Gorgonopsia - Knowledge (XXG)

762:, and teeth grew continuously throughout an individual's life. Like some therapsids, while there was one functional canine, another canine was growing to replace it when it inevitably broke off. The left and right sides of the jaws did not have to be synchronous, so, for example, the first canine on the left side could be functional while the first canine on the right side was still growing. Such a method might have been in play so as always to have a set of functional canines, as having a single or no canines would have severely impeded hunting, and growing such large teeth took a long time. On the other hand, because the functional canine is typically found in the foremost tooth socket (instead of equal occurrence in either socket), it is possible that canine replacement occurred a finite number of times, and the animal would eventually be left with a single, permanent set of functional canines in these sockets. In 1984, British palaeontologists 2552:. Among the dirk-toothed cats, these predators are suggested to have killed with a well-placed slash to the throat after grappling prey, but gorgonopsians may have been less precise with bite placement, armed with reptilian jaws and tooth arrangements. Instead, gorgonopsians possibly used a bite-and-retreat tactic: the predator would ambush its quarry and take a sizable and debilitating bite out of it, and then follow as the prey tried to escape before succumbing to its injury, whereupon the gorgonopsian would deliver a killing bite. Because the postcanines are reduced or entirely absent, meat would have been forcibly torn away from the carcass and swallowed whole. This "puncture–pull" strategy is also hypothesised to have been used by theropod dinosaurs. 2453:

seasonal wet/dry system, but the swamps were connected to the temperate zones via coastal passages along East Pangaea, allowing cross-continental migration from what is now South Africa to what is now Russia. Therapsids appear to have evolved in this seasonally humid/dry landscape, expanding even into the temperate zones. At this point, synapsids were the only large terrestrial animals of their environment; and pelycosaurs may not have been able to adapt to the aridification. At about the time of pelycosaur extinction, therapsids experienced a major adaptive

3094:, a therocephalian, or another gorgonopsian—or intraspecific face biting as is commonly exhibited in social predators—such as big cats or monitor lizards, and it has been suggested for several extinct lineages such as theropods, aquatic reptiles, and saber-toothed cats. Social biting is intended to assert dominance or facilitate breeding, and, if correct, suggests at least some Middle Permian gorgonopsians were social carnivores. The tooth was initially overlooked so it is unclear how common this pathology actually is. 7607: 2765: 2431: 124: 3017: 525: 7305: 152: 780: 7317: 8153: 2777:(to some degree, the feet were placed flat on the ground). These adaptations may have made gorgonopsians swifter and more agile than their prey. Gorgonopsians had rather nimble digits, indicative of grasping capability for both the hands and feet, possibly for grappling struggling prey to prevent excessive load bearing on, and consequential fracturing or breaking of, the canines while they were sunk into the victim. 8170: 7640: 7311: 672: 6784: 6017: 1254:"Gorgonopioidea" (families Gorgonopidae, Cyonosauridae, and Galesuchidae) and "Rubidgeoidea" (Rubidgeidae, Phtinosuchidae, and Inostranceviidae). In 2007, biologist Eva V. I. Gebauer, in her comprehensive review of Gorgonopsia (her PhD dissertation), rejected Ivakhnenko's model in favour of Sigogneau-Russell's, and further reduced the number of genera to fourteen in addition to the Russian genera: 2792: 588: 3108: 2486: 6789: 881: 2965:(generating their own body heat) or have had greater control over heat loss (that is, better homeothermy). The parasagittal gait may have aided the latter, as it would have kept most of the body off the ground as well as allowed blood to stay in the abdomen instead of having to circulate through the appendages, both of which would reduce heat transfer to the ground and stabilise 2556: 1170: 1042:, in the northwest of the country. The fossil material, although thin, is described in 2022 by paleontologists Jun Liu and Wan Yiang and confirms that it comes from a gorgonopsian dating from the Upper Permian that actually lived in present-day China. In 2003, Indian palaeontologists Sanghamitra Ray and Saswati Bandyopadhyay assigned some skull fragments from the Late Permian 3006: 2957:, and thus also enhanced ventilation for aerobic activity; but it could have instead been to increase acceleration or agility, which does not necessarily equate to intense aerobic activity, much like in crocodiles. Fibrous lamellar cortical bone, which all early therapsids had, would indicate an increased growth rate, but this may not be linked to metabolic rate. 1363: 6005: 2673: 1060: 1391:(family tree) of the members of Gorgonopsia was published in 2016 by American palaeontologist Christian F. Kammerer, who specifically investigated Rubidgeinae, and re-described both the subfamily and the nine species he assigned to it (reducing the number from thirty-six species). Kammerer also resurrected 2630:, and would have been able to rapidly clamp the jaws shut from a wide gape (which would have been necessary given the long canines). The even larger Rubidgeinae had extremely powerful, heavily built, buttressed skulls, with wide snouts, strongly flanged cheeks, and exceedingly long teeth; the sabres of 2702:

The gorgonopsian shoulder joint has a highly unusual configuration. The humeral head which connects to the shoulder is longer than the glenoid, so it could not fit into the cavity. Consequently, they may have been attached with a large mass of cartilage, with the humerus performing a rolling movement

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lacked an opening in the temporal bone (temporal fenestra), which is a diagnostic feature of Theriodontia, and so elevated Gorgonopsidae to Gorgonopsia, distinct from Theriodontia. He classified all South African materials bearing both reptilian and mammalian traits into the order "Theriosuchia", and

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Modern large reptiles naturally give off body heat at a slower rate than smaller ones, and are considered "inertial homeotherms", but they maintain a low body temperature of 25–30 °C (77–86 °F). If therapsids required a higher body temperature of 35–40 °C (95–104 °F), they would

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activity; gorgonopsians did not have a bony secondary palate, but possibly had one of soft tissue. Nonetheless, the secondary palate could have instead aided in eating large quantities of food at once rather than in ventilation. The reorganisation of the skeleton (from a sprawling to a parasagittal

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bones) would have needed to become detached from the dentary (jawbone); the gorgonopsian fossil record seems to indicate the postdentary-dentary connection was reduced. Though, given the specialisations required for biting, the condition of an isolating quadrate in gorgonopsians could alternatively

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force (drawing the legs closer to the body), useful in a sprawling gait. It is also conceivable that gorgonopsians primarily engaged this muscle while grappling struggling prey. The shins are relatively short compared to the femur, which suggests gorgonopsians were not well adapted for running long

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at a wide range of angles. In 1982, palaeontologist Tom S. Kemp suggested that early theriodonts, including gorgonopsians, could place the femur at both a horizontal angle in a sprawling gait, as well as a more vertical angle in an erect gait. He compared the locomotory habits of these creatures to

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to exert great force through the forelimb, such as when pinning down struggling prey, or holding down a carcass while ripping off flesh. If the humerus was positioned at a higher angle, this could have permitted enhanced extension forwards and backwards (along the long axis) and thus greater stride

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and 29 genera. Many of Broom's taxa would later be invalidated. Many other contemporary workers created wholly new species or genera based on single specimens. Consequently, Gorgonopsia has been the subject of much taxonomic turmoil, and is one of the most problematic synapsid groups. Because the

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deposits which form in climates with an average temperature of 16–20 °C (61–68 °F) and 100–500 mm (3.9–19.7 in) of seasonal rainfall. The gorgonopsian-bearing Salarevskian Formation in western Russia was also probably deposited in a semi-arid environment with highly seasonal

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are proportionally large, with an inner diameter of 1.5 cm (0.6 in) and outer diameter of 2.3 cm (0.9 in), compared to a diameter of 2.8 cm (1.1 in) for the orbit itself, which suggests it made predominantly nocturnal excursions. Among gorgonopsians, the rubidgeine

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was double jointed and made up of somewhat mobile and rotatable bones, which would have allowed them to open their mouths incredibly wide—perhaps in excess of 90°—without having to unhinge the jaw. It has alternatively been suggested (first in 2002 by biologists Blaire Van Valkenburgh and Tyson

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Formations in North America, and noted that pelycosaur diversity reduced from six to three in these formations, and that they coexisted with several fragmentary specimens which he interpreted as therapsids. He then suggested the adaptive shift from pelycosaur-grade to therapsid-grade took place

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suggested that the canines grew to match the size of the skull, and continually broke off until the animal stopped growing, and that gorgonopsians featured an early version of finite tooth replacement exhibited in many mammals. The tooth replacement patterns of the other teeth are unclear. The

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habitats near the equator (fossils known within 10° of either side of the palaeoequator); beyond this to about 30° was an expansive desert which extended all the way to the coast, separating the swamps from the temperate regions. By the Middle Permian, the equatorial forests had switched to a

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which were likely used as slashing and stabbing weapons. Postcanine teeth are generally reduced or absent. For hunting large prey, they possibly used a bite-and-retreat tactic, ambushing and taking a debilitating bite out of the target, and following it at a safe distance before its injuries

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The adult snout SAM-PK-11490 from an indeterminate Middle Permian gorgonopsian species has an imbedded tooth from an unidentifiable animal. The bone developed a callus around the tooth, indicating it healed and the individual survived the attack. It either came from a predator—namely a

722:, and some of them had a flange on the lower jaw to sheath the tip of the canine while the mouth was closed. Sabres are generally interpreted as having been used as stabbing or slashing weapons, which would have required an extremely wide gape. Both the upper and lower canines of 2596:(at the back of the skull), and across the cheekbones. The part anchored by the cheeks stabilised the jawbone and allowed it to move side-to-side while closing. This may have been very important in biting, as the cheekbones get stronger in tandem with the canines getting longer. 2523:

ridge, and it may have predominantly gone after prey it could swallow whole. Gorgonopsian taxa did coexist with each other—as many as seven at one time—and the fact that some rubidgeines possess postcanines while some other contemporary ones do not suggests that they practiced

2876:(which connect the nasal cavity to the throat); because respired air would not have passed through them, these are typically interpreted as having been olfactory turbinates, and would have given gorgonopsians a rather highly developed sense of smell. Gorgonopsians possessed a 1211:

in 1956, who split it into twenty families, of which the members of three (Burnetiidae, Hipposauridae, and Phthinosuchidae) are not considered gorgonopsians anymore. In 1970 and again in 1989, predominantly considering African taxa, Sigogneau-Russell published a comprehensive

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than to other synapsids. The palate also features tuberosities and ridges which oftentimes have functional teeth, which may have been used to hold onto struggling prey, diverting these powerful forces away from the fragile canines. Similar ridges have been identified on the

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Benoit, Julien; Kammerer, Christian F.; Dollman, Kathleen; Groenewald, David P.; Smith, Roger M. H. (2024). "Did gorgonopsians survive the end-Permian "Great Dying"? A re-appraisal of three gorgonopsian specimens (Therapsida, Theriodontia) reported from the Triassic

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The number of South African genera rapidly grew in the 20th-century, headed principally by Broom, whose extensive work on the Karoo therapsids—from the beginning of his career in the country in 1897 to his death in 1951—led to his description of 57 gorgonopsian

2857:; Kammerer suggested that niche partitioning among rubidgeines (as there have been as many as seven different taxa coexisting in an area), in part, took the form of different species being active at different times of the day, but the sclerotic rings of only 553:

and earlier synapsids. This gait change in therapsids was possibly related to the reduction in tail size and phalangeal formula (the number of bones per digit, which for gorgonopsians was 2.3.4.5.3 like reptiles). Other developments included fibrous lamellar

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on the shoulder blade is strongly angled tailwards, so the limbs had limited forward movement, and they may have had a short stride length. Lizards often move their spines side to side to increase stride length, but the more vertically orientated

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Like other Permian therapsids, gorgonopsians had developed several mammalian characteristics. These might have included a parasagittal gait (the limbs were vertically oriented and moved parallel to the spine) as opposed to the sprawling gait of

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The dorsals are spool-shaped and all appear about the same as each other. The spinous processes jut out steeply from the centra, and feature sharp keels on the front and back sides. Unlike eutheriodonts, gorgonopsians do not have distinguished

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are all very similar in appearance, and consequently many species have been named based on flimsy and likely age-related differences since their discovery in the late 19th century, and the group has been subject to several taxonomic revisions.

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those of crocodilians, which utilise a sprawling gait over short distances, but switch to an erect one while running or moving over longer distances. Though the hip of the specimen GPIT/RE/7113 seems to be anatomically intermediate between

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over the glenoid. This could theoretically make the angle between the humerus and the glenoid anywhere from 80 to 145° when facing the animal. If the angle was on the lower end, this would have been a rather firm joint, allowing the

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in the ear (which have to be oriented parallel to the ground), the head of the gorgonopsian specimen GPIT/RE/7124 would have tilted forward by about 41°, increasing the overlap between the visual fields of the two eyes and improving

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up to 3.5 m (11 ft) in length and 300 kg (660 lb) in body mass. Nonetheless, small gorgonopsians remained abundant until extinction (though small species may actually represent juvenile specimens of other taxa).

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to a medium-sized gorgonopsian, though the gorgonopsian characteristics have also been documented in some therocephalians. In 2008, a large and probably rubidgeine upper jaw fragment and canine was identified at the Late Permian

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in many early synapsids, stretching as far back as the Carboniferous, would suggest that the ability to venture out in low-light conditions evolved much earlier. Based on these aspects, the specimen SAM-PK-K10034 may have had

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strongly curve into each other, and the tibia is more robust than the fibula. The joint between the ankle and the heel bones may have been somewhat mobile. The fifth digit for both the hands and feet was not attached to the

1345:. In general, Sigogneau-Russell's model is supported, but there is little consensus on which genera can be assigned to which subfamilies. In 2015, American palaeontologist Christian F. Kammerer and colleagues redescribed 1096:

based on the anatomy of the nostrils (the bony narials)—"Mononarialia" for those with one opening in the skull for the nose as in mammals, "Binarialia" for those with two openings as in reptiles, and "Tectinarialia" for

815:. Nonetheless, the dorsals equating to that series are similar to the lumbars of sabre-toothed cats with steeply oriented zygopophases, useful in stabilising the lower back especially when pinning down struggling prey. 2772:

In regard to how the feet were placed on the ground, gorgonopsians are the only early therapsids which present ectataxony (the last digit bears the most weight), homopody (footprints and handprints look the same), and

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Anatomy varies incredibly little between gorgonopsians. Many species are distinguished by vague proportional differences, and consequently smaller species may actually represent juveniles of larger taxa. Notably, the

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Gorgonopsians were likely active predators. The rubidgeines have an especially robust skull among gorgonopsians, comparable to those of enormous macropredators which use their skulls as their primary weapon, such as

2544:. This is exhibited in some modern deer species, but is difficult to test given the lack of living sabre-toothed synapsid predators. In sabre-toothed cats, long-sabred ("dirk-toothed") taxa are thought to have been 4739:

Kammerer, Christian F.; Smith, Roger M. H.; Day, Michael O.; Rubidge, Bruce S. (2015). "New information on the morphology and stratigraphic range of the mid-Permian gorgonopsian Eriphostoma microdon Broom, 1911".

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at the tip of the snout varies among species in terms of the degree of its expansion, as well as the positions, degree of splay, and shape of the 3 ridges. They typically feature a long and narrow skull. Juvenile

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Unlike mammalian carnivores, gorgonopsians (and therocephalians) had reduced or completely lacked postcanines, and the jaw likely could not exert shearing pressure necessary for crushing bones open to access the

799:. Like sabre-toothed cats, the neck is long with well-developed muscles, which would have been especially useful when the canines were sunk into an animal. Like other early synapsids, gorgonopsians have a single 5397:

Turner, J. Scott and Tracey, C. Richard (1986). "Body Size, Homeothermy and the Control of Body Heat in Mammal-like Reptiles". In Hotton, Nicholas III; MacLean, Paul D.; Roth, Jan J.; and Roth, E. Carol (eds.).

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and Ai-Lin Sun found the assigned material to be a random assemblage of which only two have even a remote similarity to Gorgonopsia. In 2011, an incomplete set of teeth were discovered in a locality within the

2690:. They are thought to have been able to move with an erect gait similar to that used by crocodilians, the limbs positioned almost vertically as opposed to horizontally as in the sprawling gait of lizards. The 2155:); however, the classification of those "therapsids" and the age of the formations have since been challenged. Thus, the exact timing of the therapsid takeover is unclear, but the six major therapsid groups ( 2948:(maintenance of a high body temperature). The evolution of a secondary palate, and the separation of the mouth from the nasal cavity, may have increased ventilation efficiency associated with high levels of 803:, and the articulation (the joints) of the cervical vertebrae is overall reptilian, permitting side-to-side movement of the head but restricting up-and-down motion. The last cervical is shaped more like the 2973:, which help retain moisture while breathing in large quantities of air, and its evolution is typically associated with the beginning of "mammalian" oxygen consumption rates and the origins of endothermy. 3233:

caused rapid aridification due to: temperature spike (as much as 8–10 °C at the equator, with average equatorial temperatures of 32–35 °C, or 90–95 °F, at the beginning of the Triassic),

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had a box-like skull and resultantly powerful snout, which would have allowed strong bending and torsion movements, and a combination of both KI and SP bite elements. Even bigger gorgonopsians, such as

2648:. It has largely been unclear if bone marrow had even evolved yet in Permian synapsids (fish and many amphibians lack this in present day), but in 2021 it was shown that the Early Permian amphibians 2812:

on the top of the head, which is used to detect daylight (and thus, the optimal temperature to be active). It is possible that other theriodonts lost this due to the evolution of either endothermy,

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exhausted it, whereupon the gorgonopsian would grapple the animal and deliver a killing bite. They would have had an exorbitant gape, possibly in excess of 90°, without having to unhinge the jaw.

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Looy, Cindy V.; Ranks, Stephanie L.; Chaney, Dan S.; Sanchez, Sophie; Steyer, Jean-Sébastien; Smith, Roger M.H.; Sidor, Christian A.; Myers, Timothy S.; Ide, Oumarou; Tabor, Neil J. (June 2016).

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Earlier gorgonopsids in the Middle Permian were quite small, with skull lengths of 10–15 cm (4–6 in), whereas some later genera attained massive, bear-like sizes with the largest being

1242:. Sigogneau-Russell split Gorgonopidae into three subfamilies—Gorgonopsinae, Rubidgeinae, and Inostranceviinae—and reduced the number of genera to twenty-three. In 2002, Russian palaeontologist 3074:

coating. They are roughly circular—with diameters varying from 0.3–3.9 mm (0.012–0.154 in)—though they become less circular at around the middle point of the root until passing the

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Wilson, Andrew; Flint, Stephen; Payenberg, Tobias; Tohver, Eric; Lanci, Luca (2014). "Architectural Styles and Sedimentology of the Fluvial Lower Beaufort Group, Karoo Basin, South Africa".

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The labial (lip/cheek) side of the tooth root of a functional canine of RB382 presents as many as 8 lesions, clustering along the midline of the tooth, which resemble miniature teeth with a

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length, useful in an attack or short chases. The shoulder blade expands off to the sides of the animal (protrudes laterally), also providing a large attachment for the deltoids. All the

2969:. The reduced tail would have also reduced the total surface area of the animal, further minimising heat loss. Among therapsids, only eutheriodonts (not gorgonopsians) have respiratory 2752:

somewhat reduced—the puboischiofemoralis muscle (a large muscle carried only by reptiles which runs from the pelvis to the femur) extensively attached to the underside of the pubis and

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Gorgonopsians, along with other early carnivores as well as crocodiles, predominantly relied on "Kinetic-Inertial system" (KI) of biting down onto prey, in which the pterygoid and

2472:(which began to greatly increase in size) and the smaller therocephalians. The rubidgeans were the most derived gorgonopsians, and consequently the most massive and heavily built. 2584:

of the jaws and teeth to grapple the victim. Mammalian carnivores, including sabre-toothed cats, instead rely mainly on the "Static-Pressure system" (SP) where the temporalis and

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produce a strong bite force to kill prey. The temporalis and masseter had only separated in mammals, and gorgonopsians instead had a muscle stretching from the underside of the

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had strongly developed attachments, particularly the deltoids. When extending the forelimbs, the deltoids may have raised the front side (anterior margin) of the humerus, and

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Angielczyk, Kenneth D.; Kammerer, Christian F. (2018). "Non-Mammalian synapsids: the deep roots of the mammalian family tree". In Zachos, Frank E.; Asher, Robert J. (eds.).

5202:"The Sixth Sense in Mammalian Forerunners: Variability of the Parietal Foramen and the Evolution of the Pineal Eye in South African Permo-Triassic Eutheriodont Therapsids" 410:

which are not therapsids). The therapsid takeover from pelycosaurs took place by the Middle Permian as the world progressively became drier. Gorgonopsians rose to become

5898: 5789: 1451:, which is in the outclade) form a completely separate clade from the African taxa. Also in 2018, palaeobiologist Eva-Maria Bendel, Kammerer, and colleagues resurrected 351:, and thus were probably comparatively less active. Though gorgonopsians were able to maintain a rather high body temperature, it is unclear if they would have also had 5056:

Estefa, Jordi; Tafforeau, Paul; Clement, Alice M.; Klembara, Jozef; Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz; Berruyer, Camille; and Sanchez, Sophie (2021). Tautz, Diethard (ed.).

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Throughout the Middle Permian, the often gigantic dinocephalians were the dominant animals of their ecosystems. They disappear from the fossil record during the

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Marchetti, Lorenzo; Klein, Hendrik; Buchwitz, Michael; Ronchi, Ausonio; Smith, Roger M. H.; De Klerk, William J.; Sciscio, Lara; Groenewald, Gideon H. (2019).

3262:. Among therapsids, small therocephalians and large herbivorous anomodonts managed to cross the Permian–Triassic boundary, and survived respectively until the 2888:; unlike dicynodonts and therocephalians, there seems to have been a canal connecting the organ with the mouth, indicating it was functional in gorgonopsians. 5399: 709:. They had five incisors in the upper jaw (for most, the first three were the same size as each other, and the last two were shorter) and four on the bottom. 3086:, which previously only extended a few million years back in the fossil record. At 255 million years old, RB382 presents the oldest-known case of odontoma. 5764: 3797: 2130:" and the derived Therapsida. The former comprises cold-blooded creatures with a sprawling gait and presumably lower metabolism which evolved in the 5483:"Investigation of a bone lesion in a gorgonopsian (Synapsida) from the Permian of Zambia and periosteal reactions in fossil non-mammalian tetrapods" 2786: 4046:"Range of Movement in Ray I of Manus and Pes and the Prehensility of the Autopodia in the Early Permian to Late Cretaceous Non-Anomodont Synapsida" 307:, roughly between 265 and 252 million years ago. They are characterised by a long and narrow skull, as well as elongated upper and sometimes lower 3152:

were the most abundant in the gorgonopsian-bearing Russian formations. During the Upper Permian, the South African Beaufort Group was a semi-arid

2980:(small holes which confer with blood vessels), which could potentially point to the existence of loose skin (as opposed to scales), hair, various 3242:

as low as 2 or 3 during eruption and 4 globally, and the subsequent dearth of forests for the first 10 million years of the Triassic), frequent

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skull anatomy differs very little across taxa, many are defined based on vague proportional differences, including even the well-known members.

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Day, Michael O.; Ramezani, Jahandar; Bowring, Samuel A.; Sadler, Peter M.; Erwin, Douglas H.; Abdala, Fernando; and Rubidge, Bruce S. (2015).

3825:"Aspects of gorgonopsian paleobiology and evolution: insights from the basicranium, occiput, osseous labyrinth, vasculature, and neuroanatomy" 3222: 2448:

The Permian progressively became dryer and dryer. In the Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian, pelycosaurs seem to have clung to the everwet

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Van Valkenburgh, Blaire and Jenkins, Ian (2002). "Evolutionary Patterns in the History of Permo-Triassic and Cenozoic Synapsid Predators".

2615:, had long robust snouts with strongly flared cheeks, which would have supported strong pterygoids and a powerful KI bite. The medium-size 1051:

in Niger (one of the few low-latitude Late Permian tetrapod-bearing formations), and is the first evidence of a low-latitude gorgonopsian.

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were elongated, and the animal would have needed an even greater gape. The serration pattern of gorgonopsians was most similar to those of

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specimen shows that some gorgonopsians were already larger in size during the Middle Permian, without, however, reaching similar sizes to

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They markedly increased in size as time went on, growing from small skull lengths of 10–15 cm (4–6 in) in the Middle Permian to

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Smith, Roger M. H. (1987). "Morphology and depositional history of exhumed Permian point bars in the southwestern Karoo, South Africa".

5153:"Permian-Triassic vertebrate footprints from South Africa: Ichnotaxonomy, producers and biostratigraphy through two major faunal crises" 4889:"When and how did the terrestrial mid-Permian mass extinction occur? Evidence from the tetrapod record of the Karoo Basin, South Africa" 2940:

A major anatomical shift occurred between earlier pelycosaurs and therapsids, which is postulated to have been related to an increasing

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Kammerer, Christian F. (2014), "Theriodontia: Introduction", in Kammerer, Christian F.; Angielczyk, Kenneth D.; Fröbisch, Jörg (eds.),

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In the majority of gorgonopsians, the incisors were large, and the upper canines were elongated into sabres, much like those of later

2992:; however, some reptiles present a similar patterning of foramina, which are instead related to dental development rather than skin. 5467: 3671: 3571: 1081:

reptiles, despite bearing teeth resembling those of carnivorous mammals. He proposed classifying all of them under the newly coined

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Hillenius, Willem J. (2000). "Septomaxilla of nonmammalian synapsids: Soft-tissue correlates and a new functional interpretation".

4482: 327:, were the most robust of the group and could produce especially powerful bites. Gorgonopsians are thought to have been completely 2907:), allowing the quadrate to independently vibrate to a degree. This may have allowed the detection of air-borne sounds with a low 5760:"Upper Permian paleosols (Salarevskian Formation) in the central part of the Russian Platform: Paleoecology and paleoenvironment" 3453: 2461: 1192:

are distinguished predominantly by traits which are known to be quite variable depending on the age of the individual, including

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Rubidgeini pending further examination. In 2018, Kammerer and Russian palaeontologist Vladimir Masyutin identified a new genus

4449:"Researches on the structure, organization, and classification of the fossil reptilia.—Part IX. section 1. On the Therosuchia" 2603:(which may actually represent a juvenile of a different species), had gracile skulls and sabres, and may have acted much like 8303: 3051:. This specific condition as well as the fast growth rate are more reminiscent of mammals and dinosaurs than crocodilians or 2183: 5331: 970:, and it is one of the best known and largest gorgonopsians. Since then, only a few more Russian taxa have been described: 2872:

Gorgonopsians have a rather short nasal cavity, like pelycosaurs, but it features abundant longitudinal ridges behind the

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If gorgonopsians were inertial homeotherms, it is not impossible that they had hair. The snout is typically riddled with

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and some large therocephalians after the Middle Permian. Despite the existence of a single continent during the Permian,

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SAM-PK-11490 with an imbedded tooth wound (above), and speculative reconstruction of gorgonopsian social biting (below)

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The elongated canines have generally been thought to have been instrumental in their hunting tactics. The gorgonopsian

635: 451: 3270:, but only small-bodied species of cynodonts survived into the Jurassic, whose descendants would include mammals. The 2699:

connecting the vertebrae in gorgonopsians would have made the spine more rigid and stable, encumbering such movement.

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postcanine teeth were replaced more slowly than the other teeth, likely due to their lack of functional significance.

7316: 7304: 5581:"The First Healed Bite Mark and Embedded Tooth in the Snout of a Middle Permian Gorgonopsian (Synapsida: Therapsida)" 4790:

Kammerer, Christian F.; Rubidge, Bruce S. (2022). "The earliest gorgonopsians from the Karoo Basin of South Africa".

151: 4112:

Descriptive and illustrated catalogue of the fossil Reptilia of South Africa in the collection of the British museum

4110: 791:(in the neck) are all the same size as each other except for the last one, which is shorter and lower; there is one 5408: 4006:

Kermack, K. A. (1956). "Tooth replacement in mammal-like reptiles of the suborders Gorgonopsia and Therocephalia".

2881: 2189:, roughly dating a little later to the Wordian/Capitanian boundary, is the oldest identifiable gorgonopsian taxon. 7669: 3137:. Through the Middle to Upper Permian, in South Africa the dicynodonts were the most common animals, whereas the 3035:(a forearm bone) of the gorgonopsian specimen NHCC LB396 presents a circular bony lesion, featuring irregular-to- 4483:"The Reptilian Subclasses Diapsida and Synapsida and the Early History of the Diaptosauria. Volume I. Part VIII" 3160:) rivers and floodplains draining water sources much farther north into the Karoo Sea, with some occurrences of 2515:, instead probably used their canines for slashing, much more similar to sabre-toothed cats. The postcanines of 6128: 4215: 3388: 1154:, to house the "mammal-like reptiles", including Theriodontia. He also challenged Seeley's claim and relegated 1030: 8152: 4382: 3799:

Phylogeny and Evolution of the Gorgonopsia with a Special Reference to the Skull and Skeleton of GPIT/RE/7113

8293: 6155: 6042: 4712: 4297: 3368: 2713: 2532: 6009: 3396: 3332: 2764: 2430: 8190: 7508: 7310: 6783: 5943:"Rise of dinosaurs reveals major body-size transitions are driven by passive processes of trait evolution" 4478: 4196: 3488:

Bendel, Eva-Maria; Kammerer, Christian F.; Kardjilov, Nikolay; Fernandez, Vincent; Fröbisch, Jörg (2018).

3344: 2687: 1251: 1135: 328: 293: 7853: 3348: 1291: 8260: 7415: 7389: 5461: 3823:

Araújo, Ricardo; Fernandez, Vincent; Polcyn, Michael J.; Fröbisch, Jörg; and Martins, Rui M. S. (2017).

3642: 3604:(Synapsida, Gorgonopsidae), and reflections on the possible presence of streptostyly in gorgonopsians". 3449: 3408: 3392: 2728: 2709: 2454: 1436: 1246:, considering the Russian taxa, instead considered Gorgonopsia a suborder, and grouped it together with 4265:"A gorgonopsian from the Wutonggou Formation (Changhsingian, Permian) of Turpan Basin, Xinjiang, China" 2152: 626:

was also rather reptilian, and is also comparatively smaller and not as thick as those of mammals. The

470:

taking place at the very end of the Permian, in which major volcanic activity (which would produce the

4537: 3646: 3356: 1026: 607: 8288: 8247: 8173: 7662: 7473: 7441: 5907: 5847: 5798: 5684: 5164: 4984: 4840:"The origin and early radiation of the therapsid mammal-like reptiles: a palaeobiological hypothesis" 4799: 4749: 4676: 4511: 4370: 4311: 4229: 4057: 4015: 3613: 3505: 3295: 2821: 2721: 2139: 652: 247: 6788: 4428: 4357:"The vertebrate fauna of the Upper Permian of Niger. VI. First evidence of a gorgonopsian therapsid" 2171:. The oldest gorgonopsian specimen is a partial snout belonging to an undeterminable genus from the 7531: 3075: 2954: 2864: 2147: 2143: 2131: 928: 639: 584:(at the back of the skull) is rectangular (wider than tall) and concave, as opposed to triangular. 243: 138: 5836:"Hyperthermal-driven mass extinctions: killing models during the Permian–Triassic mass extinction" 5363:"The origin of mammalian endothermy: a paradigm for the evolution of complex biological structure" 3806: 323:-like proportions of up to 60 cm (2 ft) in the Upper Permian. The latest gorgonopsians, 123: 7758: 7643: 7190: 7049: 7002: 6035: 5982: 5923: 5816: 5740: 5700: 5449: 5343: 5223: 5182: 4869: 4815: 4765: 4692: 4386: 4327: 4245: 3577: 2920: 2525: 1243: 1043: 698: 447: 372: 146: 5736: 5109:"Evolution of bone microanatomy of the tetrapod tibia and its use in palaeobiological inference" 3246:(though they were already rather common throughout the Permian), and potential breakdown of the 1015:

Gorgonopsians are conspicuously absent beyond these two areas. In 1979, Chinese palaeontologist

927:), meaning 'aspect'. In Africa, gorgonopsians have also been found in Karoo outcroppings in the 8265: 3125:

Following the extinction of the dinocephalians and (in South Africa) the basal therocephalians

2808:

Unlike eutheriodonts, but like some ectothermic creatures today, all gorgonopsians possessed a

524: 7130: 7103: 5974: 5873: 5655: 5561: 5512: 5335: 5272: 5133: 5089: 5012: 4951: 4941: 4918: 4861: 4721: 4637: 4610: 4407: 4176: 4085: 3953: 3897: 3856: 3745: 3667: 3567: 3533: 3352: 3083: 3016: 2877: 2717: 2573: 2545: 2541: 2468:. The exact cause of their extinction is unclear, but they were replaced by gorgonopsians and 2167:, Gorgonopsia, Therocephalia, and Cynodontia) had evolved by 265 million years ago during the 1197: 1184: 1035: 860: 800: 788: 713: 392: 8228: 6021: 4971:

Randau, Marcela; Carbone, Chris; and Turvey, Samuel T. (2013). Evans, Alistair Robert (ed.).

4430:

Catalogue of the fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum (Natural history) Part IV

3922:"Convergent dental adaptations in the serrations of hypercarnivorous synapsids and dinosaurs" 3407:

In more recent classifications, the family Gorgonopsidae is generally defined to exclude the

331:

and could walk with a semi-erect gait, with a similar terrestrial locomotory range as modern

7160: 6899: 6759: 6402: 5964: 5954: 5915: 5863: 5855: 5806: 5732: 5692: 5645: 5635: 5613: 5592: 5551: 5543: 5502: 5494: 5441: 5377: 5327: 5300: 5262: 5254: 5213: 5172: 5123: 5079: 5069: 5002: 4992: 4945: 4908: 4900: 4851: 4807: 4757: 4684: 4602: 4549: 4460: 4424: 4378: 4319: 4278: 4237: 4166: 4156: 4075: 4065: 4023: 3985: 3943: 3933: 3889: 3846: 3836: 3735: 3725: 3709: 3621: 3559: 3523: 3513: 3328: 2966: 2949: 2816:

in the eyes—in tandem with the loss of colour vision and a shift to nocturnal life—or both.

2537: 2218: 2135: 1196:

size, snout length, and number of postcanine teeth. Thus, it is possible that some taxa are

1110: 1093: 1048: 898: 819: 812: 804: 779: 644: 559: 431: 427: 388: 380: 923: 7226: 7069: 7009: 6869: 6825: 6113: 5481:

Kato, Kyle M.; Rega, Elizabeth A.; Sidor, Christian A.; and Huttenlocker, Adam K. (2020).

3881: 3551: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3324: 3271: 3263: 3210: 3185:

at higher elevations. The Moradi Formation was an arid desert, primarily dominated by the

3126: 3036: 2970: 2841: 2837: 2585: 2566: 2549: 1440: 1235: 1193: 1189: 1138:

completely reworked the classification of Reptilia in 1903, and erected two major groups:

1089: 1082: 792: 767: 615: 501: 5107:

Kriloff, A.; Germain, D.; Canoville, A.; Vincent, P.; Sache, M. & Laurin, M. (2008).

5911: 5851: 5802: 5688: 5168: 4988: 4803: 4753: 4680: 4636:. Encyclopedia of Paleoherpetology. Vol. 17 B/I. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. 4374: 4315: 4233: 4061: 4019: 3617: 3509: 2853:

has unusually small sclerotic rings, indicating it had photopic vision and was strictly

8129: 8022: 7906: 7554: 7485: 7183: 7112: 7032: 6995: 6953: 6944: 6696: 6600: 6545: 6534: 6491: 6457: 6367: 6242: 6140: 5969: 5942: 5868: 5835: 5650: 5617: 5556: 5531: 5507: 5482: 5267: 5242: 5084: 5057: 5007: 4972: 4913: 4888: 4553: 4171: 4136: 4080: 4045: 3948: 3921: 3851: 3824: 3740: 3713: 3528: 3489: 3427: 3372: 3336: 3267: 3259: 3230: 3226: 3052: 2900: 2895:, unlike earlier pelycosaurs, indicated by the reduction of the connection between the 2868:

Early mammal (above) vs. pelycosaur (below) jaw configuration with relevance to hearing

2830: 2825: 2802: 2704: 2691: 2661: 2656: 2593: 2581: 2507:

dinosaurs. Less robust gorgonopsians with longer canines and much weaker bite, such as

2465: 2442: 2330: 1866: 1590: 1405: 1016: 972: 955: 894: 796: 581: 497: 475: 471: 419: 411: 300: 39: 5362: 5108: 4569:"A review of Robert Broom's therapsid holotypes: Have they survived the test of time?" 4323: 4241: 2861:

among this subfamily have been identified, making this hypothesis highly speculative.

8282: 8015: 7984: 7899: 7628: 7497: 7256: 7248: 7169: 7119: 7089: 7079: 7016: 6876: 6834: 6631: 6616: 6589: 6568: 6430: 6423: 6339: 5927: 5820: 5744: 5704: 5382: 5186: 5128: 4973:"Canine Evolution in Sabretoothed Carnivores: Natural Selection or Sexual Selection?" 4856: 4839: 4819: 4811: 4769: 4696: 4658: 4390: 4356: 4331: 4249: 3877: 3581: 3432: 3422: 3300: 3186: 3134: 3112: 3056: 3032: 2911:

of less than 1 mm (0.039 in), but the eardrum would have been supported by

2896: 2636: 2438: 2343: 2280: 1842: 1659: 1607: 1459: 1325: 1239: 1159: 932: 763: 718: 706: 555: 540: 530: 344: 304: 133: 81: 5785:"Biological and physical evidence for extreme seasonality in central Permian Pangea" 5759: 5347: 5243:"Nocturnality in synapsids predates the origin of mammals by over 100 million years" 5227: 4710:

Ivakhnenko, Mikhail F. (2002). "Taxonomy of East European Gorgonopia (Therapsida)".

4448: 1203:

Among the first attempts to organise the clade was carried out by British zoologist

671: 8136: 8107: 8090: 8063: 7942: 7881: 7832: 7633: 7623: 7587: 7447: 7404: 7378: 7240: 7176: 6981: 6967: 6960: 6883: 6855: 6582: 6498: 6437: 6381: 6374: 6332: 6325: 6318: 6267: 5986: 4873: 4533: 4507: 4444: 4106: 3625: 3340: 3254:

bombardment by 400% at the equator and 5000% at the poles). A possible specimen of

3251: 3191: 3130: 3091: 3071: 3063: 2885: 2797: 2749: 2745: 2732: 2305: 2268: 2255: 2243: 2160: 2156: 2127: 1915: 1815: 1510: 1399: 1377: 1319: 1268: 1247: 1208: 1175: 1147: 1122: 1118: 1085: 1021: 1008: 984: 902: 827: 759: 737: 694: 677: 651:, the semi-circular canals are flat, probably because they were wedged between the 611: 596: 435: 384: 308: 222: 43: 2791: 587: 335:. They may have been more agile than their prey items, but were probably inertial 5919: 5811: 5784: 5200:

Benoit, Julien; Abdala, Fernando; Manger, Paul R.; and Rubidge, Bruce S. (2016).

5058:"New light shed on the early evolution of limb-bone growth plate and bone marrow" 4997: 4606: 4282: 4070: 3518: 638:(which stabilises gaze while moving the head). Judging by the orientation of the 8222: 8114: 8100: 8002: 7991: 7963: 7920: 7913: 7846: 7839: 7430: 7233: 7212: 6988: 6848: 6841: 6806: 6749: 6739: 6667: 6575: 6470: 6298: 6276: 6257: 5547: 4269: 4008:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences

3893: 3437: 3247: 3161: 3153: 3148: 3142: 3118: 3107: 3044: 2985: 2945: 2932:(rotatable quadrate) in order to widen the gape rather than facilitate hearing. 2774: 2696: 2645: 2561: 2490: 2485: 1828: 1765: 1676: 1566: 1542: 1411: 1351:(which was labelled as an indeterminate theriodont) as a gorgonopsian, and sunk 1347: 1303: 1274: 1262: 1256: 1227: 1065: 990: 978: 746: 741: 492: 487: 458:. These places were semi-arid areas with highly seasonal rainfall. Gorgonopsian 352: 336: 324: 56: 6016: 5031: 4568: 1166:

skull discovered by the Reverend John H. Whaits, Broom reinstated Gorgonopsia.

880: 8056: 8049: 8040: 8029: 7727: 7577: 7567: 7520: 7347: 7334: 7268: 7198: 7146: 6930: 6862: 6709: 6624: 6609: 6519: 6512: 6484: 6409: 6395: 4464: 3989: 3320: 3258:

suggests that some smaller taxa may have survived up to the latest Permian or

3202: 3197: 3174: 3138: 3040: 2981: 2941: 2924: 2854: 2809: 2736: 2626: 2589: 2555: 2469: 2449: 2358: 2230: 1980: 1939: 1890: 1447:

as the basalmost known gorgonopsians, and found that all Russian taxa (except

1393: 1373: 1368: 1337: 1331: 1217: 1169: 1151: 1078: 835: 751: 686: 631: 403: 368: 340: 332: 209: 101: 66: 8213: 5597: 5580: 5177: 5152: 4725: 3920:

Whitney, M. R.; LeBlanc, A. R. H.; Reynolds, A. R.; and Brink, K. S. (2020).

1162:, dissolving Gorgonopsia. In 1913, especially in light of an almost complete 8121: 7977: 7970: 7956: 7874: 7867: 7743: 7718: 7364: 7219: 6920: 6645: 6505: 6416: 6360: 6353: 6291: 6221: 6208: 6167: 6058: 5622:

gen. et sp. nov.) from the Permian Kotelnich locality, Kirov Region, Russia"

4598: 4355:

Smiley, Tara M.; Sidor, Christian A.; Maga, Abdoulaye; Ide, Oumarou (2008).

3563: 3445: 3364: 3360: 3275: 3235: 3178: 3165: 3157: 3048: 2962: 2912: 2908: 2817: 2757: 2716:

lowered the back side (posterior margin). When retracting the forelimb, the

2650: 2293: 2205: 2164: 1741: 1717: 1693: 1486: 1453: 1388: 1313: 1231: 1213: 1143: 1002: 996: 907: 886: 660: 656: 627: 623: 603: 599: 550: 505: 479: 402:

The major therapsid groups had all evolved by 275 million years ago from a "

376: 296: 196: 163: 106: 50: 5978: 5959: 5877: 5859: 5758:

Yakimenko, Elena; Inozemtsev, Svyatoslav A.; Naugolnykh, Sergey V. (2004).

5659: 5565: 5516: 5498: 5339: 5276: 5258: 5218: 5201: 5137: 5093: 5016: 4922: 4904: 4865: 4180: 4089: 4027: 3957: 3938: 3860: 3749: 3537: 3221:

Most gorgonopsians went extinct at the end of the Upper Permian during the

3043:, which grew rapidly over a single growing season. This is consistent with 2548:, whereas short-toothed ("scimitar-toothed") taxa are thought to have been 2519:

were replaced by a smooth ridge unlike dicynodonts which have a blade-like

430:(primarily in South Africa, but also in Tanzania, Zambia, and Malawi), the 17: 6004: 4298:"Late Permian vertebrate community of the Pranhita–Godavari valley, India" 3005: 1457:. In 2022, Kammerer and fellow palaeontologist Bruce S. Rubidge described 1362: 749:(the latest gorgonopsians) did not have postcanines in the lower jaw, and 8239: 8207: 8070: 7709: 7205: 7059: 6974: 6729: 6719: 6652: 6638: 6561: 6554: 6309: 6284: 6088: 6082: 4135:

Kammerer, Christian F. and Masyutin, Vladimir (2018). Young, Mark (ed.).

3283: 3279: 3243: 3079: 2977: 2916: 2678: 2577: 2536:

Secco, though in reference to cats) that sabres evolved primarily due to

2504: 2500: 2434: 1963: 1381: 1222: 1139: 1131: 1039: 732: 729: 724: 702: 513: 509: 483: 439: 407: 348: 183: 96: 91: 76: 71: 61: 5941:

Sookias, Roland B.; Butler, Richard J.; and Benson, Roger B. J. (2012).

5696: 5074: 4634:

Theriodontia I: Phthinosuchia, Biarmosuchia, Eotitanosuchia, Gorgonopsia

7949: 6388: 6097: 5640: 5453: 4950:. Bloomington, Indiana: University of Indiana Press. pp. 204–207. 4220: 4161: 3841: 3730: 3182: 3169: 3067: 2989: 2892: 2753: 2672: 2520: 2168: 1782: 1158:

back to Theriodontia, but he placed it into his newly erected subgroup

959: 940: 843: 831: 690: 619: 423: 396: 360: 356: 312: 286: 111: 86: 5304: 4761: 1059: 606:, has a relatively large hindbrain compared to the forebrain, a large 7703: 7537: 6527: 6076: 2904: 2873: 2748:

expanded more in the headwards direction than the tailwards, and the

2604: 951: 944: 936: 916: 912: 856: 851: 842:

is slightly s-shaped, and is short but longer and slenderer than the

823: 648: 580:

appear to have had snouts wider than long. Unlike eutheriodonts, the

364: 280: 276: 173: 8184: 5445: 4688: 4264: 2624:, had a shorter and more convex snout like the earlier sphenecodont 2134:. Through the middle to late 20th-century, American palaeontologist 5332:

10.1002/1097-4687(200007)245:1<29::AID-JMOR3>3.0.CO;2-B

5294: 4194:

Young, Chung C. (1979). "A Late Permian fauna from Jiyuan, Henan".

1220:), and recognised only two families: Watongiidae and Gorgonopidae. 1077:

and several other taxa he described from the Karoo Supergroup were

716:. Some gorgonopsians had exceptionally long upper canines, such as 6346: 5626: 3206: 3106: 2891:

Early theriodonts (including gorgonopsians) may have possessed an

2863: 2790: 2763: 2671: 2554: 2484: 2429: 2115:

Phylogeny of Gorgonopsia according to Kammerer and Rubidge (2022)

1361: 1168: 1106: 1058: 879: 847: 839: 778: 745:. The postcanine teeth were reduced in both size and number; many 670: 586: 572: 523: 459: 455: 443: 289: 8252: 3420:

The publication in 2022 of the official description of the genus

3133:, gorgonopsians evolved from small and uncommon forms into large 591:

Gorgonopsian brain reconstruction (A. top, B. side, C. underside)

562:

separating the mouth from the nasal cavity, prohibiting chewing.

359:

and related structures). Their brains were reminiscent of modern

5530:

Whitney, Megan R.; Mose, Larry; and Sidor, Christian A. (2017).

2953:

gait) has been postulated to be indicative of the presence of a

1200:

with each other, and represent different stages of development.

864: 320: 8188: 7696: 7658: 7332: 6804: 6206: 6069: 6031: 2820:

behaviour has long been assumed to have originated in mammals (

893:

In 1876, the first gorgonopsian remains were identified in the

826:

by the first vertebra. The pelvis is reptilian, with separated

7654: 3884:(1984). "Dentitions, Tooth-Replacement and Jaw Articulation". 2608: 1250:

into the order "Gorgodontia". He divided Gorgonopsia into the

681:

showing tooth arrangement, dual canines, and canine root depth

4218:; Sun, Ai-Lin (1981). "A brief review of Chinese synapsids". 6027: 5432:

Van Velan, Leigh (September 1960). "Therapsids as Mammals".

4538:"On the Gorgonopsia, a Suborder of the Mammal-like Reptiles" 3805:(PhD). Eberhard-Karls University of Tübingen. Archived from 1109:

for "covered, roofed, decked"). In 1890, English naturalist

4632:

Sigogneau-Russell, Denise (1989). Wellnhofer, Peter (ed.).

3600:

Laurin, Michel (1998). "New data on the cranial anatomy of

3239: 3225:, which was primarily caused by volcanism which formed the 3181:

plants in coastal areas, as well as more drought-resistant

3055:. Among early synapsids, the only other pathology noted is 3039:

spikes made of cortical bone surrounded by a thin layer of

2494:

has the proportionally longest canines of any gorgonopsian.

1101:

because its opening was overshadowed by a thick bone roof (

5579:

Benoit, Julien; Browning, Claire; Norton, Luke A. (2021).

5296:

Nasal turbinates and the evolution of mammalian endothermy

3714:"Systematics of the Rubidgeinae (Therapsida: Gorgonopsia)" 3556:

Vertebrate Evolution: From Origins to Dinosaurs and Beyond

618:, and an overall elongated shape; all-in-all resembling a 558:

and deeply-set teeth. Like reptiles, gorgonopsians lack a

27:

Extinct group of saber-toothed therapsids from the Permian

4383:

10.1671/0272-4634(2008)28[543:TVFOTU]2.0.CO;2

3554:(18 April 2022). "20. Synapsids: The Origin of Mammals". 2464:

caused by volcanic activity which has formed the Chinese

3205:, and has environmentally been compared to the interior 466:

Most gorgonopsians became extinct during a phase of the

5532:"Odontoma in a 255-Million-Year-Old Mammalian Forebear" 4627: 4625: 4296:

Ray, Sanghamitra; Bandyopadhyay, Saswati (March 2003).

2664:(red blood cell-producing) bone marrow in their limbs. 2126:

Synapsida has traditionally been split into the basal "

5612:

Kammerer, Christian F. and Masyutin, Vladimir (2018).

3274:

gorgonopsians left open were eventually filled by the

2138:

investigated synapsid diversity in the Middle Permian

2844:. The diameters of the sclerotic rings for the small 1121:

of the family Gorgonopsidae. British palaeontologist

1092:

Reptilia). He decided to subdivide Theriodontia into

901:

of South Africa, by the biologist and paleontologist

478:

caused rapid aridification due to temperature spike,

7583: 7573: 7563: 7494: 7459: 7427: 7401: 7375: 7360: 7157: 7142: 7100: 7085: 7075: 7065: 7055: 7045: 6941: 6926: 6916: 6822: 6755: 6745: 6735: 6725: 6715: 6705: 6467: 6254: 6238: 3078:. This is roughly consistent with the human ailment 2457:(all carnivores) continuing into the Upper Permian. 371:(active during the day) though some could have been 8197: 8088: 8039: 8001: 7930: 7891: 7816: 7769: 7742: 7552: 7519: 7493: 7484: 7458: 7426: 7400: 7374: 7345: 7267: 7156: 7129: 7099: 7030: 6940: 6897: 6821: 6694: 6666: 6599: 6544: 6466: 6455: 6308: 6266: 6253: 6219: 6166: 6139: 6112: 4115:. Printed by order of the Trustees. pp. 27–29. 2814:

intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells

2686:Gorgonopsians are considered to have been strictly 2559:Reconstruction of a gorgonopsian chasing a herd of 2178:of the Karoo Basin, roughly dating to the Wordian. 966:. In a posthumous publication, it was described as 4659:"A reevaluation of the enigmatic Permian synapsid 3971: 3969: 3967: 3164:after sudden, heavy rainfall; the distribution of 2756:, which would have allowed it to produce a strong 2720:may have pushed the anterior margin down, and the 5899:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5840:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 5790:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5487:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 4597:, Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology, 4490:Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History 2884:—which would have been placed at the base of the 1439:), but he decided to classify all of them in the 962:under the supervision of Russian palaeontologist 647:—useful to a predator. Unlike either reptiles or 634:, is proportionally large, and is related to the 406:" ancestor (a poorly defined group including all 395:("Jacobson's organ"), and possibly a rudimentary 5299:(PhD). Oregon State University. pp. 74–76. 5288: 5286: 4433:. British Museum (Natural History). p. 111. 4145:) from the Permian Kotelnich locality of Russia" 379:(active at night). They are thought to have had 5407:. Smithsonian Institution Press. Archived from 5401:The Ecology and Biology of Mammal-like reptiles 4785: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4542:Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 4130: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4122: 3703: 3651:. British Museum (Natural History). p. 33. 2437:distribution and temperature belts through the 1431:all represent the same taxon or not (for which 783:Skeleton of a specimen numbered as GPIT/RE/7113 4001: 3999: 3915: 3913: 3872: 3870: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3664:Mammalian Evolution, Diversity and Systematics 7670: 6043: 5896:Assemblage Zone, Karoo Basin, South Africa". 4350: 4348: 4039: 4037: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3759: 3637: 3635: 1146:, and in 1905, South African palaeontologist 8: 5716: 5714: 4936: 4934: 4932: 3818: 3816: 3595: 3593: 3591: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3473: 2824:), but the large orbit size and presence of 954:in the 1890s at the Sokolki locality on the 534:(reconstructed with long lips and some hair) 426:, gorgonopsians have only been found in the 5737:10.1306/212F8A8F-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D 4833: 4831: 4829: 4595:Early Evolutionary History of the Synapsida 4101: 4099: 3383:; pgll, pituitary gland lateral lobes; pf, 367:. Most species may have been predominantly 8185: 8007: 7934: 7824: 7813: 7748: 7739: 7693: 7677: 7663: 7655: 7490: 7353: 7342: 7329: 7135: 7038: 6909: 6905: 6818: 6814: 6801: 6691: 6476: 6463: 6263: 6231: 6227: 6216: 6203: 6145: 6118: 6109: 6066: 6050: 6036: 6028: 5241:Angielczyk, K. D. and Schmitz, L. (2014). 122: 31: 5968: 5958: 5867: 5810: 5649: 5639: 5596: 5555: 5506: 5381: 5370:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 5266: 5217: 5176: 5127: 5083: 5073: 5006: 4996: 4912: 4855: 4657:Reisz, Robert R.; Laurin, Michel (2004). 4170: 4160: 4079: 4069: 3947: 3937: 3850: 3840: 3739: 3729: 3527: 3517: 3047:most likely stemming from subperiosteal 2787:Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles 2182:known from the lowermost end of Karoo's 1130:considered Gorgonopsia and Theriodontia 863:, and instead connected directly to the 5765:Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas 3469: 3440:. However, large gorgonopsians such as 3312: 1025:" based on teeth from the Late Permian 950:Gorgonopsians were first identified in 595:The gorgonopsian brain, like other non- 446:, with probable remains known from the 391:), a keen sense of smell, a functional 263:For the list of valid genera, see below 5459: 4663:and of its stratigraphic significance" 4453:Annals and Magazine of Natural History 4263:Liu, Jun; Yang, Wan (September 2022). 2919:instead of bone. If correct, then the 2735:could theoretically have fit into the 2731:configuration. The somewhat flattened 2565:, based on the Late Permian Tanzanian 915:, a mythological beast, with the word 685:Like many mammals, gorgonopsians were 387:(which detects sunlight and maintains 3886:The Evolution of Mammalian Characters 3490:"Cranial anatomy of the gorgonopsian 3452:to smaller representatives after the 3031:The anterolateral aspect of the left 2576:rapidly clamped the jaws shut, using 614:on the top of the head), an enlarged 528:Size comparison between a person and 434:of Niger, western Russia, and in the 7: 4512:"On the use of the term Anomodontia" 414:of their environments following the 363:brains, rather than those of living 5032:"The Mode of Life of Gorgonopsians" 3411:representatives of the Gorgonopsia. 2880:("Jacobson's organ")—a part of the 2336: 2311: 2286: 2261: 2236: 2211: 2201: 1955: 1931: 1907: 1882: 1858: 1834: 1807: 1757: 1733: 1709: 1651: 1582: 1558: 1534: 1526: 1502: 1478: 1470: 1366:Artist's impression of the head of 1073:Upon discovery, Owen presumed that 1000:. One of the Russian genera named, 262: 5947:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 5585:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 5247:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 4893:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 4668:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 4554:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1913.tb07574.x 4362:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 3978:The Paleontological Society Papers 3606:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 2528:and pursued different prey items. 1216:on Gorgonopsia (defining it as an 1019:described a Chinese gorgonopsian " 490:. However, some smaller taxa like 25: 4792:Journal of African Earth Sciences 4044:Kümmell, S. B.; Frey, E. (2014). 3391:; vc=spa, vidian canal where the 3387:; rob, right olfactory bulb; vc, 3282:) during the early stages of the 3229:. The resultant massive spike in 3223:Permian–Triassic extinction event 2923:(which in early mammals form the 1069:, one of the oldest gorgonopsians 822:, and the series attached to the 486:, and potential breakdown of the 474:) and resultant massive spike in 468:Permian–Triassic extinction event 8169: 8168: 8151: 7639: 7638: 7605: 7315: 7309: 7303: 6787: 6782: 6015: 6003: 5383:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00226.x 5129:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01512.x 4857:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.01076.x 4812:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2022.104631 3015: 3004: 2961:either have needed to have been 2724:pulled the posterior margin up. 2611:. Bigger gorgonopsians, such as 2462:Capitanian mass extinction event 1134:of it. American palaeontologist 1029:, but in 1981, palaeontologists 964:Vladimir Prokhorovich Amalitskii 416:Capitanian mass extinction event 150: 5724:Journal of Sedimentary Research 5676:Journal of Sedimentary Research 5116:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 4844:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 4303:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 3708:Kammerer, Christian F. (2016). 3367:; ibic, internal branch of the 3168:is consistent with present-day 2727:The pelvis joint has the usual 2599:Smaller gorgonopsians, such as 1244:Mikhail Feodosievich Ivakhnenko 905:. He classified the fossils as 4601:: Springer, pp. 165–169, 4412:An Elementary Latin Dictionary 3648:Fossil amphibians and reptiles 3626:10.1080/02724634.1998.10011105 3059:in several pelycosaur groups. 1: 8299:Guadalupian first appearances 5466:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 5293:Hillenius, Willem J. (1992). 5206:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 5030:Cruikshank, A. R. I. (1973). 4324:10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00050-0 4242:10.1016/S0016-6995(81)80012-5 3250:(possibly briefly increasing 2682:walking with a sprawling gait 2634:are longer than the teeth of 1207:and American palaeontologist 5920:10.1016/j.palaeo.2024.112044 5812:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.02.016 4998:10.1371/journal.pone.0072868 4607:10.1007/978-94-007-6841-3_10 4516:Records of the Albany Museum 4283:10.1016/j.palwor.2022.04.004 4071:10.1371/journal.pone.0113911 3519:10.1371/journal.pone.0207367 3082:, the most frequent type of 1205:David Meredith Seares Watson 917: 602:, lacks an expansion of the 496:may have survived up to the 375:(active at dawn or dusk) or 281: 279:, a mythological beast, and 5548:10.1001/jamaoncol.2016.5417 3894:10.1007/978-1-4684-7817-4_5 3796:Gebauer, Eva V. I. (2007). 3494:based on CT-reconstruction" 3156:featuring large, seasonal ( 2899:(at the jaw hinge) and the 2151:during the Middle Permian ( 610:(found in creatures with a 504:would be taken over by the 8325: 8309:Taxa named by Harry Seeley 4137:"Gorgonopsian therapsids ( 3375:; ob, olfactory bulb; ot, 3278:(including crocodiles and 2882:accessory olfactory system 2801:with proportionally large 2784: 922: 8164: 8149: 8010: 7937: 7827: 7812: 7793: 7751: 7738: 7692: 7618: 7603: 7356: 7341: 7328: 7301: 7138: 7041: 6912: 6908: 6817: 6813: 6800: 6780: 6690: 6479: 6234: 6230: 6215: 6202: 6148: 6121: 6108: 6065: 4567:Wyllie, Alistair (2003). 4465:10.1080/00222939408677718 4216:Sigogneau-Russell, Denise 3990:10.1017/S1089332600001121 3558:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 2356: 2341: 2334: 2316: 2309: 2291: 2284: 2266: 2259: 2241: 2234: 2216: 2209: 1977: 1960: 1953: 1936: 1929: 1912: 1905: 1887: 1880: 1863: 1856: 1839: 1832: 1812: 1805: 1779: 1762: 1755: 1738: 1731: 1714: 1707: 1690: 1673: 1656: 1649: 1604: 1587: 1580: 1563: 1556: 1539: 1532: 1524: 1507: 1500: 1483: 1476: 1415:. Kammerer was unsure if 1006:, is now considered as a 508:(namely crocodilians and 355:or fur (and by extension 259: 254: 147:Scientific classification 145: 130: 121: 34: 5598:10.3389/fevo.2021.699298 5178:10.1016/j.gr.2019.03.009 5039:Palaeontologica Africana 1376:known from fossils from 1088:(which he placed in the 1031:Denise Sigogneau-Russell 5618:"A new therocephalian ( 4742:Papers in Palaeontology 4713:Paleontological Journal 4576:Palaeontologia Africana 4414:, Harper & Brothers 3564:10.1201/9781003128205-4 3173:rainfall, and featured 2714:coracobrachialis muscle 1150:created a third group, 968:Inostrancevia alexandri 697:, and postcanine teeth 689:, with clearly defined 636:vestibulo–ocular reflex 452:Pranhita–Godavari Basin 134:Inostrancevia alexandri 5960:10.1098/rspb.2011.2441 5860:10.1098/rsta.2017.0076 5834:Benton, M. J. (2018). 5499:10.1098/rstb.2019.0144 5259:10.1098/rspb.2014.1642 5219:10.4202/app.00219.2015 4905:10.1098/rspb.2015.0834 4197:Vertebrata PalAsiatica 4028:10.1098/rstb.1956.0013 3939:10.1098/rsbl.2020.0750 3666:. Berlin: De Gruyter. 3122: 2869: 2805: 2769: 2768:Gorgonopsian footprint 2710:scapulohumeral muscles 2683: 2569: 2495: 2445: 1384: 1179: 1136:Henry Fairfield Osborn 1070: 1022:Wangwusaurus tayuensis 911:, combining the Greek 890: 784: 755:lacked them entirely. 682: 592: 535: 500:. The large predatory 8304:Lopingian extinctions 8261:Paleobiology Database 5894:Lystrosaurus declivis 5620:Gorynychus masyutinae 5320:Journal of Morphology 4838:Kemp, Tom S. (2006). 3454:Capitanian extinction 3397:vena capitis dorsalis 3393:sphenopalatine artery 3333:vena capitis medialis 3110: 2867: 2794: 2767: 2744:and mammals—with the 2729:ball-and-socket joint 2675: 2558: 2488: 2433: 1365: 1172: 1062: 883: 782: 674: 590: 527: 418:which killed off the 6012:at Wikimedia Commons 5361:Kemp, T. S. (2006). 3349:vagoaccessory nerves 3296:Evolution of mammals 2822:nocturnal bottleneck 2722:subscapularis muscle 2540:as a form of mating 1301:(under the informal 1173:Head restoration of 1063:Head restoration of 933:Upper Luangwa Valley 876:Fossil bearing sites 678:Aelurosaurus felinus 640:semi-circular canals 343:unlike contemporary 5953:(1736): 2180–2187. 5912:2024PPP...63812044B 5852:2018RSPTA.37670076B 5803:2016PPP...451..210L 5697:10.2110/jsr.2014.28 5689:2014JSedR..84..326W 5169:2019GondR..72..139M 5075:10.7554/eLife.51581 4989:2013PLoSO...872868R 4804:2022JAfES.19404631K 4754:2015PPal....1..201K 4681:2004CaJES..41..377R 4375:2008JVPal..28..543S 4316:2003JAESc..21..643R 4234:1981Geobi..14..275S 4062:2014PLoSO...9k3911K 4020:1956RSPTB.240...95K 3882:Kermack, Kenneth A. 3618:1998JVPal..18..765L 3552:Prothero, Donald R. 3510:2018PLoSO..1307367B 3195:and the pareiasaur 3076:cervix of the tooth 2944:and the origins of 2132:Upper Carboniferous 1647:African clade 1530:Russian clade 1463:from South Africa. 758:Gorgonopsians were 139:Museo delle Scienze 5641:10.7717/peerj.4933 4899:(1811): 20150834. 4162:10.7717/peerj.4954 3888:. pp. 71–79. 3842:10.7717/peerj.3119 3731:10.7717/peerj.1608 3492:Cynariops robustus 3450:niche partitioning 3448:may have left the 3123: 3084:odontogenic tumour 3041:subperiosteal bone 2870: 2806: 2770: 2684: 2676:Reconstruction of 2574:temporalis muscles 2570: 2526:niche partitioning 2496: 2446: 2153:Olson's Extinction 1385: 1355:and the next year 1185:holotype specimens 1180: 1071: 1044:Kundaram Formation 891: 884:Reconstruction of 789:cervical vertebrae 785: 714:sabre-toothed cats 683: 593: 536: 448:Kundaram Formation 8276: 8275: 8191:Taxon identifiers 8182: 8181: 8160: 8159: 8147: 8146: 8084: 8083: 8080: 8079: 7808: 7807: 7804: 7803: 7789: 7788: 7652: 7651: 7614: 7613: 7601: 7600: 7597: 7596: 7548: 7547: 7324: 7323: 7299: 7298: 7295: 7294: 7291: 7290: 7287: 7286: 7131:Sphenacodontoidea 7104:Palaeohatteriidae 7026: 7025: 6893: 6892: 6796: 6795: 6778: 6777: 6774: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6686: 6685: 6662: 6661: 6451: 6450: 6447: 6446: 6198: 6197: 6194: 6193: 6190: 6189: 6186: 6185: 6008:Media related to 5614:Sues, Hans-Dieter 5157:Gondwana Research 4957:978-0-253-01042-1 4762:10.1002/spp2.1012 4616:978-94-007-6841-3 4425:Lydekker, Richard 4408:Charlton T. Lewis 3903:978-1-4684-7817-4 3878:Kermack, Doris M. 3710:Sues, Hans-Dieter 3353:hypoglossal nerve 3203:voltzian conifers 2921:postdentary bones 2878:vomeronasal organ 2874:internal nostrils 2718:pectoralis muscle 2491:Smilesaurus ferox 2428: 2427: 2423: 2422: 2414: 2413: 2405: 2404: 2396: 2395: 2387: 2386: 2378: 2377: 2369: 2368: 2119: 2118: 2109: 2108: 2100: 2099: 2091: 2090: 2082: 2081: 2073: 2072: 2064: 2063: 2055: 2054: 2046: 2045: 2037: 2036: 2028: 2027: 2019: 2018: 2010: 2009: 2001: 2000: 1992: 1991: 1794: 1793: 1637: 1636: 1628: 1627: 1619: 1618: 1125:in 1895 believed 1036:Turpan Depression 931:of Tanzania, the 801:occipital condyle 393:vomeronasal organ 270: 269: 250: 16:(Redirected from 8316: 8269: 8268: 8256: 8255: 8243: 8242: 8233: 8232: 8231: 8218: 8217: 8216: 8186: 8172: 8171: 8155: 8008: 7935: 7825: 7814: 7749: 7740: 7733: 7732: 7694: 7679: 7672: 7665: 7656: 7642: 7641: 7609: 7585: 7575: 7565: 7496: 7491: 7461: 7429: 7403: 7377: 7362: 7354: 7343: 7330: 7319: 7313: 7307: 7161:Sphenacodontidae 7159: 7144: 7136: 7102: 7087: 7077: 7067: 7057: 7047: 7039: 6943: 6928: 6918: 6910: 6906: 6900:Haptodontiformes 6824: 6819: 6815: 6802: 6791: 6786: 6760:Protoclepsydrops 6757: 6747: 6737: 6727: 6717: 6707: 6692: 6477: 6469: 6464: 6403:Lalieudorhynchus 6264: 6256: 6240: 6232: 6228: 6217: 6204: 6146: 6119: 6110: 6103: 6102: 6067: 6052: 6045: 6038: 6029: 6020:Data related to 6019: 6007: 5991: 5990: 5972: 5962: 5938: 5932: 5931: 5888: 5882: 5881: 5871: 5831: 5825: 5824: 5814: 5780: 5774: 5773: 5755: 5749: 5748: 5718: 5709: 5708: 5670: 5664: 5663: 5653: 5643: 5609: 5603: 5602: 5600: 5576: 5570: 5569: 5559: 5527: 5521: 5520: 5510: 5478: 5472: 5471: 5465: 5457: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5419: 5413: 5406: 5394: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5367: 5358: 5352: 5351: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5290: 5281: 5280: 5270: 5238: 5232: 5231: 5221: 5197: 5191: 5190: 5180: 5148: 5142: 5141: 5131: 5113: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5087: 5077: 5053: 5047: 5046: 5036: 5027: 5021: 5020: 5010: 5000: 4968: 4962: 4961: 4938: 4927: 4926: 4916: 4884: 4878: 4877: 4859: 4850:(4): 1231–1247. 4835: 4824: 4823: 4787: 4774: 4773: 4736: 4730: 4729: 4707: 4701: 4700: 4654: 4648: 4647: 4629: 4620: 4619: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4573: 4564: 4558: 4557: 4530: 4524: 4523: 4504: 4498: 4497: 4487: 4479:Osborn, Henry F. 4475: 4469: 4468: 4445:Seeley, Harry G. 4441: 4435: 4434: 4421: 4415: 4401: 4395: 4394: 4352: 4343: 4342: 4340: 4338: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4212: 4206: 4205: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4174: 4164: 4132: 4117: 4116: 4103: 4094: 4093: 4083: 4073: 4041: 4032: 4031: 4003: 3994: 3993: 3973: 3962: 3961: 3951: 3941: 3917: 3908: 3907: 3874: 3865: 3864: 3854: 3844: 3820: 3811: 3810: 3804: 3793: 3754: 3753: 3743: 3733: 3705: 3678: 3677: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3639: 3630: 3629: 3597: 3586: 3585: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3531: 3521: 3504:(11): e0207367. 3485: 3457: 3444:and other large 3418: 3412: 3405: 3399: 3369:internal carotid 3357:epiphyseal nerve 3345:glossopharyngeal 3329:trigeminal nerve 3317: 3231:greenhouse gases 3103:Paleoenvironment 3019: 3008: 2971:nasal turbinates 2967:core temperature 2936:Thermoregulation 2928:be explained as 2775:semi-plantigrady 2586:masseter muscles 2550:ambush predators 2538:sexual selection 2337: 2312: 2287: 2262: 2237: 2219:Sphenacodontidae 2212: 2202: 2192: 2191: 2136:Everett C. Olson 1956: 1932: 1908: 1883: 1859: 1835: 1808: 1758: 1734: 1710: 1652: 1583: 1559: 1535: 1527: 1503: 1479: 1471: 1466: 1465: 1234:paleontologists 1111:Richard Lydekker 1049:Moradi Formation 1027:Jiyuan Formation 926: 920: 908:Gorgonops torvus 899:Karoo Supergroup 846:. For most, the 820:sacral vertebrae 818:There are three 813:lumbar vertebrae 805:dorsal vertebrae 645:binocular vision 630:, a lobe of the 608:epyphysial nerve 560:secondary palate 476:greenhouse gases 432:Moradi Formation 428:Karoo Supergroup 389:circadian rhythm 381:binocular vision 285:'aspect') is an 284: 275:(from the Greek 242: 237: 155: 154: 141:, Trento, Italy 126: 116: 53: 38:Temporal range: 32: 21: 8324: 8323: 8319: 8318: 8317: 8315: 8314: 8313: 8279: 8278: 8277: 8272: 8264: 8259: 8251: 8246: 8238: 8236: 8227: 8226: 8221: 8212: 8211: 8206: 8193: 8183: 8178: 8156: 8143: 8076: 8035: 7997: 7926: 7887: 7821: 7800: 7785: 7765: 7734: 7699: 7698: 7688: 7683: 7653: 7648: 7610: 7593: 7544: 7515: 7480: 7454: 7422: 7396: 7370: 7350: 7337: 7320: 7283: 7263: 7227:Secodontosaurus 7152: 7125: 7095: 7070:Hypselohaptodus 7035: 7022: 7010:Remigiomontanus 6936: 6902: 6889: 6870:Stereophallodon 6826:Ophiacodontidae 6809: 6792: 6766: 6682: 6658: 6595: 6540: 6460: 6443: 6304: 6249: 6224: 6211: 6182: 6162: 6135: 6129:Tetrapodomorpha 6114:Tetrapodomorpha 6104: 6072: 6071: 6061: 6056: 6000: 5995: 5994: 5940: 5939: 5935: 5890: 5889: 5885: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5782: 5781: 5777: 5757: 5756: 5752: 5720: 5719: 5712: 5672: 5671: 5667: 5611: 5610: 5606: 5578: 5577: 5573: 5542:(7): 998–1000. 5529: 5528: 5524: 5480: 5479: 5475: 5458: 5446:10.2307/2405973 5431: 5430: 5426: 5417: 5415: 5411: 5404: 5396: 5395: 5391: 5365: 5360: 5359: 5355: 5317: 5316: 5312: 5292: 5291: 5284: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5199: 5198: 5194: 5150: 5149: 5145: 5111: 5106: 5105: 5101: 5055: 5054: 5050: 5034: 5029: 5028: 5024: 4970: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4942:Antón, Mauricio 4940: 4939: 4930: 4886: 4885: 4881: 4837: 4836: 4827: 4789: 4788: 4777: 4738: 4737: 4733: 4709: 4708: 4704: 4689:10.1139/e04-016 4656: 4655: 4651: 4644: 4631: 4630: 4623: 4617: 4592: 4591: 4587: 4571: 4566: 4565: 4561: 4532: 4531: 4527: 4506: 4505: 4501: 4485: 4477: 4476: 4472: 4443: 4442: 4438: 4423: 4422: 4418: 4402: 4398: 4354: 4353: 4346: 4336: 4334: 4295: 4294: 4290: 4262: 4261: 4257: 4214: 4213: 4209: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4134: 4133: 4120: 4105: 4104: 4097: 4056:(12): e113911. 4043: 4042: 4035: 4014:(670): 95–133. 4005: 4004: 3997: 3975: 3974: 3965: 3926:Biology Letters 3919: 3918: 3911: 3904: 3876: 3875: 3868: 3822: 3821: 3814: 3802: 3795: 3794: 3757: 3707: 3706: 3681: 3674: 3661: 3660: 3656: 3641: 3640: 3633: 3599: 3598: 3589: 3574: 3550: 3549: 3545: 3487: 3486: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3460: 3419: 3415: 3406: 3402: 3385:pontine flexure 3381:pituitary gland 3377:olfactory tract 3325:olfactory nerve 3318: 3314: 3309: 3292: 3219: 3211:Lake Eyre basin 3127:Scylacosauridae 3105: 3100: 3053:monitor lizards 3029: 3028: 3027: 3026: 3022: 3021: 3020: 3011: 3010: 3009: 2998: 2996:Palaeopathology 2938: 2842:photopic vision 2826:sclerotic rings 2803:sclerotic rings 2789: 2783: 2670: 2567:Usili Formation 2546:pursuit hunters 2483: 2478: 2424: 2415: 2406: 2397: 2388: 2379: 2370: 2187:Assemblage Zone 2176:Assemblage Zone 2124: 2110: 2101: 2092: 2083: 2074: 2065: 2056: 2047: 2038: 2029: 2020: 2011: 2002: 1993: 1795: 1638: 1629: 1620: 1236:Robert R. Reisz 1230:in 2004 by the 1190:Nominal species 1057: 878: 873: 777: 768:Kenneth Kermack 669: 616:pituitary gland 568: 522: 345:therocephalians 241: 235: 149: 117: 115: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 48: 47: 36: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8322: 8320: 8312: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8294:Apex predators 8291: 8281: 8280: 8274: 8273: 8271: 8270: 8257: 8244: 8234: 8219: 8203: 8201: 8195: 8194: 8189: 8180: 8179: 8177: 8176: 8165: 8162: 8161: 8158: 8157: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8144: 8142: 8141: 8133: 8130:Paragalerhinus 8126: 8118: 8111: 8104: 8096: 8094: 8086: 8085: 8082: 8081: 8078: 8077: 8075: 8074: 8067: 8060: 8053: 8045: 8043: 8037: 8036: 8034: 8033: 8026: 8023:Ruhuhucerberus 8019: 8011: 8005: 7999: 7998: 7996: 7995: 7988: 7981: 7974: 7967: 7960: 7953: 7946: 7938: 7932: 7928: 7927: 7925: 7924: 7917: 7910: 7907:Pravoslavlevia 7903: 7895: 7893: 7889: 7888: 7886: 7885: 7878: 7871: 7864: 7850: 7843: 7836: 7828: 7822: 7817: 7810: 7809: 7806: 7805: 7802: 7801: 7794: 7791: 7790: 7787: 7786: 7784: 7783: 7782: 7781: 7775: 7773: 7767: 7766: 7764: 7763: 7762: 7761: 7752: 7746: 7736: 7735: 7731: 7730: 7721: 7712: 7706: 7697: 7690: 7689: 7684: 7682: 7681: 7674: 7667: 7659: 7650: 7649: 7647: 7646: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7619: 7616: 7615: 7612: 7611: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7598: 7595: 7594: 7592: 7591: 7581: 7571: 7560: 7558: 7555:Incertae sedis 7550: 7549: 7546: 7545: 7543: 7542: 7541: 7540: 7534: 7525: 7523: 7517: 7516: 7514: 7513: 7512: 7511: 7502: 7500: 7488: 7486:Eutheriodontia 7482: 7481: 7479: 7478: 7477: 7476: 7467: 7465: 7456: 7455: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7450: 7444: 7435: 7433: 7424: 7423: 7421: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7409: 7407: 7398: 7397: 7395: 7394: 7393: 7392: 7383: 7381: 7372: 7371: 7369: 7368: 7357: 7351: 7346: 7339: 7338: 7333: 7326: 7325: 7322: 7321: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7296: 7293: 7292: 7289: 7288: 7285: 7284: 7282: 7281: 7280: 7279: 7273: 7271: 7265: 7264: 7262: 7261: 7253: 7245: 7237: 7230: 7223: 7216: 7209: 7202: 7195: 7187: 7184:Ctenospondylus 7180: 7173: 7165: 7163: 7154: 7153: 7151: 7150: 7139: 7133: 7127: 7126: 7124: 7123: 7116: 7113:Palaeohatteria 7108: 7106: 7097: 7096: 7094: 7093: 7083: 7073: 7063: 7053: 7042: 7036: 7033:Sphenacodontia 7031: 7028: 7027: 7024: 7023: 7021: 7020: 7013: 7006: 6999: 6996:Melanedaphodon 6992: 6985: 6978: 6971: 6964: 6957: 6954:Bohemiclavulus 6949: 6947: 6945:Edaphosauridae 6938: 6937: 6935: 6934: 6924: 6913: 6903: 6898: 6895: 6894: 6891: 6890: 6888: 6887: 6880: 6873: 6866: 6859: 6852: 6845: 6838: 6830: 6828: 6811: 6810: 6805: 6798: 6797: 6794: 6793: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6775: 6772: 6771: 6768: 6767: 6765: 6764: 6753: 6743: 6733: 6723: 6713: 6702: 6700: 6697:Incertae sedis 6688: 6687: 6684: 6683: 6681: 6680: 6679: 6678: 6672: 6670: 6664: 6663: 6660: 6659: 6657: 6656: 6649: 6642: 6635: 6628: 6621: 6613: 6605: 6603: 6601:Varanodontinae 6597: 6596: 6594: 6593: 6586: 6579: 6572: 6565: 6558: 6550: 6548: 6546:Mesenosaurinae 6542: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6535:Thrausmosaurus 6531: 6524: 6516: 6509: 6502: 6495: 6492:Archaeovenator 6488: 6480: 6474: 6461: 6458:Eupelycosauria 6456: 6453: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6445: 6444: 6442: 6441: 6434: 6427: 6420: 6413: 6406: 6399: 6392: 6385: 6378: 6371: 6368:Cotylorhynchus 6364: 6357: 6350: 6343: 6336: 6329: 6322: 6314: 6312: 6306: 6305: 6303: 6302: 6295: 6288: 6281: 6272: 6270: 6261: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6247: 6243:Diadectomorpha 6235: 6225: 6220: 6213: 6212: 6207: 6200: 6199: 6196: 6195: 6192: 6191: 6188: 6187: 6184: 6183: 6181: 6180: 6179: 6178: 6172: 6170: 6164: 6163: 6161: 6160: 6159: 6158: 6156:Reptiliomorpha 6149: 6143: 6141:Reptiliomorpha 6137: 6136: 6134: 6133: 6132: 6131: 6122: 6116: 6106: 6105: 6101: 6100: 6091: 6085: 6079: 6070: 6063: 6062: 6057: 6055: 6054: 6047: 6040: 6032: 6026: 6025: 6024:at Wikispecies 6013: 5999: 5998:External links 5996: 5993: 5992: 5933: 5883: 5826: 5775: 5750: 5710: 5683:(4): 326–348. 5665: 5604: 5571: 5522: 5473: 5440:(3): 304–313. 5424: 5389: 5376:(4): 473–488. 5353: 5310: 5282: 5233: 5212:(4): 777–789. 5192: 5143: 5122:(3): 807–826. 5099: 5048: 5022: 4963: 4956: 4928: 4879: 4825: 4775: 4748:(2): 201–221. 4731: 4720:(3): 283–292. 4702: 4675:(4): 377–386. 4649: 4643:978-3437304873 4642: 4621: 4615: 4585: 4559: 4548:(2): 225–230. 4525: 4499: 4470: 4436: 4416: 4396: 4369:(2): 543–547. 4344: 4310:(6): 643–654. 4288: 4277:(3): 383–388. 4255: 4207: 4186: 4141:gen. nov. and 4118: 4095: 4033: 3995: 3963: 3909: 3902: 3866: 3812: 3809:on 2012-07-22. 3755: 3679: 3672: 3654: 3643:Swinton, W. E. 3631: 3612:(4): 765–776. 3587: 3572: 3543: 3468: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3459: 3458: 3426:and a similar 3413: 3400: 3373:olfactory bulb 3337:abducens nerve 3311: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3304: 3303: 3298: 3291: 3288: 3268:Upper Triassic 3260:Early Triassic 3227:Siberian Traps 3218: 3215: 3201:. It featured 3135:apex predators 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3024: 3023: 3014: 3013: 3012: 3003: 3002: 3001: 3000: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2937: 2934: 2901:pterygoid bone 2831:mesopic vision 2782: 2779: 2692:glenoid cavity 2679:Rubidgea atrox 2669: 2666: 2662:haematopoietic 2657:Discosauriscus 2632:Rubidgea atrox 2594:squamosal bone 2592:, back to the 2582:kinetic energy 2482: 2479: 2477: 2474: 2466:Emeishan Traps 2443:Early Triassic 2426: 2425: 2421: 2420: 2417: 2416: 2412: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2403: 2402: 2399: 2398: 2394: 2393: 2390: 2389: 2385: 2384: 2381: 2380: 2376: 2375: 2372: 2371: 2367: 2366: 2363: 2362: 2355: 2352: 2351: 2348: 2347: 2340: 2335: 2333: 2331:Eutheriodontia 2327: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2315: 2310: 2308: 2302: 2301: 2298: 2297: 2290: 2285: 2283: 2277: 2276: 2273: 2272: 2265: 2260: 2258: 2252: 2251: 2248: 2247: 2240: 2235: 2233: 2227: 2226: 2223: 2222: 2215: 2210: 2208: 2200: 2197: 2196: 2185:Tapinocephalus 2123: 2120: 2117: 2116: 2112: 2111: 2107: 2106: 2103: 2102: 2098: 2097: 2094: 2093: 2089: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2080: 2079: 2076: 2075: 2071: 2070: 2067: 2066: 2062: 2061: 2058: 2057: 2053: 2052: 2049: 2048: 2044: 2043: 2040: 2039: 2035: 2034: 2031: 2030: 2026: 2025: 2022: 2021: 2017: 2016: 2013: 2012: 2008: 2007: 2004: 2003: 1999: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1990: 1989: 1986: 1985: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1969: 1968: 1959: 1954: 1952: 1949: 1948: 1945: 1944: 1935: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1911: 1906: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1896: 1895: 1886: 1881: 1879: 1876: 1875: 1872: 1871: 1867:Ruhuhucerberus 1862: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1851: 1848: 1847: 1838: 1833: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1811: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1797: 1796: 1792: 1791: 1788: 1787: 1778: 1775: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1761: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1750: 1747: 1746: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1726: 1723: 1722: 1713: 1708: 1706: 1703: 1702: 1699: 1698: 1689: 1686: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1672: 1669: 1668: 1665: 1664: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1643: 1640: 1639: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1626: 1625: 1622: 1621: 1617: 1616: 1613: 1612: 1603: 1600: 1599: 1596: 1595: 1591:Pravoslavlevia 1586: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1575: 1572: 1571: 1562: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1538: 1533: 1531: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1506: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1491: 1482: 1477: 1475: 1469: 1406:Ruhuhucerberus 1353:Scylacognathus 1280:Scylacognathus 1056: 1055:Classification 1053: 1017:Yang Zhongjian 973:Pravoslavlevia 956:Northern Dvina 895:Beaufort Group 877: 874: 872: 869: 776: 773: 668: 665: 661:supraoccipital 582:occipital bone 567: 564: 521: 518: 498:Early Triassic 472:Siberian Traps 420:dinocephalians 412:apex predators 268: 267: 266: 265: 257: 256: 252: 251: 233: 226: 225: 220: 213: 212: 207: 200: 199: 194: 187: 186: 181: 177: 176: 171: 167: 166: 161: 157: 156: 143: 142: 128: 127: 119: 118: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 54: 40:Middle Permian 37: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8321: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8286: 8284: 8267: 8262: 8258: 8254: 8249: 8245: 8241: 8235: 8230: 8224: 8220: 8215: 8209: 8205: 8204: 8202: 8200: 8196: 8192: 8187: 8175: 8167: 8166: 8163: 8154: 8139: 8138: 8134: 8132: 8131: 8127: 8124: 8123: 8119: 8117: 8116: 8112: 8110: 8109: 8105: 8103: 8102: 8098: 8097: 8095: 8093: 8092: 8087: 8073: 8072: 8068: 8066: 8065: 8061: 8059: 8058: 8054: 8052: 8051: 8047: 8046: 8044: 8042: 8038: 8032: 8031: 8027: 8025: 8024: 8020: 8018: 8017: 8016:Aelurognathus 8013: 8012: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8000: 7994: 7993: 7989: 7987: 7986: 7982: 7980: 7979: 7975: 7973: 7972: 7968: 7966: 7965: 7961: 7959: 7958: 7954: 7952: 7951: 7947: 7945: 7944: 7940: 7939: 7936: 7933: 7931:African clade 7929: 7923: 7922: 7918: 7916: 7915: 7911: 7909: 7908: 7904: 7902: 7901: 7900:Inostrancevia 7897: 7896: 7894: 7892:Russian clade 7890: 7884: 7883: 7879: 7877: 7876: 7872: 7870: 7869: 7865: 7863: 7862: 7861: 7857: 7851: 7849: 7848: 7844: 7842: 7841: 7837: 7835: 7834: 7830: 7829: 7826: 7823: 7820: 7815: 7811: 7799: 7798: 7792: 7779: 7778: 7777: 7776: 7774: 7772: 7768: 7760: 7756: 7755: 7754: 7753: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7729: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7707: 7705: 7701: 7700: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7680: 7675: 7673: 7668: 7666: 7661: 7660: 7657: 7645: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7629:Phthinosuchia 7627: 7625: 7621: 7620: 7617: 7608: 7590: 7589: 7582: 7580: 7579: 7572: 7570: 7569: 7562: 7561: 7559: 7557: 7556: 7551: 7539: 7535: 7533: 7529: 7528: 7527: 7526: 7524: 7522: 7518: 7510: 7509:Therocephalia 7506: 7505: 7504: 7503: 7501: 7499: 7498:Therocephalia 7492: 7489: 7487: 7483: 7475: 7471: 7470: 7469: 7468: 7466: 7464: 7457: 7449: 7445: 7443: 7439: 7438: 7437: 7436: 7434: 7432: 7425: 7417: 7413: 7412: 7411: 7410: 7408: 7406: 7399: 7391: 7387: 7386: 7385: 7384: 7382: 7380: 7373: 7367: 7366: 7359: 7358: 7355: 7352: 7349: 7344: 7340: 7336: 7331: 7327: 7318: 7314: 7312: 7306: 7277: 7276: 7275: 7274: 7272: 7270: 7266: 7259: 7258: 7257:Tetraceratops 7254: 7251: 7250: 7249:Tappenosaurus 7246: 7243: 7242: 7238: 7236: 7235: 7231: 7229: 7228: 7224: 7222: 7221: 7217: 7215: 7214: 7210: 7208: 7207: 7203: 7201: 7200: 7196: 7193: 7192: 7188: 7186: 7185: 7181: 7179: 7178: 7174: 7172: 7171: 7170:Cryptovenator 7167: 7166: 7164: 7162: 7155: 7149: 7148: 7141: 7140: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7128: 7122: 7121: 7120:Pantelosaurus 7117: 7115: 7114: 7110: 7109: 7107: 7105: 7098: 7092: 7091: 7090:Tetraceratops 7084: 7082: 7081: 7080:Kenomagnathus 7074: 7072: 7071: 7064: 7062: 7061: 7054: 7052: 7051: 7044: 7043: 7040: 7037: 7034: 7029: 7019: 7018: 7017:Xyrospondylus 7014: 7012: 7011: 7007: 7005: 7004: 7000: 6998: 6997: 6993: 6991: 6990: 6986: 6984: 6983: 6979: 6977: 6976: 6972: 6970: 6969: 6965: 6963: 6962: 6958: 6956: 6955: 6951: 6950: 6948: 6946: 6939: 6933: 6932: 6925: 6923: 6922: 6915: 6914: 6911: 6907: 6904: 6901: 6896: 6886: 6885: 6881: 6879: 6878: 6877:Stereorhachis 6874: 6872: 6871: 6867: 6865: 6864: 6860: 6858: 6857: 6853: 6851: 6850: 6846: 6844: 6843: 6839: 6837: 6836: 6835:Archaeothyris 6832: 6831: 6829: 6827: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6803: 6799: 6790: 6785: 6762: 6761: 6754: 6752: 6751: 6744: 6742: 6741: 6734: 6732: 6731: 6724: 6722: 6721: 6714: 6712: 6711: 6704: 6703: 6701: 6699: 6698: 6693: 6689: 6676: 6675: 6674: 6673: 6671: 6669: 6665: 6655: 6654: 6650: 6648: 6647: 6643: 6641: 6640: 6636: 6634: 6633: 6632:Tambacarnifex 6629: 6627: 6626: 6622: 6619: 6618: 6617:Mycterosaurus 6614: 6612: 6611: 6607: 6606: 6604: 6602: 6598: 6592: 6591: 6590:Microvaranops 6587: 6585: 6584: 6580: 6578: 6577: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6569:Elliotsmithia 6566: 6564: 6563: 6559: 6557: 6556: 6552: 6551: 6549: 6547: 6543: 6537: 6536: 6532: 6530: 6529: 6525: 6522: 6521: 6517: 6515: 6514: 6510: 6508: 6507: 6503: 6501: 6500: 6496: 6494: 6493: 6489: 6487: 6486: 6482: 6481: 6478: 6475: 6472: 6465: 6462: 6459: 6454: 6440: 6439: 6435: 6433: 6432: 6431:Ruthenosaurus 6428: 6426: 6425: 6424:Phreatophasma 6421: 6419: 6418: 6414: 6412: 6411: 6407: 6405: 6404: 6400: 6398: 6397: 6393: 6391: 6390: 6386: 6384: 6383: 6379: 6377: 6376: 6372: 6370: 6369: 6365: 6363: 6362: 6358: 6356: 6355: 6351: 6349: 6348: 6344: 6342: 6341: 6340:Callibrachion 6337: 6335: 6334: 6330: 6328: 6327: 6323: 6321: 6320: 6316: 6315: 6313: 6311: 6307: 6301: 6300: 6296: 6294: 6293: 6289: 6287: 6286: 6282: 6279: 6278: 6274: 6273: 6271: 6269: 6265: 6262: 6259: 6252: 6245: 6244: 6237: 6236: 6233: 6229: 6226: 6223: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6205: 6201: 6176: 6175: 6174: 6173: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6157: 6153: 6152: 6151: 6150: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6138: 6130: 6126: 6125: 6124: 6123: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6099: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6086: 6084: 6080: 6078: 6074: 6073: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6053: 6048: 6046: 6041: 6039: 6034: 6033: 6030: 6023: 6018: 6014: 6011: 6006: 6002: 6001: 5997: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5937: 5934: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5900: 5895: 5887: 5884: 5879: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5830: 5827: 5822: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5791: 5786: 5779: 5776: 5772:(1): 110–119. 5771: 5767: 5766: 5761: 5754: 5751: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5725: 5717: 5715: 5711: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5677: 5669: 5666: 5661: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5628: 5623: 5621: 5615: 5608: 5605: 5599: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5575: 5572: 5567: 5563: 5558: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5536:JAMA Oncology 5533: 5526: 5523: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5477: 5474: 5469: 5463: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5428: 5425: 5414:on 2021-01-20 5410: 5403: 5402: 5393: 5390: 5384: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5364: 5357: 5354: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5314: 5311: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5297: 5289: 5287: 5283: 5278: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5237: 5234: 5229: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5196: 5193: 5188: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5147: 5144: 5139: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5110: 5103: 5100: 5095: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5052: 5049: 5045:(1–2): 65–67. 5044: 5040: 5033: 5026: 5023: 5018: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4983:(8): e72868. 4982: 4978: 4974: 4967: 4964: 4959: 4953: 4949: 4948: 4943: 4937: 4935: 4933: 4929: 4924: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4834: 4832: 4830: 4826: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4776: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4735: 4732: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4714: 4706: 4703: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4669: 4664: 4662: 4653: 4650: 4645: 4639: 4635: 4628: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4589: 4586: 4581: 4577: 4570: 4563: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4534:Broom, Robert 4529: 4526: 4522:(4): 266–269. 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4508:Broom, Robert 4503: 4500: 4495: 4491: 4484: 4480: 4474: 4471: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4440: 4437: 4432: 4431: 4426: 4420: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4400: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4363: 4358: 4351: 4349: 4345: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4304: 4299: 4292: 4289: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4271: 4266: 4259: 4256: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4222: 4217: 4211: 4208: 4203: 4199: 4198: 4190: 4187: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4144: 4140: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4125: 4123: 4119: 4114: 4113: 4108: 4107:Owen, Richard 4102: 4100: 4096: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4040: 4038: 4034: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4002: 4000: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3959: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3916: 3914: 3910: 3905: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3873: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3817: 3813: 3808: 3801: 3800: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3680: 3675: 3673:9783110275902 3669: 3665: 3658: 3655: 3650: 3649: 3644: 3638: 3636: 3632: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3588: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3573:9780367473167 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3547: 3544: 3539: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3493: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3463: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3434: 3433:Inostrancevia 3429: 3428:indeterminate 3425: 3424: 3417: 3414: 3410: 3404: 3401: 3398: 3395:passes; vcd, 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3316: 3313: 3306: 3302: 3301:Therocephalia 3299: 3297: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3199: 3194: 3193: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3150: 3145: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3121: 3120: 3115: 3114: 3113:Inostrancevia 3109: 3102: 3098:Palaeoecology 3097: 3095: 3093: 3092:biarmosuchian 3087: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3070:, and a thin 3069: 3065: 3060: 3058: 3057:osteomyelitis 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3018: 3007: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2974: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2958: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2897:quadrate bone 2894: 2889: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2866: 2862: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2832: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2804: 2800: 2799: 2795:The skull of 2793: 2788: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2766: 2762: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2725: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2706: 2700: 2698: 2693: 2689: 2681: 2680: 2674: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2658: 2653: 2652: 2647: 2641: 2639: 2638: 2637:Tyrannosaurus 2633: 2629: 2628: 2623: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2597: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2568: 2564: 2563: 2557: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2529: 2527: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2513:Inostrancevia 2510: 2506: 2502: 2493: 2492: 2487: 2480: 2476:Palaeobiology 2475: 2473: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2458: 2456: 2451: 2444: 2440: 2439:Upper Permian 2436: 2432: 2419: 2418: 2410: 2409: 2401: 2400: 2392: 2391: 2383: 2382: 2374: 2373: 2365: 2364: 2361: 2360: 2354: 2353: 2350: 2349: 2346: 2345: 2344:Therocephalia 2339: 2338: 2332: 2329: 2328: 2325: 2324: 2321: 2320: 2314: 2313: 2307: 2304: 2303: 2300: 2299: 2296: 2295: 2289: 2288: 2282: 2281:Neotherapsida 2279: 2278: 2275: 2274: 2271: 2270: 2264: 2263: 2257: 2254: 2253: 2250: 2249: 2246: 2245: 2239: 2238: 2232: 2229: 2228: 2225: 2224: 2221: 2220: 2214: 2213: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2199: 2198: 2194: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2181: 2177: 2175: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2121: 2114: 2113: 2105: 2104: 2096: 2095: 2087: 2086: 2078: 2077: 2069: 2068: 2060: 2059: 2051: 2050: 2042: 2041: 2033: 2032: 2024: 2023: 2015: 2014: 2006: 2005: 1997: 1996: 1988: 1987: 1984: 1983: 1982: 1975: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1967: 1966: 1965: 1958: 1957: 1951: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1943: 1942: 1941: 1934: 1933: 1927: 1926: 1923: 1922: 1919: 1918: 1917: 1910: 1909: 1902: 1901: 1898: 1897: 1894: 1893: 1892: 1885: 1884: 1878: 1877: 1874: 1873: 1870: 1869: 1868: 1861: 1860: 1854: 1853: 1850: 1849: 1846: 1845: 1844: 1843:Aelurognathus 1837: 1836: 1830: 1827: 1826: 1823: 1822: 1819: 1818: 1817: 1810: 1809: 1803: 1802: 1799: 1798: 1790: 1789: 1786: 1785: 1784: 1777: 1776: 1773: 1772: 1769: 1768: 1767: 1760: 1759: 1753: 1752: 1749: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1736: 1735: 1729: 1728: 1725: 1724: 1721: 1720: 1719: 1712: 1711: 1705: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1697: 1696: 1695: 1688: 1687: 1684: 1683: 1680: 1679: 1678: 1671: 1670: 1667: 1666: 1663: 1662: 1661: 1654: 1653: 1646: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1633: 1632: 1624: 1623: 1615: 1614: 1611: 1610: 1609: 1608:Inostrancevia 1602: 1601: 1598: 1597: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1585: 1584: 1578: 1577: 1574: 1573: 1570: 1569: 1568: 1561: 1560: 1554: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1544: 1537: 1536: 1529: 1528: 1522: 1521: 1518: 1517: 1514: 1513: 1512: 1505: 1504: 1498: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1488: 1481: 1480: 1473: 1472: 1468: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1461: 1456: 1455: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1413: 1408: 1407: 1402: 1401: 1396: 1395: 1390: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1370: 1364: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1349: 1344: 1340: 1339: 1334: 1333: 1328: 1327: 1326:Aelurognathus 1322: 1321: 1316: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1305: 1300: 1299: 1295: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1276: 1271: 1270: 1265: 1264: 1259: 1258: 1253: 1252:superfamilies 1249: 1245: 1241: 1240:Michel Laurin 1237: 1233: 1229: 1226:was moved to 1225: 1224: 1219: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1186: 1178: 1177: 1171: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1160:Therocephalia 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1068: 1067: 1061: 1054: 1052: 1050: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1011: 1010: 1005: 1004: 999: 998: 993: 992: 987: 986: 981: 980: 975: 974: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 948: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 929:Ruhuhu Valley 925: 919: 914: 910: 909: 904: 900: 896: 889: 888: 882: 875: 870: 868: 866: 862: 858: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 816: 814: 808: 806: 802: 798: 794: 790: 781: 774: 772: 769: 765: 761: 760:polyphyodonts 756: 754: 753: 748: 744: 743: 739: 734: 731: 727: 726: 721: 720: 719:Inostrancevia 715: 710: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 680: 679: 673: 666: 664: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 641: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 598: 589: 585: 583: 579: 574: 565: 563: 561: 557: 556:cortical bone 552: 546: 543: 542: 541:Inostrancevia 533: 532: 531:Inostrancevia 526: 519: 517: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 494: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 464: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 400: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 317: 314: 310: 306: 305:Upper Permian 302: 298: 295: 294:sabre-toothed 291: 288: 283: 278: 274: 264: 261: 260: 258: 253: 249: 245: 240: 234: 231: 228: 227: 224: 221: 218: 215: 214: 211: 208: 205: 202: 201: 198: 195: 192: 189: 188: 185: 182: 179: 178: 175: 172: 169: 168: 165: 162: 159: 158: 153: 148: 144: 140: 136: 135: 129: 125: 120: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 52: 49:265–252 45: 41: 35:Gorgonopsians 33: 30: 19: 8198: 8137:Wangwusaurus 8135: 8128: 8120: 8113: 8108:Broomisaurus 8106: 8099: 8091:Nomina dubia 8089: 8069: 8064:Leontosaurus 8062: 8055: 8048: 8028: 8021: 8014: 7990: 7983: 7976: 7969: 7962: 7955: 7948: 7943:Arctognathus 7941: 7919: 7912: 7905: 7898: 7882:Viatkogorgon 7880: 7873: 7866: 7859: 7855: 7852: 7845: 7838: 7833:Aelurosaurus 7831: 7818: 7796: 7795: 7770: 7723: 7714: 7685: 7634:Theriodontia 7624:Pelycosauria 7588:Niaftasuchus 7586: 7576: 7566: 7553: 7462: 7416:Dinocephalia 7405:Dinocephalia 7390:Biarmosuchia 7379:Biarmosuchia 7363: 7308: 7255: 7247: 7241:Steppesaurus 7239: 7232: 7225: 7218: 7211: 7204: 7197: 7189: 7182: 7177:Ctenorhachis 7175: 7168: 7145: 7118: 7111: 7088: 7078: 7068: 7058: 7048: 7015: 7008: 7001: 6994: 6987: 6982:Ianthasaurus 6980: 6973: 6968:Glaucosaurus 6966: 6961:Edaphosaurus 6959: 6952: 6929: 6919: 6884:Varanosaurus 6882: 6875: 6868: 6861: 6856:Echinerpeton 6854: 6847: 6840: 6833: 6758: 6748: 6738: 6728: 6718: 6708: 6695: 6651: 6644: 6637: 6630: 6623: 6615: 6608: 6588: 6583:Mesenosaurus 6581: 6574: 6567: 6560: 6553: 6533: 6526: 6518: 6511: 6504: 6499:Ascendonanus 6497: 6490: 6483: 6438:Trichasaurus 6436: 6429: 6422: 6415: 6408: 6401: 6394: 6387: 6382:Ennatosaurus 6380: 6375:Datheosaurus 6373: 6366: 6359: 6352: 6345: 6338: 6333:Arisierpeton 6331: 6326:Angelosaurus 6324: 6319:Alierasaurus 6317: 6297: 6290: 6283: 6275: 6268:Eothyrididae 6241: 6093: 6087:Superclass: 5950: 5946: 5936: 5903: 5897: 5893: 5886: 5843: 5839: 5829: 5794: 5788: 5778: 5769: 5763: 5753: 5731:(1): 19–20. 5728: 5722: 5680: 5674: 5668: 5631: 5625: 5619: 5607: 5588: 5584: 5574: 5539: 5535: 5525: 5490: 5486: 5476: 5462:cite journal 5437: 5433: 5427: 5416:. 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Retrieved 4307: 4301: 4291: 4274: 4268: 4258: 4225: 4219: 4210: 4204:(2): 99–113. 4201: 4195: 4189: 4152: 4148: 4143:Viatkogorgon 4142: 4138: 4111: 4053: 4049: 4011: 4007: 3981: 3977: 3929: 3925: 3885: 3832: 3828: 3807:the original 3798: 3721: 3717: 3663: 3657: 3647: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3555: 3546: 3501: 3497: 3491: 3441: 3431: 3421: 3416: 3403: 3389:vidian canal 3371:; lob, left 3341:facial nerve 3315: 3255: 3252:UV radiation 3220: 3207:Namib Desert 3196: 3192:Moradisaurus 3190: 3162:flash floods 3147: 3141: 3131:Lycosuchidae 3124: 3117: 3111: 3088: 3061: 3030: 2986:sweat glands 2975: 2959: 2939: 2930:streptostyly 2890: 2886:nasal septum 2871: 2858: 2850: 2846:Viatkogorgon 2845: 2834: 2807: 2798:Viatkogorgon 2796: 2771: 2741: 2733:femoral head 2726: 2701: 2697:facet joints 2685: 2677: 2655: 2649: 2642: 2635: 2631: 2625: 2621: 2617:Arctognathus 2616: 2612: 2600: 2598: 2571: 2560: 2530: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2497: 2489: 2459: 2447: 2357: 2342: 2318: 2317: 2306:Theriodontia 2292: 2269:Dinocephalia 2267: 2256:Eutherapsida 2244:Biarmosuchia 2242: 2217: 2184: 2179: 2173: 2161:Dinocephalia 2157:Biarmosuchia 2128:Pelycosauria 2125: 1979: 1978: 1962: 1961: 1938: 1937: 1916:Leontosaurus 1914: 1913: 1889: 1888: 1865: 1864: 1841: 1840: 1816:Arctognathus 1814: 1813: 1781: 1780: 1764: 1763: 1740: 1739: 1716: 1715: 1692: 1691: 1675: 1674: 1658: 1657: 1606: 1605: 1589: 1588: 1565: 1564: 1541: 1540: 1511:Viatkogorgon 1509: 1508: 1485: 1484: 1474:Gorgonopsia 1458: 1452: 1449:Viatkogorgon 1448: 1444: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1417:Leontosaurus 1416: 1410: 1404: 1400:Leontosaurus 1398: 1392: 1386: 1378:South Africa 1367: 1356: 1352: 1346: 1342: 1336: 1330: 1324: 1320:Arctognathus 1318: 1312: 1308: 1302: 1297: 1293: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1273: 1269:Aelurosaurus 1267: 1261: 1255: 1248:Dinocephalia 1221: 1209:Alfred Romer 1202: 1181: 1176:Arctognathus 1174: 1163: 1155: 1148:Robert Broom 1126: 1123:Harry Seeley 1119:type species 1114: 1102: 1098: 1086:Theriodontia 1079:cold-blooded 1074: 1072: 1064: 1020: 1014: 1009:nomen dubium 1007: 1001: 995: 989: 985:Viatkogorgon 983: 977: 971: 967: 949: 906: 903:Richard Owen 892: 885: 867:/heel bone. 817: 809: 786: 757: 750: 740: 738:machairodont 723: 717: 711: 684: 676: 612:parietal eye 597:mammaliaform 594: 577: 569: 547: 539: 537: 529: 491: 465: 436:Turpan Basin 401: 385:parietal eye 353:sweat glands 339:rather than 333:crocodilians 318: 309:canine teeth 272: 271: 238: 229: 223:Theriodontia 216: 203: 190: 132: 131:Skeleton of 44:Late Permian 29: 8289:Gorgonopsia 8229:Gorgonopsia 8223:Wikispecies 8199:Gorgonopsia 8115:Cerdorhinus 8101:Arctosuchus 8003:Rubidgeinae 7992:Smilesaurus 7964:Eriphostoma 7921:Suchogorgon 7914:Sauroctonus 7847:Cyonosaurus 7840:Aloposaurus 7819:Gorgonopsia 7797:Gorgonopsia 7771:Gorgonopsia 7686:Gorgonopsia 7474:Gorgonopsia 7463:Gorgonopsia 7448:dicynodonts 7442:Anomodontia 7431:Anomodontia 7234:Sphenacodon 7213:Macromerion 7003:Ramodendron 6989:Lupeosaurus 6849:Clepsydrops 6842:Baldwinonus 6807:Metopophora 6750:Mastersonia 6740:Knoxosaurus 6668:Metopophora 6576:Heleosaurus 6471:Varanopidae 6299:Vaughnictis 6277:Asaphestera 6258:Caseasauria 6022:Gorgonopsia 6010:Gorgonopsia 5797:: 210–226. 4270:Palaeoworld 3984:: 273–275. 3438:rubidgeines 3343:; cnIX-XI, 3327:; cnV +vcm— 3256:Cyonosaurus 3248:ozone layer 3187:captorhinid 3154:cold steppe 3149:Scutosaurus 3143:Deltavjatia 3139:pareiasaurs 3119:Scutosaurus 3045:periostitis 2982:skin glands 2946:homeothermy 2835:Cyonosaurus 2761:distances. 2688:terrestrial 2660:likely had 2646:bone marrow 2601:Cyonosaurus 2562:Endothiodon 2509:Smilesaurus 2470:dicynodonts 2319:Gorgonopsia 2294:Anomodontia 2174:Eodicynodon 2165:Anomodontia 1903:Rubidgeini 1829:Rubidgeinae 1766:Smilesaurus 1677:Eriphostoma 1567:Sauroctonus 1543:Suchogorgon 1412:Smilesaurus 1348:Eriphostoma 1304:nomen nudum 1275:Sauroctonus 1263:Cyonosaurus 1257:Aloposaurus 1228:Varanopidae 1066:Eriphostoma 991:Suchogorgon 979:Sauroctonus 775:Postcranium 747:rubidgeines 742:Homotherium 687:heterodonts 622:brain. The 520:Description 493:Cyonosaurus 488:ozone layer 482:, frequent 373:crepuscular 337:homeotherms 329:terrestrial 325:Rubidgeinae 273:Gorgonopsia 239:Gorgonopsia 18:Gorgonopsid 8283:Categories 8057:Dinogorgon 8050:Clelandina 8041:Rubidgeini 8030:Sycosaurus 7780:see below↓ 7728:Therapsida 7622:See also: 7578:Kamagorgon 7568:Dinosaurus 7532:Cynodontia 7521:Cynodontia 7348:Therapsida 7335:Therapsida 7278:see below↓ 7269:Therapsida 7199:Dimetrodon 7147:Shashajaia 6931:Milosaurus 6863:Ophiacodon 6710:Dimacrodon 6677:see below↓ 6625:Ruthiromia 6610:Aerosaurus 6520:Nitosaurus 6513:Dendromaia 6485:Apsisaurus 6410:Martensius 6396:Euromycter 6177:see below↓ 5906:: 112044. 5591:: 699298. 5418:2020-09-26 5305:1957/35986 4947:Sabertooth 4798:: 104631. 4496:: 451–466. 4459:(6): 375. 4228:(2): 276. 3464:References 3446:therapsids 3321:cerebellum 3276:archosaurs 3217:Extinction 3198:Bunostegos 3175:hygrophyte 3166:carbonates 2963:endotherms 2942:metabolism 2925:middle ear 2859:Clelandina 2851:Clelandina 2810:pineal eye 2785:See also: 2742:Dimetrodon 2737:hip socket 2668:Locomotion 2627:Dimetrodon 2590:skull roof 2521:keratinous 2517:Clelandina 2450:coal swamp 2359:Cynodontia 2231:Therapsida 2195:Synapsida 2140:San Angelo 1981:Clelandina 1940:Dinogorgon 1891:Sycosaurus 1433:Dinogorgon 1425:Dinogorgon 1421:Clelandina 1394:Dinogorgon 1387:The first 1374:rubidgeine 1369:Dinogorgon 1338:Clelandina 1332:Sycosaurus 1218:infraorder 1198:synonymous 1152:Therapsida 787:The seven 752:Clelandina 699:homologous 659:bone) and 653:opisthotic 632:cerebellum 600:therapsids 551:amphibians 506:archosaurs 404:pelycosaur 341:endotherms 297:therapsids 210:Therapsida 8122:Leogorgon 7978:Lycaenops 7971:Gorgonops 7957:Cynariops 7875:Scylacops 7868:Nochnitsa 7759:Synapsida 7744:Synapsida 7719:Synapsida 7702:Kingdom: 7536:includes 7446:includes 7365:Raranimus 7220:Neosaurus 6921:Ianthodon 6646:Varanodon 6506:Eoscansor 6417:Oromycter 6361:Caseopsis 6354:Caseoides 6292:Oedaleops 6222:Synapsida 6209:Synapsida 6168:Synapsida 6089:Tetrapoda 6075:Kingdom: 6059:Synapsida 5928:267080711 5821:131336926 5745:130393112 5705:129643680 5634:: e4933. 5434:Evolution 5187:133781923 5068:: 51581. 4820:249977414 4770:128762256 4726:0031-0301 4697:129233127 4599:Dordrecht 4391:131082914 4332:140601673 4250:129556772 4155:: e4954. 4139:Nochnitsa 3835:: e3119. 3724:: e1608. 3602:Lycaenops 3582:246318785 3365:flocculus 3361:forebrain 3351:; cnXII, 3339:; cnVII, 3280:dinosaurs 3244:wildfires 3236:acid rain 3179:halophyte 3158:ephemeral 3049:haematoma 2984:(such as 2955:diaphragm 2917:ligaments 2913:cartilage 2909:amplitude 2818:Nocturnal 2758:adducting 2651:Seymouria 2613:Gorgonops 2533:jaw hinge 2501:mosasaurs 2455:radiation 2206:Synapsida 2148:Chickasha 2144:Flowerpot 2122:Evolution 1742:Lycaenops 1718:Cynariops 1694:Gorgonops 1487:Nochnitsa 1454:Cynariops 1445:Nochnitsa 1389:phylogeny 1359:into it. 1357:Eoarctops 1314:Lycaenops 1288:Gorgonops 1284:Eoarctops 1214:monograph 1194:eye orbit 1164:G. torvus 1156:Gorgonops 1144:Synapsida 1132:suborders 1127:Gorgonops 1115:Gorgonops 1099:Gorgonops 1075:Gorgonops 1003:Leogorgon 997:Nochnitsa 887:Gorgonops 733:dinosaurs 703:premolars 675:Skull of 657:inner ear 628:flocculus 624:braincase 620:reptilian 604:neocortex 512:) in the 510:dinosaurs 484:wildfires 480:acid rain 408:synapsids 377:nocturnal 361:reptilian 349:cynodonts 299:from the 197:Synapsida 170:Kingdom: 164:Eukaryota 8253:42329454 8237:BioLib: 8208:Wikidata 8174:Category 8071:Rubidgea 7710:Chordata 7708:Phylum: 7704:Animalia 7644:Category 7206:Eosyodon 7191:Cutleria 7060:Haptodus 7050:Cutleria 6975:Gordodon 6730:Gorgodon 6720:Driveria 6653:Watongia 6639:Varanops 6562:Cabarzia 6555:Anningia 6310:Caseidae 6285:Eothyris 6083:Chordata 6081:Phylum: 6077:Animalia 5979:22298850 5878:30177561 5846:(2130). 5660:29900076 5566:27930769 5517:31928188 5493:(1793). 5348:22452028 5340:10861830 5277:25186003 5253:(1793). 5228:59143925 5138:18312321 5094:33648627 5017:23951334 4977:PLOS ONE 4944:(2013). 4923:26156768 4866:16780524 4661:Watongia 4582:(39): 2. 4536:(1913). 4510:(1905). 4481:(1903). 4447:(1895). 4427:(1890). 4181:29900078 4109:(1986). 4090:25517726 4050:PLOS ONE 3958:33321067 3861:28413721 3750:26823998 3645:(1954). 3538:30485338 3498:PLOS ONE 3335:; cnVI, 3290:See also 3284:Triassic 3189:reptile 3183:conifers 3116:hunting 3080:odontoma 2990:whiskers 2978:foramina 2903:(at the 2838:scotopic 2705:deltoids 2580:and the 2578:momentum 2505:theropod 2503:or some 2435:Tetrapod 1964:Rubidgea 1437:priority 1429:Rubidgea 1382:Tanzania 1343:Rubidgea 1232:Canadian 1223:Watongia 1140:Diapsida 1094:families 1040:Xinjiang 871:Taxonomy 795:and one 730:theropod 725:Rubidgea 691:incisors 578:Rubidgea 514:Mesozoic 440:Xinjiang 357:whiskers 313:incisors 184:Chordata 180:Phylum: 174:Animalia 160:Domain: 8214:Q131806 7985:Phorcys 7950:Arctops 7538:mammals 6389:Eocasea 6098:Amniota 5987:1231897 5970:3321709 5908:Bibcode 5869:6127390 5848:Bibcode 5799:Bibcode 5685:Bibcode 5651:5995100 5616:(ed.). 5557:5824274 5508:7017433 5454:2405973 5268:4173690 5165:Bibcode 5163:: 159. 5085:7924947 5008:3738559 4985:Bibcode 4914:4528552 4874:3184629 4800:Bibcode 4750:Bibcode 4677:Bibcode 4410:(1891) 4371:Bibcode 4312:Bibcode 4230:Bibcode 4221:Geobios 4172:5995105 4081:4269487 4058:Bibcode 4016:Bibcode 3949:7775981 3852:5390774 3741:4730894 3712:(ed.). 3614:Bibcode 3529:6261584 3506:Bibcode 3442:Phorcys 3436:or the 3423:Phorcys 3363:; 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