134:(ICRP) guidance states that if a personal dosimeter is worn on a position on the body representative of its exposure, assuming whole-body exposure, the value of Personal Dose Equivalent Hp(10), is sufficient to estimate an effective dose value suitable for radiological protection. Personal Dose Equivalent is a radiation quantity specifically designed to be used for radiation measurements by personal dosimeters. Dosimeters are known as "legal dosimeters" if they have been approved for use in recording personnel dose for regulatory purposes. In cases of non-uniform irradiation such personal dosimeters may not be representative of certain specific areas of the body, where additional dosimeters are used in the area of concern.
363:), which is defined as the mean energy imparted (dE) per unit mass (dm) of material (D = dE/dm) The SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy) defined as one joule per kilogram. Absorbed dose, as a point measurement, is suitable for describing localised (i.e. partial organ) exposures such as tumour dose in radiotherapy. It may be used to estimate stochastic risk provided the amount and type of tissue involved is stated. Localised diagnostic dose levels are typically in the 0–50 mGy range. At a dose of 1 milligray (mGy) of photon radiation, each cell nucleus is crossed by an average of 1 liberated electron track.
22:
242:
942:(the warming of substances when they absorb energy). A user sends their secondary standard to the laboratory, where it is exposed to a known amount of radiation (derived from the primary standard) and a factor is issued to convert the instrument's reading to that dose. The user may then use their secondary standard to derive calibration factors for other instruments they use, which then become tertiary standards, or field instruments.
250:
213:
generated by the decay of uranium, which is present in varying amounts in the Earth's crust. Certain geographic areas, due to the underlying geology, continually generate radon which permeates its way to the Earth's surface. In some cases the dose can be significant in buildings where the gas can accumulate. A number of specialised dosimetry techniques are used to evaluate the dose that a building's occupants may receive.
138:
or a total integrated dose is exceeded. A good deal of information can be made immediately available to the wearer of the recorded dose and current dose rate via a local display. They can be used as the main stand-alone dosimeter, or as a supplement to other devices. EPD's are particularly useful for real-time monitoring of dose where a high dose rate is expected which will time-limit the wearer's exposure.
407:(RBE) of the radiation type, For instance, for the same absorbed dose in Gy, alpha particles are 20 times as biologically potent as X or gamma rays. The measure of ‘dose equivalent’ is not organ averaged and now only used for "operational quantities". Equivalent dose is designed for estimation of stochastic risks from radiation exposures. Stochastic effect is defined for radiation dose assessment as the
949:
is one-sixth that of water and therefore the temperature increase in graphite is 6 times higher than the equivalent in water and measurements are more accurate. Significant problems exist in insulating the graphite from the surrounding environment in order to measure the tiny temperature changes. A
137:
A number of electronic devices known as
Electronic Personal Dosimeters (EPDs) have come into general use using semiconductor detection and programmable processor technology. These are worn as badges but can give an indication of instantaneous dose rate and an audible and visual alarm if a dose rate
573:
It is difficult to compare the stochastic risk from localised exposures of different parts of the body (e.g. a chest x-ray compared to a CT scan of the head), or to compare exposures of the same body part but with different exposure patterns (e.g. a cardiac CT scan with a cardiac nuclear medicine
141:
In certain circumstances, a dose can be inferred from readings taken by fixed instrumentation in an area in which the person concerned has been working. This would generally only be used if personal dosimetry had not been issued, or a personal dosimeter has been damaged or lost. Such calculations
212:
monitoring. The largest single source of radiation exposure to the general public is naturally occurring radon gas, which comprises approximately 55% of the annual background dose. It is estimated that radon is responsible for 10% of lung cancers in the United States. Radon is a radioactive gas
605:
Weighting factors are calculated by the
International Commission for Radiological Protection (ICRP), based on the risk of cancer induction for each organ and adjusted for associated lethality, quality of life and years of life lost. Organs that are remote from the site of irradiation will only
950:
lethal dose of radiation to a human is approximately 10–20 Gy. This is 10–20 joules per kilogram. A 1 cm piece of graphite weighing 2 grams would therefore absorb around 20–40 mJ. With a specific heat capacity of around 700 J·kg·K, this equates to a temperature rise of just 20 mK.
898:
gives an overview of dose types and how they are calculated. Exposure to a source of radiation will give a dose which is dependent on many factors, such as the activity, duration of exposure, energy of the radiation emitted, distance from the source and amount of shielding.
918:
in the earth. The largest single source of radiation exposure to the general public is naturally occurring radon gas, which comprises approximately 55% of the annual background dose. It is estimated that radon is responsible for 10% of lung cancers in the United States.
257:
To enable consideration of stochastic health risk, calculations are performed to convert the physical quantity absorbed dose into equivalent and effective doses, the details of which depend on the radiation type and biological context. For applications in
609:
Effective dose is used to estimate stochastic risks for a ‘reference’ person, which is an average of the population. It is not suitable for estimating stochastic risk for individual medical exposures, and is not used to assess acute radiation effects.
569:
Effective dose is the central dose quantity for radiological protection used to specify exposure limits to ensure that the occurrence of stochastic health effects is kept below unacceptable levels and that tissue reactions are avoided.
65:
Radiation dosimetry is extensively used for radiation protection; routinely applied to monitor occupational radiation workers, where irradiation is expected, or where radiation is unexpected, such as in the contained aftermath of the
78:
radiological release incidents. The public dose take-up is measured and calculated from a variety of indicators such as ambient measurements of gamma radiation, radioactive particulate monitoring, and the measurement of levels of
181:. It is often performed by a professional health physicist with specialized training in that field. In order to plan the delivery of radiation therapy, the radiation produced by the sources is usually characterized with
2260:
574:
scan). One way to avoid this problem is to simply average out a localised dose over the whole body. The problem of this approach is that the stochastic risk of cancer induction varies from one tissue to another.
111:. These are specifically designed to record and indicate the dose received. Traditionally, these were lockets fastened to the external clothing of the monitored person, which contained photographic film known as
414:
As dose is averaged over the whole organ; equivalent dose is rarely suitable for evaluation of acute radiation effects or tumour dose in radiotherapy. In the case of estimation of stochastic effects, assuming a
107:
There are several ways of measuring absorbed doses from ionizing radiation. People in occupational contact with radioactive substances, or who may be exposed to radiation, routinely carry personal
2240:
263:
48:
dose absorbed by an object, usually the human body. This applies both internally, due to ingested or inhaled radioactive substances, or externally due to irradiation by sources of radiation.
934:(NPL) provide calibration factors for ionization chambers and other measurement devices to convert from the instrument's readout to absorbed dose. The standards laboratories operates as a
1660:
Seltzer, S. M.; Bartlett, D. T.; Burns, D. T.; Dietze, G.; Menzel, H.-G.; Paretzke, H. G.; Wambersie, A. (2011). "The
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements".
991:
1854:"Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC"
1935:– "The confusing world of radiation dosimetry" – M.A. Boyd, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. An account of chronological differences between USA and ICRP dosimetry systems.
2245:
890:
Radiation dose refers to the amount of energy deposited in matter and/or biological effects of radiation, and should not be confused with the unit of radioactive activity (
227:
is the practice of collecting dose information from radiology equipment and using the data to help identify opportunities to reduce unnecessary dose in medical situations.
588:). Effective dose provides the equivalent whole body dose that gives the same risk as the localised exposure. It is defined as the sum of equivalent doses to each organ (
606:
receive a small equivalent dose (mainly due to scattering) and therefore contribute little to the effective dose, even if the weighting factor for that organ is high.
927:
Because the human body is approximately 70% water and has an overall density close to 1 g/cm, dose measurement is usually calculated and calibrated as dose to water.
131:
2250:
1967:
2126:
1938:
Tim
Stephens and Keith Pantridge, 'Dosimetry, Personal Monitoring Film' (a short article on Dosimetry from the point of view of its relation to photography, in
1793:
Hill, Robin; Mo, Zhao; Haque, Mamoon; Baldock, Clive (2009). "An evaluation of ionization chambers for the relative dosimetry of kilovoltage x-ray beams".
221:
Records of legal dosimetry results are usually kept for a set period of time, depending upon the legal requirements of the nation in which they are used.
984:
1502:
1425:
54:
assessment relies on a variety of monitoring, bio-assay or radiation imaging techniques, whilst external dosimetry is based on measurements with a
2291:
1890:
1777:
977:
208:
Environmental
Dosimetry is used where it is likely that the environment will generate a significant radiation dose. An example of this is
2255:
1583:
Baldock, C.; De Deene, Y.; Doran, S.; Ibbott, G.; Jirasek, A.; Lepage, M.; McAuley, K. B.; Oldham, M.; Schreiner, L. J. (7 March 2010).
2235:
1960:
1640:
75:
433:
120:
1924:
931:
908:
2276:
1485:
1933:
2058:
1772:(Report). Vol. 1. New York: United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. 2010. p. 40.
1533:"Why is Medical Dosimetry a profession only in the United States and what does this mean for Medical Physicists worldwide?"
389:. This is taken into account by the equivalent dose (H), which is defined as the mean dose to organ T by radiation type R (
2381:
2341:
2286:
2281:
1953:
1447:
1018:
224:
377:
The absorbed dose required to produce a certain biological effect varies between different types of radiation, such as
1437:
954:
182:
116:
2366:
2329:
2068:
1326:
564:
310:
67:
21:
2015:
80:
1853:
945:
The NPL operates a graphite-calorimeter for absolute photon dosimetry. Graphite is used instead of water as its
2376:
2371:
2325:
2312:
2307:
1836:
1766:
2103:
1442:
1374:
1297:
581:
is designed to account for this variation by the application of specific weighting factors for each tissue (
538:
352:
units are still used, particularly in the USA, where dose is often reported in rads and dose equivalent in
2333:
2230:
2163:
946:
353:
196:
In radiation therapy, three-dimensional dose distributions are often evaluated using a technique known as
2361:
2337:
2146:
1695:
Feinendegen, L E (1 May 1990). "The cell dose concept; potential application in radiation protection".
894:, Bq) of the source of radiation, or the strength of the radiation field (fluence). The article on the
2158:
2151:
1990:
1976:
259:
112:
59:
41:
2173:
2083:
2020:
2010:
2005:
1112:
958:
172:
156:
151:
124:
51:
45:
1939:
2063:
1896:
1886:
1818:
1810:
1773:
1712:
1677:
1622:
1604:
1562:
1084:
1026:
419:, this averaging out should make no difference as the total energy imparted remains the same.
326:
190:
178:
2204:
2199:
1802:
1704:
1669:
1612:
1596:
1552:
1544:
1428:
required that their use for "public health ... purposes" be phased out by 31 December 1985.
935:
911:
1880:
241:
177:
Medical dosimetry is the calculation of absorbed dose and optimization of dose delivery in
2098:
2073:
1928:
1258:
1145:
838:
677:
386:
372:
341:
320:
296:
249:
2189:
2136:
2053:
2000:
1921:
1617:
1557:
1532:
1422:
544:
160:
37:
1413:
Although the United States
Nuclear Regulatory Commission permits the use of the units
86:
Other significant radiation dosimetry areas are medical, where the required treatment
2355:
2043:
1708:
1600:
1181:
275:
197:
87:
1503:"Avo Photonics Develops Next Generation Radiation Detecting Instrument for LANDAUER"
338:
a deprecated unit of absorbed radiation dose, defined as 1 rad = 0.01 Gy = 0.01 J/kg
2168:
2088:
2025:
1882:
The 2007 Recommendations of the
International Commission on Radiological Protection
1414:
1055:
348:
Each measure is often simply described as ‘dose’, which can lead to confusion. Non-
186:
1468:
907:
The worldwide average background dose for a human being is about 3.5 mSv per year
266:(ICRU) have published recommendations and data which are used to calculate these.
2209:
2141:
2078:
1191:
1153:
939:
661:
286:
2093:
1418:
1239:
773:
335:
25:
Joanna
Izewska gives Ambassador Frank Recker and his delegation a tour of the
1900:
1814:
1716:
1681:
1608:
2131:
2048:
1036:
891:
533:
465:
416:
108:
71:
55:
1822:
1673:
1626:
1584:
1566:
90:
and any collateral absorbed dose is monitored, and environmental, such as
2194:
1126:
470:
382:
2225:
2108:
1945:
1548:
1383:
1345:
1336:
1306:
1277:
1268:
1122:
969:
The following table shows radiation quantities in SI and non-SI units.
915:
895:
789:
741:
709:
487:
378:
304:
236:
1806:
274:
There are a number of different measures of radiation dose, including
725:
644:
516:
1199:
854:
757:
461:
290:
209:
91:
20:
821:
805:
693:
520:
474:
438:
26:
1949:
1213:
595:), each multiplied by its respective tissue weighting factor (
404:
115:. These have been largely replaced with other devices such as
1852:
The
Council of the European Communities (21 December 1979).
264:
International
Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
349:
142:
would take a pessimistic view of the likely received dose.
957:
in external beam therapy) are routinely calibrated using
245:
External radiation protection dose quantities in SI units
163:
due to the intake of radionuclides into the human body.
344:
a legacy unit of measurement for the exposure of X-rays
253:
Graphic showing relationship of SI radiation dose units
332:
dose length product (DLP) measured in gray centimeters
44:
is the measurement, calculation and assessment of the
356:. By definition, 1 Gy = 100 rad and 1 Sv = 100 rem.
2300:
2269:
2218:
2182:
2117:
2034:
1983:
1655:
1653:
923:Calibration standards for measuring instruments
359:The fundamental quantity is the absorbed dose (
132:International Committee on Radiation Protection
1942:, volume 2, number 2, 2011, pp. 153–158.)
1641:"The DOE Ionizing Radiation Dose Ranges Chart"
58:, or inferred from measurements made by other
1961:
985:
8:
930:National standards laboratories such as the
262:and dosimetry assessment the (ICRP) and the
2127:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring
1537:Journal of Applied Clinical Medical Physics
938:, which is normally calibrated by absolute
1968:
1954:
1946:
992:
978:
971:
16:Measurement of absorbed ionizing radiation
1841:. US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2009.
1767:Sources and effects of ionizing radiation
1616:
1578:
1576:
1556:
403:. This designed to take into account the
1753:
1741:
1729:
1515:
1426:European units of measurement directives
612:
421:
411:of cancer induction and genetic damage.
248:
240:
1459:
961:or diode technology or gel dosimeters.
614:Weighting factors for different organs
289:(Gy) energy absorbed per unit of mass (
1531:Graham, Sasha; Mills, Michael (2021).
1469:"Basic Concepts of Internal Dosimetry"
973:Ionizing radiation related quantities
2292:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960
225:Medical radiation exposure monitoring
7:
1526:
1524:
886:Dose versus source or field strength
396:), multiplied by a weighting factor
60:radiological protection instruments
1486:"Radiation Dosimetry-Introduction"
329:(DAP) measured in gray centimeters
125:Fluorescent Nuclear Tract Detector
14:
434:relative biological effectiveness
121:optically stimulated luminescence
932:National Physical Laboratory, UK
1697:Physics in Medicine and Biology
1589:Physics in Medicine and Biology
2059:Computed tomography dose index
1:
1448:Radiation dose reconstruction
217:Radiation exposure monitoring
965:Radiation-related quantities
953:Dosimeters in radiotherapy (
423:Radiation weighting factors
183:percentage depth dose curves
1438:Computational human phantom
955:linear particle accelerator
117:Thermoluminescent dosimetry
2400:
2323:
1709:10.1088/0031-9155/35/5/001
1601:10.1088/0031-9155/55/5/R01
565:Effective dose (radiation)
562:
430:(formerly termed Q factor)
370:
234:
170:
149:
2321:
2016:Radioactive contamination
1940:Philosophy of Photography
1879:Valentin, J, ed. (2007),
1325:
1257:
1180:
1111:
1025:
622:Tissue weighting factors
621:
618:
486:
94:monitoring in buildings.
81:radioactive contamination
2324:See also the categories
2313:Radiation-induced cancer
2308:Acute radiation syndrome
1421:alongside SI units, the
539:Nuclear fission products
405:biological effectiveness
159:is used to evaluate the
98:Measuring radiation dose
1927:29 October 2017 at the
1585:"Polymer gel dosimetry"
1443:Health effects of radon
204:Environmental dosimetry
2164:Semiconductor detector
2120:measurement techniques
1375:röntgen equivalent man
1298:röntgen equivalent man
947:specific heat capacity
317:) measured in sieverts
254:
246:
30:
2183:Protection techniques
2147:Scintillation counter
323:(K) measured in grays
252:
244:
113:film badge dosimeters
29:Dosimetry Laboratory.
24:
2382:Radiation protection
2342:Radiation protection
2159:Radiation monitoring
2152:Proportional counter
2037:quantities and units
1991:Background radiation
1977:Radiation protection
1674:10.1093/jicru/ndr011
903:Background radiation
417:linear dose response
260:radiation protection
42:radiation protection
2174:Whole-body counting
2084:Mean glandular dose
2021:Radioactive sources
1662:Journal of the ICRU
999:
959:ionization chambers
615:
577:The effective dose
442:
34:Radiation dosimetry
2011:Internal dosimetry
2006:Ionizing radiation
1922:Ionization chamber
1549:10.1002/acm2.13362
972:
613:
432:used to represent
422:
255:
247:
173:Treatment planning
157:Internal dosimetry
152:Internal dosimetry
52:Internal dosimetry
46:ionizing radiation
31:
2367:Radiation therapy
2349:
2348:
2330:Radiation effects
2301:Radiation effects
2064:Counts per minute
1892:978-0-7020-3048-2
1807:10.1118/1.3183820
1779:978-92-1-142274-0
1411:
1410:
1382:100 erg⋅g ×
1305:100 erg⋅g ×
883:
882:
870:Remainder of body
556:
555:
327:dose area product
191:medical physicist
179:radiation therapy
167:Medical dosimetry
68:Three Mile Island
36:in the fields of
2389:
2205:Radon mitigation
2200:Potassium iodide
2118:Instruments and
1970:
1963:
1956:
1947:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1885:, vol. 37,
1865:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1801:(9): 3971–3981.
1790:
1784:
1783:
1771:
1763:
1757:
1756:, p. 63-64.
1751:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1720:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1657:
1648:
1647:
1646:. December 2017.
1645:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1620:
1580:
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1560:
1528:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1490:
1482:
1476:
1475:
1473:
1464:
1234:
1232:
1176:
1174:
1163:
1161:
1106:
1105:
1102:
1078:
1069:
1067:
1000:
994:
987:
980:
936:primary standard
912:cosmic radiation
616:
443:
270:Units of measure
231:Measures of dose
2399:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2387:
2386:
2377:Medical physics
2372:Nuclear physics
2352:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2344:
2326:Medical physics
2317:
2296:
2265:
2214:
2178:
2119:
2113:
2074:Equivalent dose
2036:
2030:
1979:
1974:
1929:Wayback Machine
1918:
1913:
1905:
1903:
1893:
1878:
1874:
1869:
1868:
1858:
1856:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1835:
1834:
1830:
1795:Medical Physics
1792:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1769:
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1736:
1728:
1724:
1694:
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1639:
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1634:
1582:
1581:
1574:
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1522:
1514:
1510:
1501:
1500:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1483:
1479:
1471:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1434:
1400:
1391:
1362:
1353:
1314:
1285:
1259:Equivalent dose
1247:100 erg⋅g
1230:
1228:
1172:
1170:
1159:
1157:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1076:
1065:
1063:
998:
967:
925:
905:
888:
839:Salivary glands
638:
633:
628:
601:
594:
587:
567:
561:
542:
537:
469:
455:
436:
431:
429:
402:
395:
387:alpha particles
375:
373:equivalent dose
369:
367:Equivalent dose
297:Equivalent dose
282:) measured in:
272:
239:
233:
219:
206:
175:
169:
154:
148:
127:(FNTD) badges.
105:
100:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2354:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2310:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2190:Lead shielding
2186:
2184:
2180:
2179:
2177:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2137:Geiger counter
2134:
2129:
2123:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2069:Effective dose
2066:
2061:
2056:
2054:Committed dose
2051:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
2001:Health physics
1998:
1993:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1973:
1972:
1965:
1958:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1936:
1931:
1917:
1916:External links
1914:
1912:
1911:
1891:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1844:
1838:10 CFR 20.1004
1828:
1785:
1778:
1758:
1746:
1734:
1722:
1703:(5): 597–612.
1687:
1668:(1): NP.1–NP.
1649:
1632:
1572:
1520:
1508:
1494:
1477:
1467:Toohey, R. E.
1458:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1433:
1430:
1423:European Union
1409:
1408:
1407:0.010 Sv
1405:
1402:
1396:
1387:
1380:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1358:
1349:
1342:
1339:
1334:
1327:Effective dose
1323:
1322:
1321:0.010 Sv
1319:
1316:
1310:
1303:
1300:
1294:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1281:
1274:
1271:
1266:
1255:
1254:
1253:0.010 Gy
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1210:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1197:
1194:
1189:
1178:
1177:
1168:
1165:
1151:
1148:
1142:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1120:
1109:
1108:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1073:
1070:
1061:
1058:
1052:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1034:
1023:
1022:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
997:
996:
989:
982:
974:
966:
963:
924:
921:
910:, mostly from
904:
901:
887:
884:
881:
880:
877:
874:
871:
867:
866:
863:
860:
857:
851:
850:
847:
844:
841:
835:
834:
831:
828:
825:
818:
817:
814:
811:
808:
802:
801:
798:
795:
792:
786:
785:
782:
779:
776:
770:
769:
766:
763:
760:
754:
753:
750:
747:
744:
738:
737:
734:
731:
728:
722:
721:
718:
715:
712:
706:
705:
702:
699:
696:
690:
689:
686:
683:
680:
674:
673:
670:
667:
664:
657:
656:
653:
650:
647:
641:
640:
635:
630:
624:
623:
620:
599:
592:
585:
563:Main article:
560:
559:Effective dose
557:
554:
553:
550:
547:
530:
529:
526:
523:
513:
512:
509:
505:
504:
501:
500:1 MeV – 50 MeV
497:
496:
493:
490:
484:
483:
480:
477:
458:
457:
453:
450:
447:
427:
400:
393:
371:Main article:
368:
365:
346:
345:
339:
333:
330:
324:
318:
311:Effective dose
308:
303:) measured in
294:
271:
268:
235:Main article:
232:
229:
218:
215:
205:
202:
189:measured by a
171:Main article:
168:
165:
161:committed dose
150:Main article:
147:
144:
104:
101:
99:
96:
38:health physics
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2395:
2394:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2334:Radioactivity
2331:
2327:
2320:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2299:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2219:Organisations
2217:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2181:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2122:
2116:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2044:Absorbed dose
2042:
2041:
2039:
2033:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1984:Main articles
1982:
1978:
1971:
1966:
1964:
1959:
1957:
1952:
1951:
1948:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1915:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1871:
1855:
1848:
1845:
1840:
1839:
1832:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1786:
1781:
1775:
1768:
1762:
1759:
1755:
1754:Valentin 2007
1750:
1747:
1744:, p. 65.
1743:
1742:Valentin 2007
1738:
1735:
1732:, p. 51.
1731:
1730:Valentin 2007
1726:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1654:
1650:
1642:
1636:
1633:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1518:, p. 71.
1517:
1516:Valentin 2007
1512:
1509:
1504:
1498:
1495:
1487:
1481:
1478:
1470:
1463:
1460:
1453:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1237:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1183:
1182:Absorbed dose
1179:
1169:
1166:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1074:
1071:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1002:
1001:
995:
990:
988:
983:
981:
976:
975:
970:
964:
962:
960:
956:
951:
948:
943:
941:
937:
933:
928:
922:
920:
917:
913:
909:
902:
900:
897:
893:
885:
878:
875:
872:
869:
868:
864:
861:
858:
856:
853:
852:
848:
845:
842:
840:
837:
836:
832:
829:
826:
823:
820:
819:
815:
812:
809:
807:
804:
803:
799:
796:
793:
791:
788:
787:
783:
780:
777:
775:
772:
771:
767:
764:
761:
759:
756:
755:
751:
748:
745:
743:
740:
739:
735:
732:
729:
727:
724:
723:
719:
716:
713:
711:
708:
707:
703:
700:
697:
695:
692:
691:
687:
684:
681:
679:
676:
675:
671:
668:
665:
663:
659:
658:
654:
651:
648:
646:
643:
642:
636:
631:
626:
625:
617:
611:
607:
603:
598:
591:
584:
580:
575:
571:
566:
558:
551:
548:
546:
540:
535:
532:
531:
527:
524:
522:
518:
515:
514:
511:2.5 + 3.25·e
510:
507:
506:
503:5.0 + 17.0·e
502:
499:
498:
495:2.5 + 18.2·e
494:
491:
489:
485:
481:
478:
476:
472:
467:
463:
460:
459:
456:(formerly Q)
451:
448:
445:
444:
440:
437:according to
435:
426:
420:
418:
412:
410:
406:
399:
392:
388:
384:
380:
374:
366:
364:
362:
357:
355:
351:
343:
340:
337:
334:
331:
328:
325:
322:
319:
316:
312:
309:
306:
302:
298:
295:
292:
288:
285:
284:
283:
281:
277:
276:absorbed dose
269:
267:
265:
261:
251:
243:
238:
230:
228:
226:
222:
216:
214:
211:
203:
201:
199:
198:gel dosimetry
194:
192:
188:
187:dose profiles
184:
180:
174:
166:
164:
162:
158:
153:
146:Internal dose
145:
143:
139:
135:
133:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
103:External dose
102:
97:
95:
93:
89:
88:absorbed dose
84:
82:
77:
73:
69:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
47:
43:
39:
35:
28:
23:
19:
2362:Radiobiology
2338:Radiobiology
2169:Survey meter
2089:Monitor unit
2035:Measurement
2026:Radiobiology
1995:
1904:, retrieved
1881:
1857:. Retrieved
1847:
1837:
1831:
1798:
1794:
1788:
1761:
1749:
1737:
1725:
1700:
1696:
1690:
1665:
1661:
1635:
1595:(5): R1–63.
1592:
1588:
1540:
1536:
1511:
1505:. July 2021.
1497:
1480:
1462:
1412:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1330:
1311:
1307:
1282:
1278:
1262:
1185:
1175:10 C/kg
1134:C⋅kg of air
1116:
1030:
968:
952:
944:
929:
926:
914:and natural
906:
889:
608:
604:
596:
589:
582:
578:
576:
572:
568:
424:
413:
408:
397:
390:
376:
360:
358:
347:
314:
300:
279:
273:
256:
223:
220:
207:
195:
176:
155:
140:
136:
129:
106:
85:
64:
50:
33:
32:
18:
2210:Respirators
2142:Ion chamber
1417:, rad, and
1079:10 Bq
1021:equivalent
1012:Derivation
940:calorimetry
662:Bone Marrow
637:ICRP103(I6)
627:ICRP30(I36)
508:> 50 MeV
441:report 103
409:probability
2356:Categories
2270:Regulation
1872:References
1543:(8): 4–5.
1233:10 Gy
1092:10 s
1085:rutherford
774:Oesophagus
632:ICRP60(I3)
534:alpha rays
519:, charged
492:< 1 MeV
466:gamma rays
123:(OSL), or
109:dosimeters
2282:NRC (USA)
2231:HPS (USA)
2132:Dosimeter
2049:Becquerel
1996:Dosimetry
1906:11 August
1901:0146-6453
1815:0094-2405
1717:0031-9155
1682:1473-6691
1609:1361-6560
1216:per gram
1107: Bq
1068:10 s
1037:becquerel
1003:Quantity
892:becquerel
471:beta rays
446:Radiation
76:Fukushima
72:Chernobyl
56:dosimeter
2287:ONR (UK)
2277:IRR (UK)
2256:SRP (UK)
2195:Glovebox
2099:Roentgen
1925:Archived
1823:19810470
1627:20150687
1567:34272815
1432:See also
1369:SI unit
1292:SI unit
1208:SI unit
1140:SI unit
1127:kilogram
1113:Exposure
1050:SI unit
1027:Activity
916:isotopes
488:neutrons
383:neutrons
342:Roentgen
305:sieverts
2261:UNSCEAR
2226:Euratom
2109:Sievert
1618:3031873
1558:8364271
1344:J⋅kg ×
1337:sievert
1276:J⋅kg ×
1269:sievert
1164:of air
1162: g
1146:röntgen
1123:coulomb
1009:Symbol
896:sievert
824:surface
790:Thyroid
742:Bladder
726:Breasts
710:Stomach
517:protons
379:photons
237:sievert
119:(TLD),
2340:, and
1899:
1889:
1859:19 May
1821:
1813:
1776:
1715:
1680:
1625:
1615:
1607:
1565:
1555:
1222:erg⋅g
1219:erg/g
645:Gonads
619:Organs
549:
545:nuclei
543:heavy
525:
479:
462:x-rays
449:Energy
1770:(PDF)
1644:(PDF)
1489:(PDF)
1472:(PDF)
1454:Notes
1415:curie
1404:1971
1366:1977
1318:1971
1289:1977
1250:1953
1225:1950
1205:1974
1167:1928
1158:0.001
1137:1974
1131:C/kg
1095:1946
1072:1953
1056:curie
1047:1974
1015:Year
1006:Unit
879:0.12
865:0.01
855:Brain
849:0.01
833:0.01
816:0.01
800:0.04
784:0.04
768:0.04
758:Liver
752:0.04
736:0.12
720:0.12
704:0.12
688:0.12
678:Colon
672:0.12
655:0.08
639:2008
521:pions
475:muons
321:Kerma
210:radon
92:radon
2251:IRPA
2246:ICRP
2241:ICRU
2236:IAEA
2079:Gray
1908:2024
1897:ISSN
1887:ISBN
1861:2012
1819:PMID
1811:ISSN
1774:ISBN
1713:ISSN
1678:ISSN
1623:PMID
1605:ISSN
1563:PMID
1379:rem
1302:rem
1244:rad
1202:⋅kg
1192:gray
1171:2.58
1125:per
993:edit
986:talk
979:view
876:0.05
873:0.30
830:0.01
827:0.03
822:Bone
813:0.01
806:Skin
797:0.05
794:0.03
781:0.05
765:0.05
749:0.05
733:0.05
730:0.15
717:0.12
701:0.12
698:0.12
694:Lung
685:0.12
669:0.12
666:0.12
660:Red
652:0.20
649:0.25
634:1991
629:1979
439:ICRP
354:rems
336:rads
307:(Sv)
293:·kg)
287:gray
185:and
130:The
40:and
27:IAEA
2104:Rem
2094:Rad
1803:doi
1705:doi
1670:doi
1613:PMC
1597:doi
1553:PMC
1545:doi
1419:rem
1341:Sv
1273:Sv
1240:rad
1229:1.0
1214:erg
1196:Gy
1160:293
1154:esu
1104:000
1101:000
1089:Rd
1075:3.7
1064:3.7
1060:Ci
1041:Bq
602:).
552:20
394:T,R
385:or
74:or
2358::
2336:,
2332:,
2328:,
1895:,
1817:.
1809:.
1799:36
1797:.
1711:.
1701:35
1699:.
1676:.
1666:11
1664:.
1652:^
1621:.
1611:.
1603:.
1593:55
1591:.
1587:.
1575:^
1561:.
1551:.
1541:22
1539:.
1535:.
1523:^
1392:×
1354:×
1333:)
1265:)
1188:)
1156:/
1150:R
1119:)
1044:s
1033:)
1019:SI
528:2
482:1
473:,
464:,
381:,
350:SI
200:.
193:.
83:.
70:,
62:.
1969:e
1962:t
1955:v
1863:.
1825:.
1805::
1782:.
1719:.
1707::
1684:.
1672::
1629:.
1599::
1569:.
1547::
1491:.
1474:.
1398:T
1394:W
1389:R
1385:W
1360:T
1356:W
1351:R
1347:W
1331:E
1329:(
1312:R
1308:W
1283:R
1279:W
1263:H
1261:(
1231:×
1200:J
1186:D
1184:(
1173:×
1117:X
1115:(
1099:1
1077:×
1066:×
1031:A
1029:(
862:–
859:–
846:–
843:–
810:–
778:–
762:–
746:–
714:–
682:–
600:T
597:W
593:T
590:H
586:T
583:W
579:E
541:,
536:,
468:,
454:R
452:W
428:R
425:W
401:R
398:W
391:D
361:D
315:E
313:(
301:H
299:(
291:J
280:D
278:(
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