Laurasia - Knowledge (XXG)

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Qaidam, Alex, and Tarim – along the Central China orogen to form a combined East Asian continent. The northern margins of the northern continent collided with Baltica and Siberia 310–250 Ma, and thus the formation of the East Asian continent marked Pangaea at its greatest extent. By this time, the rifting of western Pangaea had already begun.

636:, Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey – were still attached to the Indian–Australian margin of Gondwana. Other blocks that now form part of southwestern Europe and North America from New England to Florida were still attached to the African-South American margin of Gondwana. This northward drift of terranes across the Tethys also included the 1143:

diversity reach a maximum in the Late Jurassic—Early Cretaceous and plate tectonic didn't affect the distribution of these flying reptiles. Crocodilian ancestors also diversified during the Early Cretaceous but were divided into Laurasian and Gondwanan populations; true crocodilians evolved from the

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split the Asian blocks – Tarim, Qaidam, Alex, North China, and South China – from the northern shores of Gondwana (north of Australia in modern coordinates) and the closure of the same ocean reassembled them along the same shores 500–460 Mya resulting in Gondwana at its largest extent.

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Laurasia and Gondwana were equal in size but had distinct geological histories. Gondwana was assembled before the formation of Pangaea, but the assembly of Laurasia occurred during and after the formation of the supercontinent. These differences resulted in different patterns of basin formation and

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During the Cambrian and Early Ordovician, when wide oceans separated all major continents, only pelagic marine organisms, such as plankton, could move freely across the open ocean and therefore the oceanic gaps between continents are easily detected in the fossil records of marine bottom dwellers and

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Continent stretched across northern Laurentia and into Avalonia and Baltica but for most of the Devonian a narrow seaway formed a barrier where the North Atlantic would later open. Tetrapods evolved from fish in the Late Devonian, with the oldest known fossils from Greenland. Low sea-levels during

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Siberia was located near but at some distance from Laurentia's northern margin in most reconstructions. In the reconstruction of some Russian geologists, however, the southern margin (modern coordinates) of Siberia merged with the northern margin of Laurentia, and these two continents broke up along

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In the early Eocene a peak in global warming led to a pan-Arctic fauna with alligators and amphibians present north of the Arctic Circle. In the early Palaeogene, landbridges still connected continents, allowing land animals to migrate between them. On the other hand, submerged areas occasionally

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During the Carboniferous and Permian, Baltica first collided with Kazakhstania and Siberia, then North China with Mongolia and Siberia. By the middle Carboniferous, however, South China had already been in contact with North China long enough to allow floral exchange between the two continents. The

2002:

Eckelmann, K.; Nesbor, H. D.; Königshof, P.; Linnemann, U.; Hofmann, M.; Lange, J. M.; Sagawe, A. (2014). "Plate interactions of Laurussia and Gondwana during the formation of Pangaea—Constraints from U–Pb LA–SF–ICP–MS detrital zircon ages of Devonian and Early Carboniferous siliciclastics of the

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When the eastern Palaeo-Tethys closed 250–230 Mya, a series of Asian blocks – Sibumasu, Indochina, South China, Qiantang, and Lhasa – formed a separate southern Asian continent. This continent collided 240–220 Mya with a northern continent – North China, Qinling, Qilian,

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into two provinces, with one of them confined to a large embayment west of the Appalachians. By the Middle Devonian, these two provinces had been united into one and the closure of the Rheic Ocean finally united faunas across Laurussia. High plankton productivity from the Devonian-Carboniferous

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During the assembly of Pangaea Laurasia grew as continental blocks broke off Gondwana's northern margin; pulled by old closing oceans in front of them and pushed by new opening oceans behind them. During the Neoproterozoic-Early Paleozoic break-up of Rodinia the opening of the Proto-Tethys Ocean

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In the early Permian, the Neo-Tethys Ocean opened behind the Cimmerian terranes (Sibumasu, Qiantang, Lhasa) and, in the late Carboniferous, the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean closed in front. The eastern branch of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean, however, remained opened while Siberia was added to Laurussia and

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1,800—1,300 Mya, especially along the Laurentia—Greenland—Baltica margin. Laurentia and Baltica formed a coherent continental mass with southern Greenland and Labrador adjacent to the Arctic margin of Baltica. A magmatic arc extended from Laurentia through southern Greenland to northern

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and fishes remained isolated. As Laurussia formed during the Devonian and Pangaea formed, fish species in both Laurussia and Gondwana began to migrate between continents and before the end of the Devonian similar species were found on both sides of what remained of the Variscan barrier.

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transport of sediments. East Antarctica was the highest ground within Pangaea and produced sediments that were transported across eastern Gondwana but never reached Laurasia. During the Palaeozoic, c. 30–40% of Laurasia but only 10–20% of Gondwana was covered by shallow marine water.

521:(c. 750–600 Mya) as Australia-Antarctica (East Gondwana) rifted from the western margin of Laurentia, while the rest of Rodinia (West Gondwana and Laurasia) rotated clockwise and drifted south. Earth subsequently underwent a series of glaciations – the 1213:(an order of birds including kingfishers) evolved in Laurasia. While this group now has a mostly tropical distribution, they originated in the Arctic in the late Eocene c. 35 Mya from where they diversified across Laurasia and farther south across the Equator. 2146:

Li, Z. X.; Bogdanova, S. V.; Collins, A. S.; Davidson, A.; De Waele, B.; Ernst, R. E.; Fitzsimons, I. C. W.; Fuck, R. A.; Gladkochub, D. P.; Jacobs, J.; Karlstrom, K. E.; Lul, S.; Natapov, L. M.; Pease, V.; Pisarevsky, S. A.; Thrane, K.; Vernikovsky, V. (2008).

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The Palaezoic-Mesozoic transition was marked by the reorganisation of Earth's tectonic plates which resulted in the assembly of Pangaea, and eventually its break-up. Caused by the detachment of subducted mantle slabs, this reorganisation resulted in rising

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Several earlier supercontinents proposed and debated in the 1990s and later (e.g. Rodinia, Nuna, Nena) included earlier connections between Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia. These original connections apparently survived through one and possibly even two

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Pannotia broke apart in the late Precambrian into Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia, and Gondwana. A series of continental blocks – the Cadomian–Avalonian, Cathaysian, and Cimmerian terranes – broke away from Gondwana and began to drift north.

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glaciations (c. 610-590 Mya) – both Laurentia and Baltica were located south of 30°S, with the South Pole located in eastern Baltica, and glacial deposits from this period have been found in Laurentia and Baltica but not in Siberia.

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opened between Gondwana and Laurasia in the Late Jurassic. The fossil record, however, suggests the intermittent presence of a Trans-Tethys land bridge, though the location and duration of such a land bridge remains enigmatic.

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Baltica. The breakup of Columbia began 1,600 Mya, including along the western margin of Laurentia and northern margin of Baltica (modern coordinates), and was completed c. 1,300—1,200 Mya, a period during which mafic

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North China, South China, Indochina, and Tarim broke off Gondwana during the Silurian-Devonian; Palaeo-Tethys opened behind them. Sibumasu and Qiantang and other Cimmerian continental fragments broke off in the Early Permian.

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in 1988 as the merger between Laurentia and Baltica along the northern Caledonian suture. The "Old Red Continent" is an informal name often used for the Silurian-Carboniferous deposits in the central landmass of Laurussia.

1116:. Pines adapted to cold and arid climates in environments where the growing season was shorter or wildfire common; this evolution limited pine range to between 31° and 50° north and resulted in a split into two subgenera: 2933:

Torsvik, T. H.; Van der Voo, R.; Preeden, U.; Mac Niocaill, C.; Steinberger, B.; Doubrovine, P. V.; van Hinsbergen, D. J. J.; Domeier, M.; Gaina, C.; Tohver, E.; Meert, J. G.; McCausland, P. J. A.; Cocks, R. M. (2012).

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The break-up of Rodinia also resulted in the opening of the long-lived Paleo-Asian Ocean between Baltica and Siberia in the north and Tarim and North China in the south. The closure of this ocean is preserved in the

839:(between Armorica and Gondwana) to form the supercontinent Pangaea. The Variscan orogeny is complex and the exact timing and the order of the collisions between involved microcontinents has been debated for decades. 1199:

separated Europe and Asia from the Middle Jurassic to the Oligocene and as this sea or strait dried out, a massive faunal interchange took place and the resulting extinction event in Europe is known as the

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Pangaea was completely assembled by the Permian except for the Asian blocks. The supercontinent was centred on the Equator during the Triassic and Jurassic, a period that saw the emergence of the

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During the Devonian (416-359 Mya) the combined landmass of Baltica and Avalonia rotated around Laurentia, which remained static near the Equator. The Laurentian warm, shallow seas and on

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in central Laurussia (today New York, United States). In the late Carboniferous, Laurussia was centred on the Equator and covered by tropical rainforests, commonly referred to as the

486:, but the exact fit of various continents within Rodinia is debated. In some reconstructions, Baltica was attached to Greenland along its Scandinavian or Caledonide margin while 1288:, a continental fragment sitting on top of the Eurasian Plate, and North America. By 56 Mya Greenland had become an independent plate, separated from North America by the 339:

proposed that Pangaea was divided into two larger landmasses, Laurasia in the Northern Hemisphere and Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere, separated by the Tethys Ocean.

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were then added to Pangaea 290–300 Ma to form Laurasia. Laurasia finally became an independent continental mass when Pangaea broke up into Gondwana and Laurasia.

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finally collided with Baltica in the Late Permian to form Laurasia. A series of continental blocks that now form East and Southeast Asia were later added to Laurasia.

699:(480–420 Mya). Baltica-Avalonia was then rotated and pushed north towards Laurentia. The collision between these continents closed the Iapetus Ocean and formed 3170: 2987:"Late Riphean rifting and breakup of Laurasia: data on geochronological studies of ultramafic alkaline complexes in the southern framing of the Siberian craton" 827:

The subduction of the Iapetus Ocean resulted in the first contact between Laurussia and Gondwana in the Late Devonian and terminated in full collision or the

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Laurentia remained almost static near the Equator throughout the early Palaeozoic, separated from Baltica by the up to 3,000 km (1,900 mi)-wide

3124:. Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System — Memoir 14, Volume I: Regional Syntheses. pp. 15–48. 696: 2404:

Milner, A. C.; Milner, A. R.; Evans, S. E. (2000). "Amphibians, reptiles and birds: a biogeographical review". In Culver, S. J.; Rawson, P. F. (eds.).

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opened between them. Laurentia then began to move quickly (20 cm/year (7.9 in/year)) north towards the Equator where it got stuck over a

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proposed that the continents in the Southern Hemisphere were once merged into a larger continent called Gondwana. In 1915 German meteorologist

672:. In the Late Cambrian, the mid-ocean ridge in the Iapetus Ocean subducted beneath Gondwana which resulted in the opening of a series of large 1722:, Assembly of Western Pangaea: Carboniferous–Permian, pp. 453–454; Assembly of Eastern Pangaea: Late Permian–Jurassic, p. 454; Fig. 10, p. 454 978: 719:

during the Devonian. The continent covered 37,000,000 km (14,000,000 sq mi) including several large Arctic continental blocks.

3924: 3010:

Zhao, G.; Cawood, P. A.; Wilde, S. A.; Sun, M. (2002). "Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga orogens: implications for a pre-Rodinia supercontinent".

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Cocks, L. R. M.; Torsvik, T. H. (2011). "The Palaeozoic geography of Laurentia and western Laurussia: a stable craton with mobile margins".

1274:, between eastern North America, from what is today the Gulf of Mexico to Nova Scotia, and in Africa and Europe, from Morocco to Greenland. 449:

a major large igneous province 1,380 Mya during the breakup of the Nuna/Columbia supercontinent connects Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia,

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Torsvik, T. H.; Smethurst, M. A.; Meert, J. G.; Van der Voo, R.; McKerrow, W. S.; Brasier, M. D.; Sturt, B. A.; Walderhaug, H. J. (1996).

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where the northward directed subduction of the ocean floor between Gondwana and Laurussia pushed continental fragments towards the latter.

1293: 1135:(crurotarsans, pterosaurs and dinosaurs including birds) had a global distribution, especially crurotarsans, the group ancestral to the 246: 3974: 2713:

Seton, M.; Müller, R. D.; Zahirovic, S.; Gaina, C.; Torsvik, T.; Shephard, G.; Talsma, A.; Gurnis, M.; Maus, S.; Chandler, M. (2012).

3959: 3939: 3163: 3138: 2635: 2421: 2394: 1992: 874: 542: 901: – evolved and diversified, alongside other arthropods who were herbivorous and carnivorous, and tetrapods – 1128:

to fire-prone landscapes. By the end of the Cretaceous, pines were established across Laurasia, from North America to East Asia.

981:. Tentional stresses across Eurasia developed into a large system of rift basins (Urengoy, East Uralian-Turgay and Khudosey) and 3979: 3934: 3949: 3929: 3914: 616:

or Greater Gondwana. At this time a series of continental blocks – Peri-Gondwana – that now form part of Asia, the

400:) and the Volhyn—Central Russia and Pachelma orogenies (across western Russia) in Baltica; and the Akitkan Orogen in Siberia. 3919: 1900: 3954: 3872: 986: 3778: 3156: 1594:, Closure of Proto-Tethys Ocean and the first assembly of East Asian blocks at the northern margin of Gondwana, pp. 7-10 1289: 846:. Heavy rainfall resulted in high groundwater tables, in turn resulting in peat formation and extensive coal deposits. 2192:"Geochemical evidence of First Forestation in the southernmost euramerica from Upper Devonian (Famennian) Black shales" 3738: 1062: 2840: 3964: 2291:"A Laurasian origin for a pantropical bird radiation is supported by genomic and fossil data (Aves: Coraciiformes)" 1175:

slowly settled in Laurasia from Gondwana in the Triassic, the latter of which was the living area of their Permian

1077:, Sikuleh, southwest Sumatra, West Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo broke off during the Late Triassic-Late Jurassic. 850:

non-marine species. By the Late Ordovician, when continents were pushed closer together closing the oceanic gaps,

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Pangaea formed during the closure of the Rheic Ocean 330 Mya (early Carboniferous) (view centred on 30°S,30°E)

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Laurussia (left) during the closure of the Iapetus Ocean 430 Mya (middle Silurian) (view centred on 0°,-60°).

439:(Ukraine), southern Siberia, northern Laurentia, and West Africa indicate these cratons were linked to each other; 3683: 3673: 3426: 377: 2891: 2433:"Permo–Triassic intraplate magmatism and rifting in Eurasia: implications for mantle plumes and mantle dynamics" 1775:, Closure of Paleo-Asian Ocean: collision of Tarim, Alex and North China with East Europe and Siberia, pp. 11-14 280:

c. 400 Ma to form Laurussia/Euramerica. Laurussia/Euramerica then collided with Gondwana to form Pangaea.

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Yarmolyuk, V. V.; Kovalenko, V. I.; Sal'nikova, E. B.; Nikiforov, A. V.; Kotov, A. B.; Vladykin, N. V. (2006).

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period) during the breakup of Pangaea, drifting farther north after the split and finally broke apart with the

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Gheerbrant, E.; Rage, J. C. (2006). "Paleobiogeography of Africa: how distinct from Gondwana and Laurasia?".

1160: – was similar to that of the crocodilians. East Asia remained isolated with endemic species including 3715: 3710: 3074:"Geological reconstructions of the East Asian blocks: From the breakup of Rodinia to the assembly of Pangea" 1886:

Blakey, R. C. (2003). Wong, T. E. (ed.). "Carboniferous–Permian paleogeography of the assembly of Pangaea".

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Laurentia and Baltica first formed a continental mass known as Proto-Laurasia as part of the supercontinent

2667:"Late Proterozoic plate tectonics and palaeogeography: a tale of two supercontinents, Rodinia and Pannotia" 3653: 1959: 974: 534: 499: 428: 368: 2892:"Continental break-up and collision in the Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic—a tale of Baltica and Laurentia" 431:

provide evidences for continental mergers during this period. Those related to Proto-Laurasia includes:

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Lu, M.; Lu, Y.; Ikejiri, T.; Hogancamp, N.; Sun, Y.; Wu, Q.; Carroll, R.; Çemen, I.; Pashin, J. (2019).

1292:. By 33 Mya spreading had ceased in the Labrador Sea and relocated to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The 1109: 789: 530: 482:

In the vast majority of plate tectonic reconstructions, Laurentia formed the core of the supercontinent

2241:

McKerrow, W. S.; Mac Niocaill, C.; Ahlberg, P. E.; Clayton, G.; Cleal, C. J.; Eagar, R. M. C. (2000).

3877: 3632: 3523: 3085: 3052: 3019: 2950: 2906: 2855: 2804: 2789: 2726: 2678: 2615: 2575: 2527: 2487: 2444: 2350: 2254: 2203: 2163: 2081: 2045: 2012: 1951: 1915: 866: 621: 417: 397: 389: 157: 2377:

Metcalfe, I. (1999). "Gondwana dispersion and Asian accretion: an overview". In Metcalfe, I. (ed.).

1964: 3887: 3834: 3624: 3583: 2473:"Stratigraphic record of the early Mesozoic breakup of Pangea in the Laurasia-Gondwana rift system" 1251: 1242: 1233: 843: 745: 727: 522: 503: 454: 446:

in southern Siberia that can be connected to the Melville Bugt dyke swarm in western Greenland; and

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originated in Laurasia in the Early Cretaceous c. 130 Mya in competition with faster growing

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a 1,630–1,640 Mya-old continent composed of Siberia, Laurentia, and Baltica is suggested by

421: 309: 277: 131: 126: 3861: 1982: 2413: 3809: 3663: 3628: 3134: 2631: 2417: 2390: 2322: 2229: 2034:"Large Igneous Provinces and supercontinents: Toward completing the plate tectonic revolution" 1988: 785: 780: 768: 716: 689: 629: 336: 84: 3824: 3488: 3093: 3060: 3027: 2966: 2958: 2914: 2863: 2812: 2769: 2734: 2686: 2623: 2583: 2535: 2495: 2452: 2405: 2382: 2358: 2312: 2302: 2262: 2219: 2211: 2171: 2117: 2089: 2053: 2020: 1969: 1923: 1180: 1074: 828: 487: 436: 385: 335:

proposed the existence of a supercontinent called Pangaea. In 1937 South African geologist

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Nikishin, A. M.; Ziegler, P. A.; Abbott, D.; Brunet, M. F.; Cloetingh, S. A. P. L. (2002).

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Rodinia 900 Mya centred on Laurentia with Baltica and Amazonia on its southern margin.

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of North America and continental fragments that now make up part of Europe, collided with

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Avalonia rifted from Gondwana in the Early Ordovician and collided with Baltica near the

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Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia remained connected to each other within the short-lived,

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Proceedings of the XVTH International Congress on Carboniferous and Permian Stratigraphy

1763:, Closure of Paleo-Tethys Ocean and assembly of Pangea with East Asian blocks, pp. 14-16 31:

Laurasia (centre) and Gondwana (bottom) as part of Pangaea 200 Mya (Early Jurassic)

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staying in Laurasia (until further descendants switched to Gondwana starting from the

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in the Proto-pacific. Baltica remained near Gondwana in southern latitudes into the

546: 343: 313: 90: 3097: 3064: 2962: 2755:"Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica" 2738: 2595: 2175: 2131: 1973: 660: 3866: 3819: 3553: 3528: 3339: 3334: 2499: 1271: 1157: 1136: 982: 970: 863: 798: 731: 507: 450: 352: 328: 321: 281: 116: 2816: 2587: 2266: 1139:. This cosmopolitanism ended as Gondwana fragmented and Laurasia was assembled. 961:

During the Carboniferous–Permian Siberia, Kazakhstan, and Baltica collided in the

2093: 2057: 1927: 1048:

Journey of the Asian blocks from Gondwana to Laurasia 450, 350, 300, and 200 Mya.

3720: 3688: 3678: 2841:"Earth geography from 400 to 250 Ma: a palaeomagnetic, faunal and facies review" 902: 886: 870: 832: 802: 737:

the western margin were the western shelves of Laurentia, later affected by the

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no later than 570 Mya and traces of this breakup can still be found in the

404: 250: 136: 3040: 2215: 2102: 3758: 3668: 3648: 3498: 3226: 3221: 2386: 2122: 1196: 1176: 1113: 898: 882: 793: 554: 550: 413: 227: 2362: 2024: 1811:, Introduction, pp. 445–446; Mesozoic origin and diversification, pp. 450–451 1266:

In the Triassic–Early Jurassic (c. 200 Mya), the opening of the Central

494:. Australia and East Antarctica were located on Laurentia's western margin. 3829: 3798: 3693: 3643: 3563: 3558: 3503: 3436: 3179: 2867: 1526:, Abstract; Initial break-up of Rodinia and Vendian glaciations, pp. 237–240 1270:

was preceded by the formation of a series of large rift basins, such as the

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in the early Carboniferous (340 Mya). The Variscan orogeny closed the

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the Early Devonian produced natural barriers in Laurussia which resulted in

776: 685: 652: 617: 579: 570: 254: 106: 26: 3072:

Zhao, G.; Wang, Y.; Huang, B.; Dong, Y.; Li, S.; Zhang, G.; Yu, S. (2018).

2335: 2326: 2307: 2233: 472: 2564:"The Scandinavian Caledonides and their relationship to the Variscan belt" 977:

when they reached the crust. This tectonic activity also resulted in the

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which was assembled 2,100—1,800 Mya to encompass virtually all known

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From the Triassic to the Early Jurassic, before the break-up of Pangaea,

1105: 894: 878: 855: 681: 625: 613: 609: 599: 305: 265: 242: 236: 231: 221: 953:

The Uralian orogeny and the formation of Laurasia 300, 280, and 240 Mya.

545:) forced Laurentia and Baltica to separate ca. 650–600 Mya and the 215:) was the more northern of two large landmasses that formed part of the 3773: 3768: 3533: 3513: 3493: 3461: 3451: 3384: 3379: 3369: 3364: 2970: 2289:

McCullough, J. M.; Moyle, R. G.; Smith, B. T.; Andersen, M. J. (2019).

2149:"Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: A synthesis" 1172: 1118: 910: 890: 851: 814: 772: 753: 483: 467: 381: 301: 273: 269: 216: 111: 70: 3148: 3041:"A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup" 2379:

Gondwana Dispersion and Asian Accretion. IGCP 321 final results volume

3804: 3573: 3271: 3266: 3211: 3206: 2773: 1984:

Our wandering continents : an hypothesis of continental drifting

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With the Caledonian orogeny completed Laurussia was delimited thus:

676:. During the Ordovician, these basins evolved into a new ocean, the 2539: 2336:"What's in a name? The Columbia (Paleopangaea/Nuna) supercontinent" 1746:, Differences Between Gondwana and Laurasia in Pangea, pp. 127, 130 1183:

returning to Gondwana (and stayed there after Pangaea split) while

854:(brachiopods and trilobites) could spread between continents while 620:

terranes – Indochina, North China, and South China – and

355:, though their intermittent duration and recurrent fit is debated. 3578: 3183: 3131:

Evolution of Laurussia: A study in Late Palaeozoic plate tectonics

1678: 1450:, Laurentia (North America and Greenland) and Baltica, pp. 145-149 1124: 818: 659: 651: 471: 367: 1642: 1081:

Cimmerian blocks rifted from Gondwana in the Late Carboniferous.

3241: 3236: 2715:"Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200Ma" 1523: 1484: 258: 76: 16:

Northern landmass that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinent

3152: 590:

Right: Laurasia during the breakup of Pannotia at 550 Mya.

2243:"The late Palaeozoic relations between Gondwana and Laurussia" 2032:

Ernst, R. E.; Bleeker, W.; Söderlund, U.; Kerr, A. C. (2013).

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orogeny which marked the collision between Laurussia and the

396:

in Greenland; the Kola-Karelian (the northwest margin of the

180: 1844: 1519: 1517: 1731: 207: 204: 195: 189: 1496: 1472: 1370:, From Laurentia to Laurussia and Laurasia: Overview, p. 6 201: 1868: 1459: 873:. By the Permian, the climate had become arid and these 2936:"Phanerozoic polar wander, palaeogeography and dynamics" 1669:, Geological Evidence of the Pangean Megamonsoon, p. 223 1570: 1568: 2408:

Biotic Response to Global Change-The Last Million Years

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Opening of the North Atlantic Ocean 90, 50, and 30 Mya.

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former. The distribution of the three major groups of

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Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J.; Falcon-Lang, H. J. (2010).

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spreading had begun in the North Atlantic between the

1108:

evolved in the early Mesozoic c. 250 Mya and the

2614:. Vol. 7. Oxford University Press. p. 653. 1419: 1417: 1415: 862:

The oldest tree fossils are from the Middle Devonian

1901:"The late Archean record: a puzzle in ca. 35 pieces" 1756: 1754: 1752: 1690: 1587: 1585: 1583: 312:

c. 430–420 Mya to form Laurussia. In the Late

186: 177: 2003:Rhenohercynian zone, Central European Variscides". 498:what is now the 3,000 km (1,900 mi)-long 183: 145: 99: 59: 49: 41: 36: 1462:, Progress on continental reconstructions, pp. 8–9 1447: 707:Another historical term for this continent is the 2074:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1832: 1820: 1772: 1760: 1591: 3039:Zhao, G.; Sun, M.; Wilde, S. A.; Li, S. (2004). 2797:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2671:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2568:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2247:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 588:Left: Laurasia as part of Pannotia 600 Mya. 1602: 1600: 779:exceeding 1 m (3 ft 3 in). The 517:opened and Rodinia began to breakup during the 435:1,750 Mya extensive magmatism in Baltica, 2103:"Ecology and evolution of pine life histories" 1796: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1435: 1423: 680:, which separated a series of terranes – 3164: 2480:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 1743: 1657:, Paleogeographic Evolution of Pangea, p. 216 8: 1630: 1618: 1378: 1376: 1355: 788:within the benthic fauna. In Laurentia the 759:and the southern margin was a Pacific-style 19: 715:, in reference to abundant red beds of the 342:"Laurussia" was defined by Swiss geologist 3612: 3607: 3407: 3402: 3324: 3319: 3196: 3191: 3171: 3157: 3149: 2381:. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema. pp. 9–28. 25: 3543: 2316: 2306: 2223: 2121: 1963: 1871:, Rockall–North America/Greenland, p. 222 2839:Torsvik, T. H.; Cocks, L. R. M. (2004). 2562:Rey, P.; Burg, J. P.; Casey, M. (1997). 1784: 1547: 1296:had effectively broken Laurasia in two. 835:(between Avalonia and Armorica) and the 316:Laurussia and Gondwana formed Pangaea. 2412:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1666: 1654: 1606: 1559: 1535: 1406: 1394: 1343: 1327: 45:1,071 Mya (Proto-Laurasia) 253 Mya 2653: 2643: 2516:"Climate of the supercontinent Pangea" 1808: 1719: 1499:, Siberia–Laurentia connection, p. 189 1358:, Laurussia and Laurasia, pp. 558, 560 1122:adapted to stressful environments and 18: 1856: 1734:, Introduction, pp. 4–5; Fig. 4, p. 8 1703:Sahney, Benton & Falcon-Lang 2010 1438:, Summary and Discussion, pp. 114–115 1382: 292:Terminology and origin of the concept 7: 2610:Rogers, J. J.; Santosh, M. (2004). 1294:opening of the North Atlantic Ocean 1168:(club-tailed, armoured dinosaurs). 640:, now spread from Europe to China. 247:opening of the North Atlantic Ocean 2295:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 14: 2848:Journal of the Geological Society 1681:, The narrowing oceans, pp. 10–11 1562:, The break-up of Pannotia, p. 78 1179:. They split in two groups, with 1085:Gondwana collided with Laurasia. 979:Permian–Triassic extinction event 543:Central Iapetus Magmatic Province 398:Svecokarelian/Svecofennian orogen 3945:Natural history of North America 3883: 3882: 3860: 3378: 3363: 3348: 3333: 3295: 3280: 3265: 3250: 3235: 3220: 3205: 1471:"Consensus" reconstruction from 1250: 1241: 1232: 1038: 1029: 1018: 1009: 943: 934: 925: 881:(giant mosses) were replaced by 578: 569: 525:(c. 650 Mya, also known as 327:In 1904–1909 Austrian geologist 173: 3706:Possible future supercontinents 3122:Laurussia—the old red continent 3098:10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.10.003 3065:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.02.003 2963:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.06.007 2739:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.002 2176:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.021 1974:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.01.007 1833:Milner, Milner & Evans 2000 1821:Milner, Milner & Evans 2000 1065:, the largest orogen on Earth. 775:evolved, including the largest 592:View centred on the South Pole. 384:continental blocks. Surviving 2612:Continents and supercontinents 2500:10.1146/annurev.earth.25.1.337 1987:. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. 1621:, Facies and faunas, pp. 10–11 1216:The placental mammal group of 1: 3032:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00073-9 2817:10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.173.01.01 2628:10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70827-3 2588:10.1144/GSL.SP.1997.121.01.08 2457:10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00123-3 2267:10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.03 1645:, Introduction, pp. 1484–1486 1278: 909:such as amphibians and early 889:fauna – including 234:. It separated from Gondwana 3925:Carboniferous paleogeography 3484:Other prehistoric continents 2919:10.1016/0012-8252(96)00008-6 2094:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.016 2058:10.1016/j.lithos.2013.02.017 1928:10.1016/j.lithos.2003.07.003 1290:Labrador Sea-Baffin Bay Rift 1097:Pangaea split in two as the 805:in the basins of Laurentia. 744:the northern margin was the 726:The eastern margin were the 697:Ordovician–Silurian boundary 372:Columbia/Nuna 1,590 Mya 1063:Central Asian Orogenic Belt 713:Old Red Sandstone Continent 506:in northern Canada and the 490:was docked along Baltica's 478:View centred on 30°S,130°E. 388:from this assembly are the 219:supercontinent from around 3996: 2216:10.1038/s41598-019-43993-y 1797:Gheerbrant & Rage 2006 1631:Rey, Burg & Casey 1997 1511:, p. 1031; Fig. 1, p. 1032 1050:View centred on 0°S,105°E. 955:View centred on 25°N,35°E. 829:Hercynian/Variscan orogeny 812: 664:Euramerica in the Devonian 597: 465: 296:Laurentia, the Palaeozoic 272:, and a series of smaller 3975:Natural history of Europe 3852: 3610: 3606: 3405: 3401: 3322: 3318: 3194: 3190: 2387:10.1080/08120099608728282 2123:10.1007/s13595-012-0201-8 1744:Rogers & Santosh 2004 1334:Oxford English Dictionary 1220:is named after Laurasia. 416:were emplaced, including 249:c. 56 Mya. The name is a 24: 3960:Geology of North America 3940:Paleocene paleogeography 3893:Chronology of continents 2788:Stampfli, G. M. (2000). 2363:10.1016/j.gr.2011.12.002 2110:Annals of Forest Science 2025:10.1016/j.gr.2013.05.018 1619:Cocks & Torsvik 2011 1356:Torsvik & Cocks 2004 1195:divided continents: the 885:. In the dry climate a 771:a diverse assemblage of 3980:Natural history of Asia 3935:Mesozoic paleogeography 3129:Ziegler, P. A. (2012). 3120:Ziegler, P. A. (1988). 2868:10.1144/0016-764903-098 2665:Scotese, C. R. (2009). 2514:Parrish, J. T. (1993). 1981:Du Toit, A. L. (1937). 1705:, Introduction, p. 1079 1633:, Introduction, pp. 1–2 1609:, Introduction, pp. 1–4 1164:(horned dinosaurs) and 975:large igneous provinces 692: – from Gondwana. 429:large igneous provinces 241:(beginning in the late 3950:Mesozoic North America 3930:Permian paleogeography 3915:Former supercontinents 3654:Great Australian Bight 2991:Doklady Earth Sciences 2520:The Journal of Geology 2308:10.1098/rspb.2019.0122 2101:Keeley, J. E. (2012). 1859:, Introduction, p. 338 1845:McCullough et al. 2019 1799:, Introduction, p. 225 1487:, Rodinia, pp. 236–237 824: 665: 657: 500:Central Asian Foldbelt 479: 394:Nagssugtoqidian orogen 373: 3920:Historical continents 3078:Earth-Science Reviews 3045:Earth-Science Reviews 3012:Earth-Science Reviews 2943:Earth-Science Reviews 2899:Earth-Science Reviews 2719:Earth-Science Reviews 2471:Olsen, P. E. (1997). 2334:Meert, J. G. (2012). 1944:Earth-Science Reviews 1643:Eckelmann et al. 2014 1509:Yarmolyuk et al. 2006 875:rainforests collapsed 822: 797:boundary resulted in 790:Transcontinental Arch 663: 655: 475: 371: 3955:Geology of Greenland 3878:Continental fragment 3873:Regions of the world 2156:Precambrian Research 1899:Bleeker, W. (2003). 1732:Nikishin et al. 2002 1679:McKerrow et al. 2000 1550:, Palaeotethys, p. 3 844:Pangaean megamonsoon 648:Euramerica/Laurussia 541:A mantle plume (the 237:215 to 175 222:335 to 175 158:North American Plate 85:Arabian subcontinent 37:Historical continent 3835:Indian Subcontinent 3625:Submerged continent 3090:2018ESRv..186..262Z 3057:2004ESRv...67...91Z 3024:2002ESRv...59..125Z 2955:2012ESRv..114..325T 2911:1996ESRv...40..229T 2860:2004JGSoc.161..555T 2809:2000GSLSP.173....1S 2731:2012ESRv..113..212S 2683:2009GSLSP.326...67S 2620:2004GondR...7..653R 2580:1997GSLSP.121..179R 2532:1993JG....101..215P 2492:1997AREPS..25..337O 2449:2002Tectp.351....3N 2355:2012GondR..21..987M 2259:2000GSLSP.179....9M 2208:2019NatSR...9.7581L 2168:2008PreR..160..179L 2086:2006PPP...241..224G 2050:2013Litho.174....1E 2017:2014GondR..25.1484E 1956:2011ESRv..106....1C 1920:2003Litho..71...99B 1894:. Utrecht: 443–456. 1575:Torsvik et al. 2012 1524:Torsvik et al. 1996 1485:Torsvik et al. 1996 1368:Torsvik et al. 2012 993:, and South China. 987:West Siberian Basin 504:Franklin dike swarm 390:Trans-Hudson orogen 230:), the other being 81:Indian subcontinent 21: 3616: 3411: 3328: 3200: 2301:(1910): 20190122. 2196:Scientific Reports 1847:, Conclusion, p. 7 1385:, pp. 991–992 1282: 83 Mya 965:to form Laurasia. 837:Proto-Tethys Ocean 825: 666: 658: 480: 374: 310:Caledonian orogeny 278:Caledonian orogeny 276:, collided in the 100:Smaller continents 3965:Geology of Europe 3902: 3901: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3842: 3664:Kerguelen Plateau 3602: 3601: 3597: 3596: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3391: 3314: 3313: 3309: 3308: 2768:(12): 1079–1082. 2343:Gondwana Research 2005:Gondwana Research 1869:Seton et al. 2012 1460:Ernst et al. 2013 781:Old Red Sandstone 717:Old Red Sandstone 709:Old Red Continent 337:Alexander du Toit 224:million years ago 166: 165: 3987: 3886: 3885: 3867:World portal 3865: 3864: 3802: 3751: 3708: 3636: 3613: 3608: 3486: 3424: 3408: 3403: 3382: 3367: 3352: 3337: 3325: 3320: 3299: 3284: 3269: 3254: 3239: 3224: 3209: 3197: 3192: 3173: 3166: 3159: 3150: 3144: 3125: 3116: 3114: 3112: 3068: 3035: 3018:(1–4): 125–162. 3006: 3004: 3002: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2949:(3–4): 325–368. 2940: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2905:(3–4): 229–258. 2896: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2845: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2794: 2790:"Tethyan oceans" 2784: 2782: 2780: 2774:10.1130/G31182.1 2759: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2709: 2707: 2705: 2661: 2655: 2651: 2649: 2641: 2606: 2604: 2602: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2477: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2427: 2411: 2400: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2340: 2330: 2320: 2310: 2285: 2283: 2281: 2237: 2227: 2186: 2184: 2182: 2162:(1–2): 179–210. 2153: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2125: 2107: 2097: 2068: 2066: 2064: 2028: 2011:(4): 1484–1500. 1998: 1977: 1967: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1905: 1895: 1872: 1866: 1860: 1854: 1848: 1842: 1836: 1830: 1824: 1818: 1812: 1806: 1800: 1794: 1788: 1787:, pp. 15–16 1782: 1776: 1773:Zhao et al. 2018 1770: 1764: 1761:Zhao et al. 2018 1758: 1747: 1741: 1735: 1729: 1723: 1717: 1706: 1700: 1694: 1688: 1682: 1676: 1670: 1664: 1658: 1652: 1646: 1640: 1634: 1628: 1622: 1616: 1610: 1604: 1595: 1592:Zhao et al. 2018 1589: 1578: 1572: 1563: 1557: 1551: 1545: 1539: 1533: 1527: 1521: 1512: 1506: 1500: 1494: 1488: 1482: 1476: 1469: 1463: 1457: 1451: 1448:Zhao et al. 2002 1445: 1439: 1436:Zhao et al. 2004 1433: 1427: 1424:Zhao et al. 2004 1421: 1410: 1404: 1398: 1392: 1386: 1380: 1371: 1365: 1359: 1353: 1347: 1341: 1335: 1332: 1283: 1280: 1254: 1245: 1236: 1114:flowering plants 1042: 1033: 1022: 1013: 947: 938: 929: 703:, also known as 624:terranes – 582: 573: 492:Tornquist margin 240: 225: 214: 213: 210: 209: 206: 203: 198: 197: 194: 191: 188: 185: 182: 179: 71:Balkan Peninsula 29: 22: 3995: 3994: 3990: 3989: 3988: 3986: 3985: 3984: 3970:Geology of Asia 3905: 3904: 3903: 3898: 3897: 3859: 3844: 3839: 3825:Eastern Siberia 3815:Central America 3803: 3796: 3790: 3785:Terra Australis 3752: 3736: 3730: 3726:Pangaea Proxima 3709: 3704: 3698: 3637: 3633:microcontinents 3622: 3598: 3593: 3539:East Antarctica 3487: 3482: 3476: 3425: 3421:supercontinents 3417: 3393: 3388: 3383: 3373: 3368: 3358: 3353: 3343: 3338: 3310: 3305: 3300: 3290: 3285: 3275: 3270: 3260: 3255: 3245: 3240: 3230: 3225: 3215: 3210: 3186: 3177: 3147: 3141: 3128: 3119: 3110: 3108: 3071: 3051:(1–2): 91–123. 3038: 3009: 3000: 2998: 2984: 2975: 2973: 2938: 2932: 2923: 2921: 2894: 2889: 2880: 2878: 2843: 2838: 2829: 2827: 2792: 2787: 2778: 2776: 2757: 2752: 2743: 2741: 2712: 2703: 2701: 2691:10.1144/SP326.4 2664: 2652: 2642: 2638: 2609: 2600: 2598: 2561: 2552: 2550: 2513: 2504: 2502: 2475: 2470: 2461: 2459: 2430: 2424: 2403: 2397: 2376: 2367: 2365: 2338: 2333: 2288: 2279: 2277: 2240: 2189: 2180: 2178: 2151: 2145: 2136: 2134: 2105: 2100: 2071: 2062: 2060: 2031: 2001: 1995: 1980: 1965:10.1.1.663.2972 1941: 1932: 1930: 1914:(2–4): 99–134. 1903: 1898: 1885: 1881: 1876: 1875: 1867: 1863: 1855: 1851: 1843: 1839: 1831: 1827: 1819: 1815: 1807: 1803: 1795: 1791: 1783: 1779: 1771: 1767: 1759: 1750: 1742: 1738: 1730: 1726: 1718: 1709: 1701: 1697: 1689: 1685: 1677: 1673: 1665: 1661: 1653: 1649: 1641: 1637: 1629: 1625: 1617: 1613: 1605: 1598: 1590: 1581: 1573: 1566: 1558: 1554: 1546: 1542: 1534: 1530: 1522: 1515: 1507: 1503: 1495: 1491: 1483: 1479: 1470: 1466: 1458: 1454: 1446: 1442: 1434: 1430: 1422: 1413: 1405: 1401: 1393: 1389: 1381: 1374: 1366: 1362: 1354: 1350: 1342: 1338: 1333: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1302: 1286:Rockall Plateau 1281: 1264: 1263: 1262: 1261: 1257: 1256: 1255: 1247: 1246: 1238: 1237: 1226: 1095: 1093:Flora and fauna 1054: 1053: 1052: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1044: 1043: 1035: 1034: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1015: 1014: 1003: 963:Uralian orogeny 959: 958: 957: 956: 954: 950: 949: 948: 940: 939: 931: 930: 919: 817: 811: 732:Moscow Platform 674:back-arc basins 650: 612:supercontinent 602: 596: 595: 594: 593: 591: 589: 585: 584: 583: 575: 574: 563: 477: 470: 464: 427:Traces left by 366: 361: 294: 235: 220: 200: 176: 172: 162: 146:Tectonic plates 141: 95: 32: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3993: 3991: 3983: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3907: 3906: 3900: 3899: 3896: 3895: 3890: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3854: 3853: 3850: 3849: 3846: 3845: 3841: 3840: 3838: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3820:Eastern Africa 3817: 3812: 3807: 3793: 3791: 3789: 3788: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3696: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3619: 3617: 3611: 3604: 3603: 3600: 3599: 3595: 3594: 3592: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3444: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3414: 3412: 3406: 3399: 3398: 3395: 3394: 3390: 3389: 3376: 3374: 3361: 3359: 3346: 3344: 3331: 3329: 3323: 3316: 3315: 3312: 3311: 3307: 3306: 3293: 3291: 3278: 3276: 3263: 3261: 3248: 3246: 3233: 3231: 3218: 3216: 3203: 3201: 3195: 3188: 3187: 3178: 3176: 3175: 3168: 3161: 3153: 3146: 3145: 3139: 3126: 3117: 3069: 3036: 3007: 2997:(7): 1031–1036 2982: 2930: 2887: 2854:(4): 555–572. 2836: 2785: 2750: 2725:(3): 212–270. 2710: 2662: 2654:|journal= 2636: 2607: 2574:(1): 179–200. 2559: 2540:10.1086/648217 2526:(2): 215–233. 2511: 2486:(1): 337–401. 2468: 2437:Tectonophysics 2428: 2422: 2401: 2395: 2374: 2349:(4): 987–993. 2331: 2286: 2238: 2187: 2143: 2116:(4): 445–453. 2098: 2080:(2): 224–246. 2069: 2029: 1999: 1993: 1978: 1939: 1896: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1873: 1861: 1849: 1837: 1825: 1813: 1801: 1789: 1777: 1765: 1748: 1736: 1724: 1707: 1695: 1693:, pp. 1–2 1691:Lu et al. 2019 1683: 1671: 1659: 1647: 1635: 1623: 1611: 1596: 1579: 1564: 1552: 1540: 1528: 1513: 1501: 1497:Li et al. 2008 1489: 1477: 1473:Li et al. 2008 1464: 1452: 1440: 1428: 1411: 1399: 1387: 1372: 1360: 1348: 1336: 1326: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1308: 1306:Laurasiatheria 1301: 1298: 1268:Atlantic Ocean 1259: 1258: 1249: 1248: 1240: 1239: 1231: 1230: 1229: 1228: 1227: 1225: 1222: 1218:Laurasiatheria 1203:Grande Coupure 1166:Ankylosauridae 1158:ornithischians 1094: 1091: 1047: 1046: 1037: 1036: 1028: 1027: 1026: 1017: 1016: 1008: 1007: 1006: 1005: 1004: 1002: 999: 973:that produced 952: 951: 942: 941: 933: 932: 924: 923: 922: 921: 920: 918: 915: 813:Main article: 810: 807: 765: 764: 757: 742: 739:Antler orogeny 735: 649: 646: 638:Hunic terranes 598:Main article: 587: 586: 577: 576: 568: 567: 566: 565: 564: 562: 559: 527:Snowball Earth 519:Neoproterozoic 466:Main article: 463: 460: 459: 458: 447: 440: 424:in Laurentia. 392:in Laurentia; 365: 362: 360: 359:Proto-Laurasia 357: 333:Alfred Wegener 293: 290: 164: 163: 161: 160: 155: 153:Eurasian Plate 149: 147: 143: 142: 140: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 103: 101: 97: 96: 94: 93: 88: 74: 63: 61: 57: 56: 54:Supercontinent 51: 47: 46: 43: 39: 38: 34: 33: 30: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3992: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3868: 3863: 3856: 3855: 3851: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3801: 3800: 3799:Subcontinents 3795: 3794: 3792: 3787: 3786: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3764:Kumari Kandam 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3750: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3735: 3734: 3732: 3727: 3724: 3722: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3707: 3703: 3702: 3700: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3635: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3621: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3580: 3577: 3575: 3572: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3550: 3547: 3545: 3542: 3540: 3537: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3505: 3502: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3490: 3485: 3481: 3480: 3478: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3453: 3450: 3448: 3445: 3443: 3440: 3438: 3435: 3433: 3430: 3428: 3423: 3422: 3416: 3415: 3413: 3410: 3409: 3404: 3400: 3387: 3386: 3381: 3375: 3372: 3371: 3366: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3351: 3345: 3342: 3341: 3336: 3330: 3327: 3326: 3321: 3317: 3304: 3303: 3302:South America 3298: 3292: 3289: 3288: 3287:North America 3283: 3277: 3274: 3273: 3268: 3262: 3259: 3258: 3253: 3247: 3244: 3243: 3238: 3232: 3229: 3228: 3223: 3217: 3214: 3213: 3208: 3202: 3199: 3198: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3174: 3169: 3167: 3162: 3160: 3155: 3154: 3151: 3142: 3140:9789400904699 3136: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3118: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3008: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2983: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2937: 2931: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2893: 2888: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 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Retrieved 1911: 1907: 1891: 1887: 1864: 1852: 1840: 1828: 1816: 1804: 1792: 1780: 1768: 1739: 1727: 1698: 1686: 1674: 1667:Parrish 1993 1662: 1655:Parrish 1993 1650: 1638: 1626: 1614: 1607:Ziegler 2012 1577:, p. 16 1560:Scotese 2009 1555: 1543: 1538:, p. 71 1536:Scotese 2009 1531: 1504: 1492: 1480: 1467: 1455: 1443: 1431: 1407:Bleeker 2003 1402: 1395:Ziegler 1988 1390: 1363: 1351: 1346:, p. 40 1344:Du Toit 1937 1339: 1330: 1276: 1272:Newark Basin 1265: 1215: 1208: 1201: 1193: 1170: 1148: – the 1137:crocodilians 1130: 1123: 1117: 1104: 1096: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1067: 1059: 1055: 1001:Asian blocks 995: 967: 960: 903:insectivores 891:ringed worms 864:pteridophyte 861: 848: 841: 826: 803:black shales 766: 721: 712: 708: 704: 700: 694: 667: 642: 603: 540: 512: 510:in Siberia. 508:Aldan Shield 496: 481: 426: 402: 375: 349: 341: 329:Eduard Suess 326: 322:Kazakhstania 295: 282:Kazakhstania 263: 168: 167: 117:Kazakhstania 3721:Novopangaea 3589:South China 3569:North China 3084:: 262–286. 2971:10852/62957 2924:22 December 2830:30 November 2803:(1): 1–23. 2704:10 November 2601:23 November 2553:26 November 2462:15 February 2368:22 December 2253:(1): 9–20. 2202:(1): 7581. 2137:22 February 2063:28 December 1933:22 December 1809:Keeley 2012 1720:Blakey 2003 1224:Final split 1171:Meanwhile, 897:, and some 871:coal forest 833:Rheic Ocean 794:brachiopods 705:Euramerica. 678:Rheic Ocean 606:Precambrian 455:West Africa 414:dike swarms 405:Proterozoic 403:Additional 364:Pre–Rodinia 264:Laurentia, 251:portmanteau 132:South China 127:North China 3909:Categories 3857:See also: 3759:Hyperborea 3749:continents 3684:Seychelles 3669:Madagascar 3649:Doggerland 3544:Euramerica 3499:Asiamerica 3227:Antarctica 3180:Continents 3111:7 December 3001:1 December 2976:9 November 2881:25 January 2744:1 December 2505:1 December 2280:18 January 1857:Olsen 1997 1426:, Abstract 1397:, Abstract 1383:Meert 2012 1317:References 1197:Turgai Sea 1133:archosaurs 1110:pine genus 1106:Pine trees 1075:West Burma 907:piscivores 899:arthropods 801:that left 777:trilobites 618:Cathaysian 555:Ordovician 529:) and the 407:crust was 3830:Greenland 3694:Zealandia 3659:Jan Mayen 3644:Cathaysia 3564:Laurentia 3559:Laramidia 3549:Kalaharia 3504:Atlantica 3437:Kenorland 3257:Australia 3106:134171828 2876:128812370 2825:219202298 2699:128845353 2656:ignored ( 2646:cite book 2548:128757269 2275:129789533 1960:CiteSeerX 1185:the other 1177:ancestors 1154:theropods 1150:sauropods 1146:dinosaurs 1141:Pterosaur 883:treeferns 879:lycopsids 856:ostracods 750:Lomonosov 746:Innuitian 701:Laurussia 686:Carolinia 630:Qiangtang 622:Cimmerian 551:cold spot 535:Ice Brook 418:MacKenzie 255:Laurentia 107:Laurentia 3888:Category 3754:Atlantis 3739:Mythical 3674:Mauritia 3639:Beringia 3524:Cimmeria 3519:Chilenia 3509:Avalonia 3489:Amazonia 3472:Vaalbara 3457:Pannotia 3442:Laurasia 3432:Gondwana 3427:Columbia 3355:Americas 2779:22 March 2596:49353621 2327:31506056 2234:31110279 2181:10 April 2132:18013787 2044:: 1–14. 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318:Siberia 308:in the 302:Baltica 286:Siberia 270:Baltica 217:Pangaea 122:Siberia 112:Baltica 3810:Arabia 3805:Alaska 3745:, and 3716:Aurica 3711:Amasia 3574:Pampia 3272:Europe 3212:Africa 3137: 3104: 2874: 2823: 2697: 2634: 2594: 2546: 2420: 2416:–332. 2393: 2325: 2315: 2273: 2232: 2222: 2130: 2038:Lithos 1991: 1962: 1908:Lithos 1156:, and 989:, the 688:, and 453:, and 67:Europe 42:Formed 3689:Sunda 3679:Sahul 3629:lands 3579:Sahul 3184:Earth 3102:S2CID 2939:(PDF) 2895:(PDF) 2872:S2CID 2844:(PDF) 2821:S2CID 2793:(PDF) 2758:(PDF) 2695:S2CID 2592:S2CID 2544:S2CID 2476:(PDF) 2339:(PDF) 2271:S2CID 2152:(PDF) 2128:S2CID 2106:(PDF) 1904:(PDF) 1322:Notes 1125:Pinus 1071:Lhasa 634:Lhasa 451:Congo 444:sills 137:Tarim 3743:lost 3631:and 3447:Nena 3242:Asia 3135:ISBN 3113:2019 3003:2019 2978:2019 2926:2019 2883:2020 2832:2019 2781:2020 2746:2019 2706:2019 2658:help 2632:ISBN 2603:2019 2555:2019 2507:2019 2464:2020 2418:ISBN 2391:ISBN 2370:2019 2323:PMID 2282:2020 2230:PMID 2183:2020 2139:2020 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