 in cultured red snapper ( Lutjanus erythropterus ) in Taiwan"
1806:
707:. The monophyletic Archiacanthocephala are the sister taxon of a clade comprising Eoacanthocephala and the monophyletic Palaeacanthocephala.
4725:
1100:, a funnel like opening continuous with the uterus. At the junction of the bell and the uterus there is a second, smaller opening situated
817:
2129:
2404:
2315:
1647:
1397:
1257:
spp. to intermediate crab hosts. The cystacanth stage is long lived and probably remains infective throughout the life of the crab.
1207:
to be massively expressed. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in emotions and mood. Researchers have found that during mating
1004:
760:
4720:
4715:
4677:
2441:
1301:
867:
463:
454:
The earliest recognisable description of
Acanthocephala – a worm with a proboscis armed with hooks – was made by Italian author
2436:
982:
738:
506:
20:
986:
742:
1177:
of the female, preventing subsequent matings from occurring. Embryos develop inside the female, and the life cycle repeats.
4620:
2520:
2510:
2493:
823:
2065:
Moore, J. G.; Fry, G. F.; Englert, E. (March 21, 1969). "Thomy-headed worm infection in North
American prehistoric man".
130:
4524:
4511:
3683:
1965:
927:
withdraw when it is retracted, and from which the fluid can be driven out when it is wished to expand the proboscis.
4555:
1389:
4633:
4710:
4705:
4568:
3827:
1443:
1320:
351:
2311:"Altered host behaviour and brain serotonergic activity caused by acanthocephalans: evidence for specificity"
1326:
1185:
Thorny-headed worms begin their life cycle inside invertebrates that reside in marine or freshwater systems.
1049:
which runs from the posterior end of the proboscis sheath to the posterior end of the body. In the male, two
3912:
2525:
1448:
1296:
975:
731:
1947:
1624:
1568:
1520:
4464:
3676:
2397:
1332:
117:
4654:
4140:
3790:
2488:
781:
Several morphological characteristics distinguish acanthocephalans from other phyla of parasitic worms.
408:
1249:
to the gut, disease and seasonal mortality. Recent research has suggested that there is no evidence of
1165:
host, in which the parasite again forms a cyst. When consumed by a suitable final host, the cycstacant
367:
4537:
4529:
3805:
2296:
Lühe, M. (1904). "Geschichte und
Ergebnisse der Echinorhynchen – Forschung bis auf Westrumb (1821)".
2074:
2000:
4682:
4502:
1414:
1291:
888:
884:
696:
692:
275:
265:
1726:
Cardia, Daniel F. F.; Bertini, Reinaldo J.; Camossi, Lucilene G.; Letizio, Luiz A. (May 6, 2019).
4135:
3817:
2953:
2505:
2483:
2471:
2446:
2276:
2188:
2141:
2098:
2024:
1775:
1282:
1187:
865:
The size of these animals varies greatly, some are measured to be a few millimetres in length to
700:
682:
280:
234:
125:
1155:
1120:
4659:
1907:"Acanthocephalans from fishes and amphibians in Vietnam, with descriptions of five new species"
4641:
3927:
3375:
3295:
2645:
2515:
2478:
2466:
2456:
2390:
2364:
2342:
2284:
2237:
2196:
2149:
2090:
2016:
1936:
1887:
1851:
1802:
1767:
1759:
1643:
1613:
1605:
1557:
1509:
1393:
1220:. Thus, it is thought that the thorny-headed worm physiologically changes the behavior of the
1138:
1076:
are found, like the testes, as rounded bodies along the ligament. From the ovaries, masses of
842:
Like the body, the proboscis is hollow, and its cavity is separated from the body cavity by a
459:
438:
analysis has shown that they are descended from, and should be considered as, highly modified
4669:
1456:
1383:
4203:
4082:
3974:
3917:
3857:
3852:
3780:
3765:
2430:
2332:
2324:
2268:
2227:
2180:
2133:
2082:
2008:
1926:
1918:
1879:
1843:
1749:
1739:
1595:
1547:
1499:
1491:
1101:
1017:
790:
704:
431:
295:
270:
4646:
2116:
Schmidt, Gerald D. (June 1971). "Acanthocephalan infections of man, with two new records".
1437:
1295:
which is still common in the area. The first report of an isolate in historic times was by
4607:
4376:
4281:
4243:
4198:
4130:
3887:
3847:
3832:
3725:
3656:
3562:
3413:
3316:
3173:
2706:
494:
487:
3668:
2078:
2004:
1988:
1504:
1479:
4563:
4550:
4436:
4381:
4213:
4027:
3979:
3892:
3867:
3862:
3842:
3837:
3740:
3730:
3321:
3117:
3029:
2970:
2461:
2337:
2310:
1931:
1906:
1126:
797:(tapeworms), although the two groups are not closely related. Adult stages live in the
455:
381:
346:
4516:
4699:
4160:
4145:
4107:
4032:
3968:
3954:
3902:
3897:
3811:
3800:
3795:
3775:
3770:
3745:
3466:
3370:
2869:
2232:
2215:
2028:
1779:
1695:
1108:, pass into the host's alimentary canal and are expelled from the host's body within
1030:
471:
404:
66:
1289:. This infection was dated to 1869 ± 160 BC. The species involved was thought to be
883:
The body surface of the acanthocephala is peculiar. Externally, the skin has a thin
4356:
4351:
4326:
4301:
4291:
4218:
4087:
3961:
3922:
3907:
3882:
3877:
3822:
3755:
3572:
3567:
3455:
3311:
3197:
3083:
2986:
2965:
2835:
2786:
2742:
2723:
2102:
2046:(Acanthocephala) infestation in eiders and its role as a possible cause of death".
1246:
1054:
1045:(an individual organism is either male or female). There is a structure called the
1033:
and resting stages. Complete life cycles have been worked out for only 25 species.
907:
412:
2086:
1744:
1727:
1600:
1583:
1552:
1535:
773:
1795:
1029:
Acanthocephalans have complex life cycles, involving a number of hosts, for both
4589:
4496:
4411:
4386:
4331:
4306:
4228:
4223:
4188:
4178:
3872:
3785:
3533:
3504:
3490:
3480:
3065:
2881:
2794:
2576:
2354:
2125:
1883:
1847:
1229:
1058:
964:
948:
911:
720:
614:
586:
529:
490:
175:
41:
1922:
1495:
4444:
4406:
4336:
4316:
4311:
4296:
4266:
4238:
4193:
4183:
4155:
4150:
4092:
4067:
3760:
3735:
3630:
3615:
3610:
3591:
3586:
3514:
3461:
3431:
3423:
3365:
3239:
3231:
3214:
2994:
2906:
2859:
2799:
2761:
2735:
2581:
2566:
1238:
1146:
806:
599:
554:
533:
525:
443:
249:
211:
86:
51:
4487:
1763:
1609:
1561:
1158:
stage. This form has all the organs of the adult save the reproductive ones.
4361:
4341:
4233:
4112:
4047:
4037:
4022:
4017:
3998:
3750:
3596:
3543:
3538:
3509:
3498:
3447:
3442:
3394:
3306:
3299:
3093:
3088:
3050:
2899:
2891:
2820:
2772:
2693:
2680:
2661:
2656:
2615:
1355:
1204:
1162:
1142:
1081:
1042:
896:
892:
872:
835:
802:
798:
567:
537:
513:
483:
416:
400:
397:
201:
188:
162:
142:
91:
2360:
Parasite Rex: Inside the
Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures
2346:
2328:
2309:
Tain, Luke; Marie-Jeanne Perrot-Minnot; Frank Cézilly (December 22, 2006).
2241:
2094:
2020:
1940:
1891:
1855:
1771:
1513:
1415:"Descriptio cyprini rutili, quem halawel russi vocant, historico-anatomica"
2288:
2200:
2153:
1617:
520:
gene has revealed that the
Acanthocephala are most closely related to the
4481:
4416:
4396:
4391:
4366:
4346:
4321:
4286:
4276:
4271:
4102:
4077:
4057:
3717:
3620:
3604:
3527:
3519:
3474:
3437:
3418:
3407:
3389:
3383:
3244:
3185:
3161:
3058:
2939:
2828:
2712:
2603:
2594:
2500:
1309:. Lindemann in 1865 reported that this organism was commonly isolated in
1250:
1234:
1150:
1131:
944:
915:
904:
831:
517:
221:
81:
76:
61:
56:
46:
1754:
1245:). Heavy infections of up to 750 parasites per bird are common, causing
4421:
4401:
4097:
4072:
4062:
4052:
4008:
3945:
3580:
3556:
3548:
3485:
3399:
3219:
3206:
3139:
3130:
3075:
3000:
2280:
2192:
2145:
1584:"Les hôtes des Acanthocéphales. II — Les hôtes définitifs. 1. Poissons"
1350:
1345:
1269:
1105:
1073:
989: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
941:
794:
745: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
521:
439:
424:
108:
96:
71:
4594:
2382:
2012:
4261:
4253:
4122:
3625:
3359:
2649:
2559:
2546:
2417:
2414:
1310:
1306:
1265:
1174:
1093:
1085:
1084:
by male's sperm. After fertilization, each egg contains a developing
1050:
900:
851:
830:
The most notable feature of the acanthocephala is the presence of an
435:
420:
152:
4458:
2272:
2184:
2137:
1987:
Cheng, Li‐Wu; Rao, Shreesha; Wang, Pei‐Chi; Chen, Shih‐Chu (2022).
4581:
4170:
4042:
2214:
Haustein, T.; Lawes, M.; Harris, E.; Chiodini, P. L. (June 2010).
1314:
1119:
1109:
1089:
1066:
1016:
816:
772:
678:
446:, but are also described as a subclass of Hemirottoriod rotifera.
1672:
1285:. The earliest known infection was found in a prehistoric man in
1211:
expresses high levels of serotonin. Also during mating, the male
914:. In their micro-structure the muscular fibres resemble those of
875:
is common, with up to 343n having been recorded in some species.
482:
The oldest known remains of acanthocephalans are eggs found in a
4208:
3700:
1419:
Novi Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae
1286:
1077:
4462:
3672:
2678:
2386:
1793:
Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004),
1797:
Invertebrate Zoology : a functional evolutionary approach
1382:
Crompton, David; Thomasson, William; Nickol, Brent B. (1985).
958:
714:
1536:"Les hôtes des Acanthocéphales. I — Les Hôtes intermédiaires"
313:
1203:
is infected with a thorny-headed worm, the parasite causes
677:
The three rotifer classes and the Acanthocephala make up a
337:
331:
325:
316:
298:
4542:
403:, armed with spines, which it uses to pierce and hold the
1962:"Acanthocephalans drilling Acipenser stellatus intestine"
1716:
The invertebrate tree of live; Giribet and Edgecombe 2020
1080:
dehisce into the body cavity, floating in its fluids for
493:
of Brazil, around 70-80 million years old, likely from a
307:
2042:
Itämies, J.; Valtonen, E. T.; Fagerholm, H. P. (1980). "
1268:) and small crabs. Infections found in commercial-sized
1264:
spp. normally occurs between sea ducks (e.g. eiders and
903:
containing fluid and is controlled by a few wandering,
497:. The group may have originated substantially earlier.
899:. The syncytium is traversed by a series of branching
524:. They are possibly closer to the two rotifer classes
536:, producing the names and relationships shown in the
328:
322:
310:
304:
301:
691:
Currently the phylum is divided into four classes –
334:
4471:
4434:
4252:
4169:
4121:
4006:
3997:
3944:
3716:
3349:
3230:
3205:
3196:
3172:
3150:
3115:
3074:
3049:
3042:
3027:
2979:
2952:
2937:
2890:
2868:
2848:
2819:
2812:
2785:
2770:
2759:
2722:
2691:
2614:
2575:
2544:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1324:is the most common isolate. Other isolates include
801:of their host and uptake nutrients which have been
319:
1801:(7th ed.), Belmont, CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole,
1794:
1436:
411:, involving at least two hosts, which may include
430:The Acanthocephala were thought to be a discrete
3985:Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms
777:Some key features of acanthocephalan morphology
681:called Syndermata. This clade is placed in the
1905:Amin, O. A; Heckmann, R. A; Ha, N. V. (2014).
3684:
2398:
1642:(Eighth ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 502.
850:. Traversing the cavity of the proboscis are
821:Scanning electron microscopy of proboscis of
8:
1638:Roberts, Larry S.; Janovy, John Jr. (2009).
1588:Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée
1540:Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée
1224:in order to enter the bird, its final host.
1149:(there is one known life cycle which uses a
1092:.) The fertilized eggs are brought into the
1053:lie on either side of this. Each opens in a
474:in 1809 formally named them Acanthocephala.
442:. This unified taxon is sometimes known as
374:
365:
358:
349:
4459:
4003:
3941:
3713:
3709:
3691:
3677:
3669:
3346:
3202:
3178:
3154:
3123:
3046:
3039:
3035:
2958:
2949:
2945:
2874:
2852:
2845:
2816:
2782:
2778:
2767:
2756:
2728:
2699:
2688:
2675:
2587:
2552:
2541:
2405:
2391:
2383:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1371:
107:
27:
2336:
2231:
1930:
1753:
1743:
1599:
1551:
1503:
1005:Learn how and when to remove this message
761:Learn how and when to remove this message
2743:Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives)
1732:Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências
1088:. (These embryos hatch into first stage
793:. This is a feature they share with the
407:wall of its host. Acanthocephalans have
4731:Taxa named by Joseph Gottlieb Kölreuter
1367:
1227:Examples of this behaviour include the
940:. In the male at least there is also a
2737:Echinodermata (starfish and relatives)
2707:Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives)
396:, characterized by the presence of an
16:Group of parasitic thorny-headed worms
1872:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1836:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1812:, p. 788ff. – see particularly p. 804
7:
4569:ac029666-9a7a-4946-baad-6f741b761215
3008:Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms)
1582:Golvan, Y. J.; De Buron, I. (1988).
1534:de Buron, I.; Golvan, Y. J. (1986).
1457:participating institution membership
987:adding citations to reliable sources
743:adding citations to reliable sources
2220:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
2130:American Society of Parasitologists
592:
582:
560:
550:
543:
2605:Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives)
2316:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
462:proposed the name Acanthocephala.
14:
2216:"An eye-catching acanthocephalan"
1964:. Parasites World. Archived from
1281:In humans, it causes the disease
789:Acanthocephalans lack a mouth or
3649:Phyla with ≥1000 extant species
2233:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02896.x
1946:
1696:"Nano-Animals, Part I: Rotifers"
1623:
1567:
1519:
1302:Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus
963:
922:sac-like projections called the
868:Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus
719:
294:
129:
1694:Shimek, Ronald (January 2006).
1021:A diagram of the life cycle of
974:needs additional citations for
730:needs additional citations for
507:List of bilateral animal orders
21:Acanthocephala (disambiguation)
2836:Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)
951:may possibly be sense-organs.
1:
2087:10.1126/science.163.3873.1324
1745:10.1590/0001-3765201920170848
1385:Biology of the Acanthocephala
1141:, needs to be ingested by an
824:Cathayacanthus spinitruncatus
464:Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller
3448:Echinozoans inc. sea urchins
1233:spp. which are parasites of
4726:Suicide-inducing parasitism
3505:Chelicerates inc. arachnids
3245:Phoronida (horseshoe worms)
3060:Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
2971:Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)
2860:Loricifera (corset animals)
2173:The Journal of Parasitology
2118:The Journal of Parasitology
1884:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.09.017
1848:10.1016/j.ympev.2015.11.017
1826:as sister to endoparasitic
1738:(Supplement 2): e20170848.
1640:Foundations of Parasitology
1601:10.1051/parasite/1988635349
1553:10.1051/parasite/1986615581
4747:
3395:Medusozoans inc. jellyfish
3141:Annelida (segmented worms)
2966:Chaetognatha (arrow worms)
2882:Onychophora (velvet worms)
2363:. Free Press. p. 92.
1413:Koelreuter, I. T. (1770).
1390:Cambridge University Press
504:
466:independently called them
18:
3940:
3712:
3708:
3703:phyla/divisions by domain
3645:
3443:Asterozoans inc. starfish
3345:
3338:
3289:
3240:Brachiopoda (lamp shells)
3221:Ectoprocta (moss animals)
3181:
3157:
3126:
3066:Gastrotricha (hairybacks)
3038:
2961:
2948:
2877:
2855:
2844:
2795:Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)
2781:
2755:
2731:
2702:
2687:
2674:
2639:
2590:
2567:Ctenophora (comb jellies)
2555:
2540:
2424:
1444:Oxford English Dictionary
1321:Moniliformis moniliformis
1299:in 1859 when he isolated
1069:which opens posteriorly.
636:
612:
597:
590:
580:
565:
558:
548:
532:than to the other class,
366:
350:
262:
257:
126:Scientific classification
124:
115:
106:
30:
3001:Rotifera (wheel animals)
2800:Priapulida (penis worms)
1993:Journal of Fish Diseases
1923:10.1051/parasite/2014052
1496:10.1051/parasite/2023026
1199:It is thought that when
4721:Mind-altering parasites
4716:Veterinary parasitology
3913:Thermodesulfobacteriota
3215:Entoprocta or Kamptozoa
3187:Nemertea (ribbon worms)
2908:Tardigrada (waterbears)
2901:Arthropoda (arthropods)
2261:Journal of Parasitology
1449:Oxford University Press
1327:Acanthocephalus bufonis
1041:The Acanthocephala are
3390:Anthozoans inc. corals
3089:Dicyemida or Rhombozoa
2329:10.1098/rspb.2006.3618
1134:
1026:
891:, which consists of a
827:
778:
380:'head') is a group of
375:
359:
37:Late Cretaceous–Recent
4655:Paleobiology Database
4141:Neocallimastigomycota
3520:Hexapods inc. insects
2830:Nematoda (roundworms)
1123:
1020:
820:
776:
427:have been described.
4564:Fauna Europaea (new)
3806:Coprothermobacterota
2713:Chordata (chordates)
2298:Zoologischer Annalen
1830:within monophyletic
1674:Encyclopedia of Life
1333:Corynosoma strumosum
1243:Somateria mollissima
983:improve this article
739:improve this article
516:analysis of the 18S
478:Evolutionary history
19:For other uses, see
3163:Mollusca (molluscs)
2648:of the animal root
2323:(1605): 3039–3045.
2079:1969Sci...163.1324M
2073:(3873): 1324–1325.
2044:Polymorphus minutus
2005:2022JFDis..45..579C
1447:(Online ed.).
1292:Moniliformis clarki
1237:, particularly the
1072:In the female, the
1063:vesiculae seminales
697:Archiacanthocephala
693:Palaeacanthocephala
409:complex life cycles
390:thorny-headed worms
276:Palaeacanthocephala
266:Archiacanthocephala
118:Corynosoma wegeneri
4136:Blastocladiomycota
3376:Calcareous sponges
2561:Porifera (sponges)
1283:acanthocephaliasis
1260:The life cycle of
1222:Gammarus lacustris
1218:Gammarus lacustris
1213:Gammarus lacustris
1209:Gammarus lacustris
1201:Gammarus lacustris
1193:Gammarus lacustris
1188:Gammarus lacustris
1135:
1096:by actions of the
1057:which bears three
1027:
828:
809:(protonephridia).
779:
701:Polyacanthocephala
394:spiny-headed worms
281:Polyacanthocephala
4693:
4692:
4642:Open Tree of Life
4465:Taxon identifiers
4456:
4455:
4452:
4451:
4430:
4429:
3993:
3992:
3936:
3935:
3928:Verrucomicrobiota
3666:
3665:
3641:
3640:
3334:
3333:
3330:
3329:
3285:
3284:
3281:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3257:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3111:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3023:
3022:
3019:
3018:
2933:
2932:
2929:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2808:
2807:
2751:
2750:
2670:
2669:
2635:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2370:978-0-7432-0011-0
2013:10.1111/jfd.13583
1968:on April 30, 2012
1808:978-0-03-025982-1
1698:. Reefkeeping.com
1455:(Subscription or
1438:"acanthocephalan"
1015:
1014:
1007:
947:. Some scattered
771:
770:
763:
674:
673:
665:
664:
656:
655:
647:
646:
625:
624:
460:Joseph Koelreuter
458:(1684). In 1771,
288:
287:
253:
4738:
4711:Protostome phyla
4706:Acanthocephalans
4686:
4685:
4673:
4672:
4663:
4662:
4650:
4649:
4637:
4636:
4624:
4623:
4611:
4610:
4598:
4597:
4585:
4584:
4572:
4571:
4559:
4558:
4546:
4545:
4533:
4532:
4520:
4519:
4507:
4506:
4505:
4492:
4491:
4490:
4460:
4204:Anthocerotophyta
4083:Hemimastigophora
4004:
3975:Nitrososphaerota
3942:
3918:Thermomicrobiota
3858:Kiritimatiellota
3853:Ignavibacteriota
3818:Deferribacterota
3781:Campylobacterota
3766:Bdellovibrionota
3714:
3710:
3693:
3686:
3679:
3670:
3347:
3303:
3203:
3179:
3155:
3124:
3120:
3047:
3040:
3036:
3032:
2959:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2875:
2853:
2846:
2817:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2729:
2700:
2696:
2689:
2676:
2653:
2588:
2553:
2549:
2542:
2453:
2433:
2407:
2400:
2393:
2384:
2374:
2350:
2340:
2305:
2292:
2267:(6): 1216–1219.
2246:
2245:
2235:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2039:
2033:
2032:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1950:
1944:
1934:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1819:
1813:
1811:
1800:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1757:
1747:
1723:
1717:
1714:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1681:
1669:
1663:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1621:
1603:
1579:
1573:
1572:
1571:
1565:
1555:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1517:
1507:
1474:
1461:
1460:
1452:
1440:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1379:
1305:from a child in
1277:Human infections
1047:genital ligament
1010:
1003:
999:
996:
990:
967:
959:
848:proboscis sheath
791:alimentary canal
766:
759:
755:
752:
746:
723:
715:
705:Eoacanthocephala
593:
583:
561:
551:
544:
386:acanthocephalans
378:
371:
370:
362:
355:
354:
344:
343:
340:
339:
336:
333:
330:
327:
324:
321:
318:
315:
312:
309:
306:
303:
300:
271:Eoacanthocephala
248:
134:
133:
111:
101:
38:
34:Temporal range:
28:
4746:
4745:
4741:
4740:
4739:
4737:
4736:
4735:
4696:
4695:
4694:
4689:
4681:
4676:
4668:
4666:
4658:
4653:
4645:
4640:
4632:
4627:
4619:
4614:
4606:
4601:
4593:
4588:
4580:
4575:
4567:
4562:
4554:
4549:
4541:
4536:
4528:
4523:
4515:
4510:
4501:
4500:
4495:
4486:
4485:
4480:
4467:
4457:
4448:
4426:
4377:Gnathostomulida
4282:Xenacoelomorpha
4248:
4244:Flowering plant
4199:Marchantiophyta
4165:
4131:Chytridiomycota
4117:
3989:
3932:
3888:Planctomycetota
3848:Gemmatimonadota
3833:Elusimicrobiota
3726:Acidobacteriota
3704:
3697:
3667:
3662:
3637:
3563:Phylactolaemata
3351:
3341:
3340:
3326:
3317:Xenambulacraria
3293:
3249:
3226:
3192:
3174:Kryptotrochozoa
3168:
3146:
3116:
3103:
3094:Monoblastozoa (
3070:
3028:
3015:
2987:Micrognathozoa
2975:
2938:
2913:
2886:
2864:
2840:
2804:
2771:
2760:
2747:
2718:
2692:
2683:
2666:
2643:
2627:
2610:
2579:
2571:
2545:
2536:
2535:
2451:
2429:
2420:
2411:
2381:
2371:
2353:
2308:
2295:
2273:10.2307/3282307
2258:
2255:
2253:Further reading
2250:
2249:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2185:10.2307/3281300
2166:
2165:
2161:
2138:10.2307/3277920
2115:
2114:
2110:
2064:
2063:
2059:
2048:Ann. Zool. Fenn
2041:
2040:
2036:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1971:
1969:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1945:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1809:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1711:
1701:
1699:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1679:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1650:
1637:
1636:
1632:
1622:
1581:
1580:
1576:
1566:
1533:
1532:
1528:
1518:
1476:
1475:
1464:
1454:
1435:
1434:
1430:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1400:
1381:
1380:
1369:
1364:
1342:
1279:
1183:
1118:
1039:
1011:
1000:
994:
991:
980:
968:
957:
933:
881:
863:
815:
787:
767:
756:
750:
747:
736:
724:
713:
675:
666:
657:
648:
638:Acanthocephala
626:
509:
503:
488:Late Cretaceous
480:
452:
382:parasitic worms
297:
293:
247:
128:
102:
100:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
44:
36:
35:
32:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4744:
4742:
4734:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4698:
4697:
4691:
4690:
4688:
4687:
4674:
4664:
4651:
4638:
4625:
4612:
4599:
4586:
4573:
4560:
4551:Fauna Europaea
4547:
4534:
4521:
4517:Acanthocephala
4508:
4503:Acanthocephala
4493:
4477:
4475:
4473:Acanthocephala
4469:
4468:
4463:
4454:
4453:
4450:
4449:
4442:
4440:
4437:Incertae sedis
4432:
4431:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4382:Micrognathozoa
4379:
4374:
4372:Acanthocephala
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4258:
4256:
4250:
4249:
4247:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4214:Lycopodiophyta
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4175:
4173:
4167:
4166:
4164:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4127:
4125:
4119:
4118:
4116:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4028:Ancyromonadida
4025:
4020:
4014:
4012:
4001:
3995:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3987:
3982:
3980:Thermoproteota
3977:
3972:
3965:
3958:
3950:
3948:
3938:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3931:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3893:Pseudomonadota
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3868:Mycoplasmatota
3865:
3863:Lentisphaerota
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3843:Fusobacteriota
3840:
3838:Fibrobacterota
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3741:Armatimonadota
3738:
3733:
3731:Actinomycetota
3728:
3722:
3720:
3706:
3705:
3698:
3696:
3695:
3688:
3681:
3673:
3664:
3663:
3661:
3660:
3653:
3646:
3643:
3642:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3577:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3553:
3552:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3528:Platyhelminths
3524:
3523:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3495:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3471:
3470:
3469:
3464:
3452:
3451:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3380:
3379:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3355:
3353:
3343:
3342:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3322:Centroneuralia
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3275:
3274:
3271:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3236:
3234:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3217:
3211:
3209:
3200:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3190:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3158:
3152:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3144:
3137:
3127:
3121:
3118:Lophotrochozoa
3113:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3101:
3091:
3086:
3080:
3078:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3068:
3063:
3055:
3053:
3044:
3033:
3030:Platytrochozoa
3025:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3004:
2992:
2989:(Limnognathia)
2983:
2981:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2973:
2968:
2962:
2956:
2943:
2935:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2927:
2926:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2911:
2904:
2896:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2884:
2878:
2872:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2862:
2856:
2850:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2825:
2823:
2814:
2810:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2791:
2789:
2776:
2765:
2753:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2732:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2709:
2703:
2697:
2685:
2684:
2679:
2672:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2633:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2619:
2618:(Triploblasts)
2612:
2611:
2609:
2608:
2601:
2599:and relatives)
2591:
2585:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2564:
2556:
2550:
2538:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2529:
2526:Mesomycetozoea
2523:
2518:
2508:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2462:Diaphoretickes
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2426:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2402:
2395:
2387:
2380:
2379:External links
2377:
2376:
2375:
2369:
2351:
2306:
2293:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2206:
2159:
2108:
2057:
2034:
1999:(4): 579–593.
1979:
1953:
1897:
1878:(1): 182–189.
1861:
1828:Acanthocephala
1814:
1807:
1785:
1718:
1709:
1686:
1664:
1655:
1648:
1630:
1594:(5): 349–375.
1574:
1546:(5): 581–592.
1526:
1478:Bernd (2023).
1462:
1428:
1405:
1398:
1392:. p. 27.
1366:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1341:
1338:
1278:
1275:
1182:
1179:
1127:Pomphorhynchus
1117:
1114:
1038:
1035:
1013:
1012:
971:
969:
962:
956:
953:
932:
931:Nervous system
929:
887:covering the
880:
877:
862:
859:
834:, protrudable
814:
811:
786:
783:
769:
768:
727:
725:
718:
712:
709:
672:
671:
668:
667:
663:
662:
659:
658:
654:
653:
650:
649:
645:
644:
641:
640:
635:
632:
631:
628:
627:
623:
622:
619:
618:
611:
608:
607:
604:
603:
596:
591:
589:
581:
579:
576:
575:
572:
571:
564:
559:
557:
549:
547:
542:
502:
499:
479:
476:
468:Echinorhynchus
456:Francesco Redi
451:
448:
291:Acanthocephala
286:
285:
284:
283:
278:
273:
268:
260:
259:
255:
254:
245:Acanthocephala
242:
238:
237:
232:
225:
224:
219:
215:
214:
209:
205:
204:
199:
192:
191:
186:
179:
178:
173:
166:
165:
160:
156:
155:
150:
146:
145:
140:
136:
135:
122:
121:
113:
112:
104:
103:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
45:
40:
39:
33:
31:Acanthocephala
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4743:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4703:
4701:
4684:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4665:
4661:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4591:
4587:
4583:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4513:
4509:
4504:
4498:
4494:
4489:
4483:
4479:
4478:
4476:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4461:
4447:
4446:
4441:
4439:
4438:
4433:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4255:
4251:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4172:
4168:
4162:
4161:Basidiomycota
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4146:Glomeromycota
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4120:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4108:Stramenopiles
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4033:Apusomonadida
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3996:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3970:
3969:Nanoarchaeota
3966:
3963:
3959:
3956:
3955:Euryarchaeota
3952:
3951:
3949:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3903:Spirochaetota
3901:
3899:
3898:Rhodothermota
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3828:Dictyoglomota
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3813:
3812:Cyanobacteria
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3801:Chrysiogenota
3799:
3797:
3796:Chloroflexota
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3776:Calditrichota
3774:
3772:
3771:Caldisericota
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3746:Atribacterota
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3702:
3694:
3689:
3687:
3682:
3680:
3675:
3674:
3671:
3658:
3657:dubious phyla
3654:
3652:
3648:
3647:
3644:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3583:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3530:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3502:
3501:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3456:Hemichordates
3453:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3371:Glass sponges
3369:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3357:
3356:
3354:
3348:
3344:
3337:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3312:Deuterostomia
3310:
3308:
3305:
3301:
3298:of Bilateria
3297:
3292:
3291:
3288:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3233:
3229:
3223:
3222:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3212:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3171:
3165:
3164:
3160:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3138:
3136:
3134:
3131:Cycliophora (
3129:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3114:
3099:
3097:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3077:
3073:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3026:
3010:
3009:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2998:
2997:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2936:
2910:
2909:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2898:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2880:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2870:Panarthropoda
2867:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2831:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2815:
2811:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2769:
2766:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2733:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2701:
2698:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2673:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2642:
2641:
2638:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2593:
2592:
2589:
2586:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2543:
2539:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2489:Stramenopiles
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2452:(major groups
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2416:
2408:
2403:
2401:
2396:
2394:
2389:
2388:
2385:
2378:
2372:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2256:
2252:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2128:on behalf of
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2061:
2058:
2054:(4): 285–289.
2053:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1980:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1865:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1815:
1810:
1804:
1799:
1798:
1789:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1719:
1713:
1710:
1697:
1690:
1687:
1676:
1675:
1668:
1665:
1659:
1656:
1651:
1649:9780073028279
1645:
1641:
1634:
1631:
1626:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1578:
1575:
1570:
1563:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1530:
1527:
1522:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1450:
1446:
1445:
1439:
1432:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1409:
1406:
1401:
1399:9780521246743
1395:
1391:
1387:
1386:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1361:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1334:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1322:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1294:
1293:
1288:
1284:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1251:pathogenicity
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1231:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1189:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1171:cement glands
1168:
1164:
1159:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1122:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1082:fertilization
1079:
1075:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1031:developmental
1024:
1019:
1009:
1006:
998:
988:
984:
978:
977:
972:This section
970:
966:
961:
960:
954:
952:
950:
946:
943:
939:
930:
928:
925:
919:
917:
913:
909:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
878:
876:
874:
870:
869:
860:
858:
855:
853:
849:
845:
840:
837:
833:
826:
825:
819:
812:
810:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
784:
782:
775:
765:
762:
754:
744:
740:
734:
733:
728:This section
726:
722:
717:
716:
710:
708:
706:
702:
698:
694:
689:
686:
684:
680:
670:
669:
661:
660:
652:
651:
643:
642:
639:
634:
633:
630:
629:
621:
620:
617:
616:
610:
609:
606:
605:
602:
601:
595:
594:
588:
585:
584:
578:
577:
574:
573:
570:
569:
563:
562:
556:
553:
552:
546:
545:
541:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
508:
500:
498:
496:
495:crocodyliform
492:
489:
485:
477:
475:
473:
472:Karl Rudolphi
469:
465:
461:
457:
449:
447:
445:
441:
437:
433:
428:
426:
423:. About 1420
422:
419:, birds, and
418:
414:
413:invertebrates
410:
406:
402:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
377:
369:
363:
361:
353:
348:
342:
292:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
263:
261:
256:
251:
246:
243:
240:
239:
236:
233:
230:
227:
226:
223:
220:
217:
216:
213:
210:
207:
206:
203:
200:
197:
194:
193:
190:
187:
184:
181:
180:
177:
174:
171:
168:
167:
164:
161:
158:
157:
154:
151:
148:
147:
144:
141:
138:
137:
132:
127:
123:
120:
119:
114:
110:
105:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
43:
29:
26:
22:
4472:
4443:
4435:
4371:
4357:Orthonectida
4352:Gastrotricha
4327:Nematomorpha
4302:Chaetognatha
4292:Hemichordate
4219:Pteridophyta
4088:Malawimonada
3962:Korarchaeota
3923:Thermotogota
3908:Synergistota
3883:Nitrospirota
3878:Nitrospinota
3823:Deinococcota
3756:Bacteroidota
3655:Potentially
3650:
3603:
3579:
3573:Gymnolaemata
3568:Stenolaemata
3557:Ectoproctans
3555:
3526:
3497:
3473:
3467:Pterobranchs
3454:
3430:
3406:
3382:
3358:
3352:within phyla
3350:Major groups
3220:
3207:Bryozoa s.l.
3198:Lophophorata
3186:
3162:
3140:
3132:
3095:
3084:Orthonectida
3059:
3007:
3006:
2999:
2988:
2907:
2900:
2829:
2787:Scalidophora
2736:
2724:Ambulacraria
2711:
2624:(see below↓)
2604:
2596:
2560:
2511:Opisthokonta
2358:
2355:Zimmer, Carl
2320:
2314:
2301:
2297:
2264:
2260:
2226:(6): 787–8.
2223:
2219:
2209:
2179:(1): 205–8.
2176:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2037:
1996:
1992:
1982:
1970:. Retrieved
1966:the original
1956:
1914:
1910:
1900:
1875:
1871:
1864:
1839:
1835:
1832:Hemirotifera
1831:
1827:
1823:
1817:
1796:
1788:
1755:11449/189712
1735:
1731:
1721:
1712:
1700:. Retrieved
1689:
1678:, retrieved
1673:
1667:
1658:
1639:
1633:
1591:
1587:
1577:
1543:
1539:
1529:
1487:
1483:
1442:
1431:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1384:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1300:
1290:
1280:
1261:
1259:
1254:
1242:
1228:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1200:
1198:
1192:
1186:
1184:
1181:Host control
1173:to plug the
1170:
1166:
1160:
1145:, usually a
1136:
1125:
1098:uterine bell
1097:
1071:
1062:
1055:vas deferens
1046:
1040:
1037:Reproduction
1028:
1022:
1001:
992:
981:Please help
976:verification
973:
937:
934:
923:
920:
882:
866:
864:
856:
847:
843:
841:
829:
822:
788:
780:
757:
748:
737:Please help
732:verification
729:
690:
687:
676:
637:
613:
598:
566:
514:Phylogenetic
510:
481:
467:
453:
429:
393:
389:
385:
373:
357:
290:
289:
244:
228:
218:(unranked):
208:(unranked):
195:
182:
169:
159:Subkingdom:
116:
25:
4590:iNaturalist
4497:Wikispecies
4412:Brachiopoda
4387:Cycliophora
4332:Onychophora
4307:Kinorhyncha
4229:Ginkgophyta
4224:Cycadophyta
4189:Chlorophyta
4179:Glaucophyta
3873:Myxococcota
3791:Chlorobiota
3786:Chlamydiota
3631:Tusk shells
3616:Cephalopods
3587:Polychaetes
3534:Turbellaria
3515:Crustaceans
3491:Secernentea
3481:Chromadorea
3462:Acorn worms
3432:Echinoderms
3424:Vertebrates
3366:Demosponges
3300:is disputed
2762:Protostomia
2650:is disputed
2577:ParaHoxozoa
2132:: 582–584.
2126:Allen Press
1262:Polymorphus
1255:Polymorphus
1230:Polymorphus
1059:diverticula
1023:Polymorphus
955:Life cycles
938:retinaculum
912:endothelium
807:flame cells
615:Monogononta
587:Eurotatoria
530:Monogononta
491:Bauru Group
212:Protostomia
176:ParaHoxozoa
4700:Categories
4445:Parakaryon
4407:Entoprocta
4342:Arthropoda
4337:Tardigrada
4317:Priapulida
4312:Loricifera
4297:Echinoderm
4267:Ctenophora
4239:Gnetophyta
4194:Charophyta
4184:Rhodophyta
4156:Ascomycota
4151:Zygomycota
4093:Metamonada
4068:Euglenozoa
4053:Ciliophora
3761:Balneolota
3736:Aquificota
3611:Gastropods
3592:Clitellata
3499:Arthropods
3438:Sea lilies
3384:Cnidarians
3302:; see also
3232:Brachiozoa
2995:Syndermata
2954:Gnathifera
2652:; see also
2597:Trichoplax
2595:Placozoa (
2582:Planulozoa
2304:: 139–250.
1824:Seisonidea
1459:required.)
1425:: 494–503.
1362:References
1247:ulceration
1239:eider duck
1156:cystacanth
1147:crustacean
995:March 2021
897:cell walls
873:Polyploidy
799:intestines
751:March 2021
711:Morphology
683:Gnathifera
600:Bdelloidea
555:Syndermata
534:Seisonidea
526:Bdelloidea
505:See also:
444:Syndermata
417:amphibians
364:'thorn' +
250:Koelreuter
235:Gnathifera
4362:Dicyemida
4234:Pinophyta
4113:Telonemia
4048:Cryptista
4038:Breviatea
4023:Amoebozoa
4018:Alveolata
3999:Eukaryote
3751:Bacillota
3597:Sipuncula
3544:Monogenea
3539:Trematoda
3510:Myriapods
3475:Nematodes
3419:Tunicates
3414:Lancelets
3408:Chordates
3400:Myxozoans
3307:Nephrozoa
3296:phylogeny
3096:Salinella
3051:Rouphozoa
2892:Tactopoda
2821:Nematoida
2773:Ecdysozoa
2694:Bilateria
2681:Bilateria
2662:Benthozoa
2657:Eumetazoa
2646:phylogeny
2616:Bilateria
2506:Amoebozoa
2484:Alveolata
2472:Cryptista
2447:Eukaryota
2169:Bolbosoma
2029:246297133
1972:August 3,
1842:: 79–92.
1780:155091017
1764:0001-3765
1610:0003-4150
1562:0003-4150
1356:Monogenea
1205:serotonin
1163:paratenic
1143:arthropod
1043:dioecious
916:nematodes
893:syncytium
889:epidermis
836:proboscis
813:Proboscis
785:Digestion
568:Seisonida
538:cladogram
518:ribosomal
501:Phylogeny
486:from the
484:coprolite
470:in 1776.
434:. Recent
401:proboscis
398:eversible
384:known as
202:Nephrozoa
189:Bilateria
163:Eumetazoa
149:Kingdom:
143:Eukaryota
4482:Wikidata
4422:Annelida
4417:Mollusca
4397:Phoronid
4392:Nemertea
4367:Rotifera
4347:Flatworm
4322:Nematoda
4287:Chordate
4277:Cnidaria
4272:Placozoa
4103:Rhizaria
4078:Haptista
4058:Cercozoa
3718:Bacteria
3621:Bivalves
3605:Molluscs
3581:Annelids
2940:Spiralia
2547:Animalia
2501:Amorphea
2479:Rhizaria
2467:Hacrobia
2457:Excavata
2442:Bacteria
2357:(2000).
2347:17015346
2242:19689468
2095:17807812
2021:35083744
1941:25331738
1911:Parasite
1892:23044398
1856:26702959
1772:31090797
1702:July 27,
1680:July 24,
1514:37350678
1505:10288976
1484:Parasite
1340:See also
1270:lobsters
1235:seabirds
1139:acanthor
1132:bluefish
1102:dorsally
949:papillae
945:ganglion
924:lemnisci
905:amoeboid
895:with no
885:tegument
832:anterior
803:digested
522:rotifers
440:rotifers
415:, fish,
360:akanthos
258:Classes
241:Phylum:
222:Spiralia
153:Animalia
139:Domain:
4670:4053880
4488:Q178235
4402:Bryozoa
4098:Provora
4073:Jakobea
4063:Discoba
4009:Protist
3946:Archaea
3699:Extant
3626:Chitons
3549:Cestoda
3486:Enoplea
3360:Sponges
3133:Symbion
3076:Mesozoa
2516:Animals
2437:Archaea
2413:Extant
2338:1679890
2289:3437357
2281:3282307
2201:6827437
2193:3281300
2154:5090967
2146:3277920
2103:6120428
2075:Bibcode
2067:Science
2001:Bibcode
1932:4204126
1618:3059956
1351:Digenea
1346:Cestoda
1266:scoters
1167:excysts
1151:mollusc
1116:Release
1106:oviduct
1074:ovaries
942:genital
901:tubules
795:cestoda
540:below.
450:History
425:species
421:mammals
376:kephale
352:ἄκανθος
4667:uBio:
4595:151826
4262:Sponge
4254:Animal
3651:bolded
2494:Plants
2431:Domain
2415:animal
2367:
2345:
2335:
2287:
2279:
2240:
2199:
2191:
2152:
2144:
2101:
2093:
2027:
2019:
1939:
1929:
1917:: 53.
1890:
1854:
1805:
1778:
1770:
1762:
1646:
1616:
1608:
1560:
1512:
1502:
1490:: 23.
1396:
1311:Russia
1307:Prague
1175:vagina
1124:Adult
1094:uterus
1086:embryo
1051:testes
908:nuclei
852:muscle
844:septum
436:genome
432:phylum
368:κεφαλή
252:, 1771
4683:18814
4678:WoRMS
4660:67118
4647:49622
4634:10232
4621:64238
4603:IRMNG
4556:15463
4171:Plant
4123:Fungi
4043:CRuMs
2813:N+L+P
2521:Fungi
2418:phyla
2277:JSTOR
2189:JSTOR
2171:sp".
2142:JSTOR
2124:(3).
2099:S2CID
2025:S2CID
1776:S2CID
1453:
1315:Italy
1297:Lambl
1130:in a
1110:feces
1090:larva
1067:penis
679:clade
392:, or
347:Greek
229:Clade
196:Clade
183:Clade
170:Clade
4629:NCBI
4616:ITIS
4577:GBIF
4525:BOLD
4209:Moss
3701:life
3294:The
2644:The
2365:ISBN
2343:PMID
2285:PMID
2238:PMID
2197:PMID
2150:PMID
2091:PMID
2017:PMID
1974:2009
1937:PMID
1888:PMID
1852:PMID
1803:ISBN
1768:PMID
1760:ISSN
1704:2008
1682:2015
1644:ISBN
1614:PMID
1606:ISSN
1558:ISSN
1510:PMID
1394:ISBN
1330:and
1287:Utah
1025:spp.
879:Skin
861:Size
703:and
528:and
42:PreꞒ
4608:121
4538:EoL
4512:AFD
3151:M+K
3043:R+M
2980:M+S
2849:L+P
2333:PMC
2325:doi
2321:273
2269:doi
2228:doi
2181:doi
2134:doi
2083:doi
2071:163
2009:doi
1927:PMC
1919:doi
1880:doi
1844:doi
1834:".
1750:hdl
1740:doi
1596:doi
1548:doi
1500:PMC
1492:doi
1253:of
1078:ova
1061:or
985:by
846:or
741:by
405:gut
4702::
4680::
4657::
4644::
4631::
4618::
4605::
4592::
4582:67
4579::
4566::
4553::
4540::
4530:11
4527::
4514::
4499::
4484::
2341:.
2331:.
2319:.
2313:.
2300:.
2283:.
2275:.
2265:73
2263:.
2236:.
2224:16
2222:.
2218:.
2195:.
2187:.
2177:69
2175:.
2148:.
2140:.
2122:57
2120:.
2097:.
2089:.
2081:.
2069:.
2052:17
2050:.
2023:.
2015:.
2007:.
1997:45
1995:.
1991:.
1935:.
1925:.
1915:21
1913:.
1909:.
1886:.
1876:66
1874:.
1850:.
1840:96
1838:.
1774:.
1766:.
1758:.
1748:.
1736:91
1734:.
1730:.
1612:.
1604:.
1592:63
1590:.
1586:.
1556:.
1544:61
1542:.
1538:.
1508:.
1498:.
1488:30
1486:.
1482:.
1465:^
1441:.
1423:15
1421:.
1417:.
1388:.
1370:^
1336:.
1112:.
918:.
699:,
695:,
685:.
388:,
372:,
356:,
317:oʊ
231::
198::
185::
172::
92:Pg
4543:2
4011:"
4007:"
3971:"
3967:"
3964:"
3960:"
3957:"
3953:"
3814:"
3810:"
3692:e
3685:t
3678:v
3659:†
3135:)
3100:†
3098:)
2584:)
2580:(
2528:)
2406:e
2399:t
2392:v
2373:.
2349:.
2327::
2302:1
2291:.
2271::
2244:.
2230::
2203:.
2183::
2156:.
2136::
2105:.
2085::
2077::
2031:.
2011::
2003::
1976:.
1943:.
1921::
1894:.
1882::
1858:.
1846::
1782:.
1752::
1742::
1706:.
1652:.
1620:.
1598::
1564:.
1550::
1516:.
1494::
1451:.
1402:.
1241:(
1008:)
1002:(
997:)
993:(
979:.
764:)
758:(
753:)
749:(
735:.
345:(
341:/
338:ə
335:l
332:ə
329:f
326:ɛ
323:s
320:ˈ
314:θ
311:n
308:æ
305:k
302:ˌ
299:ə
296:/
97:N
87:K
82:J
77:T
72:P
67:C
62:D
57:S
52:O
47:Ꞓ
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
