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380:
371:. These councils were to have 12 members for Jewish communities of 10,000 or fewer, and up to 24 members for larger Jewish communities. Jewish communities were to elect their own councils, and by the end of 1939 were to have selected an executive and assistant executive as well. Results were to be presented to the German city or county controlling officer for recognition. While theoretically democratic, in reality the councils were often determined by the occupiers. While the German occupiers only minimally involved themselves in the voting, those whom the Germans first chose often refused participation to avoid becoming exploited by the occupiers. As a rule, therefore, the traditional speaker of the community was named and elected, preserving the community continuity.
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measures and to win time. One way was to delay transfer and implementation of orders and to try playing conflicting demands of competing German interests against each other. They presented their efforts as indispensable for the
Germans in managing the Jewish community, in order to improve the resources of the Jews and to move the Germans to repeal collective punishments.
433:
cites Jewish survivor Baruch Milch stating "Judenrat became an instrument in the hand of the
Gestapo for extermination of the Jews... I do not know of a single instance when the Judenrat would help some Jew in a disinterested manner," though Piotrowski cautions that "Milch's is a particular account
402:
were foremost to report numbers of their Jewish populations, clear residences and turn them over, present workers for forced labour, confiscate valuables, and collect tribute and turn these over. Failure to comply would incur the risk of collective punishments or other measures. Later tasks of the
415:
attempted to establish replacement service institutions of their own. They tried to organize food distribution, aid stations, old age homes, orphanages and schools. At the same time, given their restricted circumstances and remaining options, they attempted to work against the occupier's forced
407:
included turning over community members for deportation. Ultimately, these policies and the cooperation of Jewish authorities led to massive Jewish deaths with few German casualties because of the minimal resistance. Once under Nazi control and checked for weapons, large numbers of Jews could
498:(German: Jüdische Ghetto-Polizei or Jüdischer Ordnungsdienst). They also attempted to manage the government services normally found in a city, such as those named above. However, the Germans requiring them to deliver community members for forced labor or deportation to
267:
In the beginning of April 1933, shortly after the
National Socialist government took power, a report by a German governmental commission on fighting the Jews was presented. This report recommended the creation of a recognized 'Association of Jews in Germany'
353:
and other influential people of their local Jewish community. Thus, enforcement of laws could be better facilitated by the German authorities by using established Jewish authority figures and personages, while undermining external influences.
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276:, a German People's Ward was then to assume responsibility of this group. As the leading Jewish organization, it was envisioned that this association would have a 25-member council called the
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were to serve as a means to enforce the occupation force's anti-Jewish regulations and laws in the western and central areas of Poland, and had no authority of their own. Ideally, a local
1127:
Dan
Michmann: 'On the Historical Interpretation of the Judenräte Issue: Between Intentionalism, Functionalism and the Integrationist Approach of the 1990s', in: Moshe Zimmermann (ed.),
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ultimately be easily murdered or enslaved. The sadness of the catastrophically large number of deaths because of this lack of resistance led to the saying "never again".
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This had, however, very limited positive results. The generally difficult situations presented often led to perceived unfair actions, such as personality preferences,
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Through these occupation measures, and the simultaneous prevention of government services, the Jewish communities suffered serious shortages. For this reason, early
295:. This illuminates the apparent intent to make the Jewish emancipation and assimilation invalid, and so return Jews to the status they held during the Medieval Era.
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423:, and protectionism of a few over the rest of the community. Thus, the members of the community quickly became highly critical of, or even outright opposed their
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remains a controversial issue to this day. The view that Jewish councils collaborated in the
Holocaust has been challenged by Holocaust historians including
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Poland's
Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947 Tadeusz Piotrowski - 2007
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were responsible for the internal administration of ghettos, standing between the Nazi occupiers and their Jewish communities. In general, the
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Dan
Michman: 'Jewish "Headships" under Nazi Rule: The Evolution and Implementation of an Administrative Concept', in: Dan Michman:
457:; the Nazi extermination machine was alone responsible for the tragedy, and the Jews in the occupied territories, most especially
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On
Germans and Jews under the Nazi Regime. Essays by Three Generations of Historians. A Festschrift in Honor of Otto Dov Kulka
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found it likely that the commission, which considered the legal status and interactions of Jews and non-Jews before their
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Head of the Jewish
Community in Vienna Informs About the Intended Evacuation of Jews to Theresienstadt Concentration Camp
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Holocaust
Historiography, a Jewish Perspective. Conceptualizations, Terminology, Approaches and Fundamental Issues
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cooperated with the Germans (although, as discussed above, the extent of this collaboration remains debated).
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In any case, the Judenrat became an instrument in the hands of the Gestapo for the extermination of the Jews
1994:
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GLASS, JAMES M. (1 October 1999). "Two Models of Political Organization: Collaboration Versus Resistance".
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502:, placed them in the position of cooperating with the German occupiers. To resist such orders was to risk
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461:, were far too powerless to prevent it." This remains a topic of considerable scholarly disagreement.
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1984:
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Correspondence between JDC and representatives of Jewish community organizations located inside the
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The Nazis systematically sought to weaken the resistance potential and opportunities of the Jews of
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writes: "In the final analysis, the Judenräte had no influence on the frightful outcome of the
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222:). Jewish communities themselves had established councils for self-government as early as the
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Collection: Records of the American Joint Distribution Committee: Warsaw office, 1939–1941
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793:"The crime: Collaborating with the Nazis. The punishment: Excommunication from Judaism"
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84:
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671:. Yad Vashem The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Archived from
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of a particular place and time... the behavior of Judenrat members was not uniform."
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272:), to which all Jews in Germany would be forced to associate. Appointed by the
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under the Nazi regime varied widely, often depending upon whether meant for
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264:(Reich's Association of the Jews in Germany) established on 4 July 1939.
705:. Yad Vashem, The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority.
196:
across the occupied territories at local and sometimes national levels.
1014:
Judenrat. The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe under Nazi Occupation,
2685:
1117:, London/Portland, Or.: Vallentine Mitchell, 2003, pp. 159–175.
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Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation
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Judenrat: the Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe under Nazi Occupation
559:
447:
Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation
308:
254:, a city or a whole region. Jurisdiction over a whole country, as in
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Documents about the Judenrat in the Ghetto Terezín (Theresienstadt)
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with an introduction by Jacob Robinson. New York: Macmillan, 1972.
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An Exploration of the Dynamics of Collaboration and Non-resistance
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The question of whether participation in the Judenrat constituted
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234:(קהילה), whereas the German authorities generally used the term
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2019:
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1073:"Unser Einziger Weg ist Arbeit." Das Ghetto in Lodz 1940–1944.
597:, existed in 1944–1945, during the German occupation of Hungary
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Das Problemm der Judenraete und Adam Czerniaks Anstaendigkeit.
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represented the elite from their Jewish communities. Often, a
185:
20:
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Instanzen der Ohnmacht. Wien 1938–1945. Der Weg zum Judenrat.
1039:
Jewish Leadership in Occupied Poland. Postures and Attitudes
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Gedaechtniszeiten. Ueber Juedische und Andere Geschichten.
825:
Survivors and Exiles: Yiddish Culture after the Holocaust
361:
were established on 18 November 1939, upon the orders of
138:, where the Jewish population was in the majority before
1069:
Jenseits der Vorstellbaren- Der "Judenrat" als Situation
580:, a resistance organisation formed by members of the
280:. However, the report was not officially acted upon.
214:, they were known as the "Jewish Council of Elders" (
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206:in Eastern Europe where in some cases, such as the
51:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
449:. Summarizing Trunk's research, Holocaust scholar
383:Applying for identification and work permits from
1028:Select Bibliography on Judenraete under Nazi Rule
494:had a group for internal security and control, a
291:, reached back to the Medieval Era for the term
2343:Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare
334:, and later in the occupied territories of the
16:"Jewish councils" in Nazi-occupied territories
2703:Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law
1191:
828:. Wayne State University Press. p. 119.
8:
226:. The Jewish community used the Hebrew term
176:) was an administrative body established in
2402:List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust
730:Gilbert, A History of the Holocaust, (2000)
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330:'s orders on 21 September 1939, during the
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261:Reichsvereinigung der Juden in Deutschland
242:Nazi considerations of Jewish legal status
1071:. In: Hanno Loewy, Gerhard Schoenberner:
906:. Harvard University Press. p. 135.
111:Learn how and when to remove this message
302:
694:Josef Israel Loewenherz (1 June 1942).
632:
613:
571:, head of the Council of Elders in the
1103:Juedischer Verlag bei Suhrkamp, 2000,
307:The building of the Jewish Council in
920:from the original on 24 November 2023
881:from the original on 24 November 2023
842:from the original on 24 November 2023
773:from the original on 24 November 2023
155:
7:
1990:Reich Association of Jews in Germany
759:. U of Nebraska Press. p. 572.
192:. The Germans required Jews to form
49:adding citations to reliable sources
2795:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
990:from the original on 2 October 2013
867:. E. Mellen Press. p. 95, 99.
1133:The Hebrew University Magnes Press
509:In a number of cases, such as the
246:The structure and missions of the
14:
803:from the original on 29 June 2020
712:from the original on 18 July 2013
2358:Polish leaders and intellectuals
1848:Concentration Camps Inspectorate
903:The Holocaust and the historians
270:Verband der Juden in Deutschland
25:
753:Isaiah Trunk (1 January 1996).
188:community in dealings with the
184:which purported to represent a
36:needs additional citations for
2286:Attack on the twentieth convoy
2099:1941 pogroms in eastern Poland
439:collaboration with the Germans
1:
941:American Behavioral Scientist
2623:Jewish war conspiracy theory
1814:Extermination through labour
986:. jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
669:"The Ghettos Theresienstadt"
385:Kraków Ghetto Jewish Council
202:were particularly common in
2805:Righteous Among the Nations
1491:Righteous Among the Nations
900:Lucy S. Dawidowicz (1981).
822:Jan Schwarz (15 May 2015).
2879:
2542:Ukrainian Auxiliary Police
2512:Lithuanian Security Police
2431:Reich Security Main Office
1398:Evidence and documentation
1135:, 2006), pp. 385–397.
595:Jewish councils in Hungary
558:, head of the Judenrat in
2758:Books and other resources
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2015:
1522:
1505:
1290:Bulgarian-occupied Greece
1213:
1148:in the collection of the
1056:Colloquium, Berlin, 1987
953:10.1177/00027649921955263
861:Stephen Gilliatt (2000).
569:Mordechai Chaim Rumkowski
2348:People with disabilities
2281:Aid and Rescue Committee
1054:Deutsche - Polen - Juden
578:Bratislava Working Group
332:German assault on Poland
2489:Order Police battalions
1016:Stein & Day, 1977,
2338:Soviet urban residents
1429:International response
1403:Contemporary knowledge
1155:9 January 2019 at the
564:German-occupied Poland
480:
387:
315:
313:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
283:The Israeli historian
178:German-occupied Europe
157:[ˈjuːdn̩ˌʁaːt]
142:
2863:Holocaust terminology
2785:Memorials and museums
2723:Reparations Agreement
2718:Holocaust restitution
2296:Le Chambon-sur-Lignon
1819:Human experimentation
1658:Auschwitz II-Birkenau
1052:inSt. Jersch-Wenzel:
696:"Yad Vashem Archives"
601:Theresienstadt Ghetto
473:Jewish police in the
472:
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220:Ältestenrat der Juden
216:Jüdischer Ältestenrat
126:
1985:Jewish Ghetto Police
1854:Politische Abteilung
1749:Risiera di San Sabba
1610:Natzweiler-Struthof
1150:Jewish Museum Prague
982:Berenbaum, Michael.
521:cooperated with the
496:Jewish Ghetto Police
322:were established in
311:, burned during the
299:Occupied territories
258:, was maintained by
45:improve this article
2763:Days of remembrance
2676:Holocaust survivors
2671:Depopulated shtetls
2522:Rollkommando Hamann
2368:Jehovah's Witnesses
2186:Kamianets-Podilskyi
1248:Bohemia and Moravia
1169:4 June 2020 at the
1045:12/1977, s. 335-365
1034:10/1974, s. 277-294
675:on 25 December 2011
523:resistance movement
500:concentration camps
375:Missions and duties
2746:History and memory
2650:Forced euthanasia
2598:Nazi racial policy
2301:Danish underground
2148:Operation Reinhard
2143:Wannsee Conference
1099:Doron Rabinovici:
1043:Yad Vashem Studies
1032:Yad Vashem Studies
525:. In other cases,
481:
445:in his 1972 book,
431:Tadeusz Piotrowski
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368:Generalgouvernment
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913:978-0-674-40566-0
874:978-0-7734-7770-4
835:978-0-8143-3906-0
504:summary execution
451:Michael Berenbaum
328:Reinhard Heydrich
318:The first actual
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2708:Nuremberg trials
2698:Postwar violence
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1207:The Holocaust
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1059:
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1048:Marian Fuks:
1047:
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1037:Aharon Weiss:
1036:
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1022:0-8128-2170-X
1019:
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1012:Isaiah Trunk:
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548:Warsaw Ghetto
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515:Łachwa ghetto
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140:the Holocaust
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62: –
61:
57:
56:Find sources:
50:
46:
40:
39:
34:This article
32:
28:
23:
22:
19:
2840:
2815:Yizkor books
2476:
2423:
2168:
2116:in Lithuania
2076:
1975:
1974:
1859:
1852:
1841:
1775:
1753:
1734:
1715:
1698:
1481:by Catholics
1350:Soviet Union
1218:By territory
1131:(Jerusalem:
1128:
1114:
1100:
1086:
1072:
1068:
1064:, s. 229-239
1053:
1049:
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1038:
1031:
1027:
1013:
994:28 September
992:. Retrieved
977:
944:
940:
934:
922:. Retrieved
902:
895:
883:. Retrieved
863:
856:
844:. Retrieved
824:
817:
805:. Retrieved
796:
787:
775:. Retrieved
755:
748:
740:
735:
726:
714:. Retrieved
702:
689:
677:. Retrieved
673:the original
663:
645:
621:
616:
581:
550:
526:
518:
511:Minsk ghetto
508:
491:
487:
483:
482:
446:
443:Isaiah Trunk
436:
429:
424:
418:
412:
410:
404:
399:
398:. The early
389:
366:
358:
356:
346:
342:
340:
336:Soviet Union
319:
317:
292:
289:emancipation
282:
277:
269:
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259:
256:Nazi Germany
247:
245:
235:
231:
227:
219:
215:
204:Nazi ghettos
199:
198:
193:
182:World War II
147:
146:
144:
127:
107:
101:January 2023
98:
88:
81:
74:
67:
55:
43:Please help
38:verification
35:
18:
2821:Never again
2652:(Action T4)
2578:Remembrance
2363:Homosexuals
2333:Soviet POWs
2261:Częstochowa
1809:Gas chamber
1620:Ravensbrück
1561:Gross-Rosen
1556:Flossenbürg
1439:Philippines
1371:Yugoslavia
1330:Netherlands
1258:Sudetenland
1089:Beck 2003,
1085:Dan Diner:
1067:Dan Diner:
679:12 December
573:Łódź Ghetto
556:Dov Lopatyn
285:Dan Michman
224:Middle Ages
208:Łódź Ghetto
2847:Categories
2810:Yad Vashem
2790:Uniqueness
2645:Nisko Plan
2418:Nazi Party
2226:Resistance
2196:Ninth Fort
2061:Vel' d'Hiv
1833:Nazi units
1771:Westerbork
1761:Amersfoort
1615:Neuengamme
1596:Mauthausen
1576:Kaiserwald
1546:Buchenwald
1325:Luxembourg
1026:V. Wahlen:
1007:Literature
984:"Judenrat"
743:page 73-74
656:080329428X
608:References
586:Bratislava
421:sycophancy
363:Hans Frank
132:Szydłowiec
71:newspapers
60:"Judenrat"
2768:Education
2663:Aftermath
2575:Aftermath
2537:Trawnikis
2461:Wehrmacht
2456:Waffen-SS
2256:Białystok
2084:Bucharest
2056:Marseille
1933:Elsewhere
1894:Białystok
1706:Breendonk
1683:Treblinka
1536:Auschwitz
1320:Lithuania
969:145068118
961:0002-7642
622:Judenräte
527:Judenräte
519:Judenräte
488:Judenräte
484:Judenräte
455:Holocaust
413:Judenräte
405:Judenräte
400:Judenräte
359:Judenräte
343:Judenräte
320:Judenräte
293:Judenräte
248:Judenräte
236:Judenräte
230:(קהל) or
210:, and in
200:Judenräte
194:Judenräte
2853:Judenrat
2753:Academia
2206:Piaśnica
2176:Babi Yar
2104:Jedwabne
2043:Roundups
1976:Judenrat
1940:Budapest
1711:Mechelen
1673:Majdanek
1630:Stutthof
1591:Majdanek
1486:by Poles
1444:Portugal
1422:Response
1413:Timeline
1391:Overview
1253:Slovakia
1240:Bulgaria
1167:Archived
1153:Archived
988:Archived
918:Archived
879:Archived
840:Archived
801:Archived
771:Archived
707:Archived
620:Plural:
590:Slovakia
582:Judenrat
551:Judenrat
533:See also
513:and the
492:Judenrat
425:Judenrat
357:Further
347:Judenrat
278:Judenrat
232:Kehillah
148:Judenrat
128:Judenrat
2780:Lessons
2216:Rumbula
2089:Dorohoi
2070:Pogroms
2022:Victims
1872:Ghettos
1804:Gas van
1792:Methods
1766:Schoorl
1744:Bolzano
1692:Transit
1678:Sobibor
1668:Chełmno
1635:Vaivara
1571:Hinzert
1516:ghettos
1469:Vatican
1375:Croatia
1365:Ukraine
1355:Belarus
1345:Romania
1297:Hungary
1280:Germany
1270:Estonia
1265:Denmark
1235:Belgium
1230:Austria
1225:Albania
924:28 June
885:28 June
846:28 June
807:28 June
797:Haaretz
777:28 June
716:1 April
465:Ghettos
392:Central
180:during
165:
153:German:
85:scholar
2686:Bricha
2452:(Orpo)
2325:Others
2311:Żegota
2273:Rescue
2251:Warsaw
2211:Ponary
2121:Kaunas
1924:Warsaw
1909:Lublin
1899:Kraków
1886:Poland
1730:Drancy
1663:Belzec
1640:Warsaw
1551:Dachau
1459:Turkey
1454:Sweden
1380:Serbia
1360:Russia
1340:Poland
1335:Norway
1315:Latvia
1285:Greece
1275:France
1121:
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1079:
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1030:, in:
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967:
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560:Łachwa
478:Ghetto
475:Węgrów
459:Poland
351:rabbis
326:under
309:Warsaw
186:Jewish
87:
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2800:Humor
2773:Films
2470:Units
2201:Odesa
2051:Izieu
1965:Vilna
1950:Minsk
1945:Kovno
1919:Radom
1783:Sereď
1600:Gusen
1581:Kauen
1512:Camps
1449:Spain
1434:Japan
1308:Libya
1302:Italy
1041:, in
965:S2CID
710:(PDF)
699:(PDF)
228:Kahal
92:JSTOR
78:books
2691:List
2446:(SD)
2426:(SS)
2109:Lviv
2094:Iași
2034:Jews
1955:Riga
1914:Lwów
1904:Łódź
1876:list
1725:Gurs
1598:and
1514:and
1119:ISBN
1105:ISBN
1091:ISBN
1077:ISBN
1058:ISBN
1018:ISBN
996:2013
957:ISSN
926:2020
908:ISBN
887:2020
869:ISBN
848:2020
830:ISBN
809:2020
779:2020
761:ISBN
718:2015
681:2011
652:ISBN
394:and
341:The
162:lit.
64:news
1840:SS-
949:doi
584:in
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218:or
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47:by
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1777:sk
1755:nl
1737:it
1718:fr
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