359:"taboos" have long played an important role in the cultural life of the Mahafaly. Historically, common taboos among the Mahafaly included a prohibition against women drinking from the same cup or sitting on the same mat as their husband, standing while speaking to a king, and Mahafaly women historically being allowed to smoke tobacco but not chew it. Throughout Mahafaly country, it was forbidden for white people to enter; if one managed to penetrate the territory, the chief of that land was put to death. Kings had the power to place a taboo on certain words that could never be spoken again by members of the community.
332:
250:, as it was taboo after death to speak the name a king had in life; all his followers were required to cut their hair at the start of the mourning period and any who did not comply were expelled from the community. Early Mahafaly kings lived in compounds that had paths radiating out toward each of the major surrounding villages in his territory, and his power was compounded by the possession of royal relics believed to hold supernatural powers. The king ruled over a society that was divided into those of privilege (
199:
Menarandra and the neighboring
Antandroy people to the west resulted in the annexation of the Antandroy province of Karimbola in the first half of the 18th century. Although the specifics of the history of these kingdoms before 1800 is not well known, the frequent changes in rulers within each kingdom points to instability and turmoil within the Maroserana dynasty: Linta had seven rulers, Sakatovo had six, Menarandra had three between 1750-1800, and Onilahy had two. The Onilahy kingdom reflected some
344:
subsistence needs. The younger male family members are typically responsible for herding the family's cattle and men of all ages work in the fields. Women assist with work in the fields and are also responsible for household tasks like cooking and fetching water, often assisted by their children and sometimes by their husband. Clothing in this region was traditionally made of spun cotton, which was cultivated locally; less frequently, locally spun silk was also sometimes used.
147:
300:
establish their own house and family near their father's house, while young women marry and move into their husband's house. Men retain custody of children in the event of a divorce. It is not uncommon among traditional families for a man to have more than one wife. Immediate family members living together in a household are responsible for organizing the weddings and funerals of their family members, as well as covering expenses related to healing ceremonies (
231:
368:
and laid out according to the rank and role of the family members, with the eldest ancestor's tomb the furthest south, his descendants to his north, and wives and unmarried family members to his west. Funerals consist of several ceremonies, and zebu are sacrificed at each; their skulls are placed on top of the tomb. The first ceremony is one of preparation for the following events and the
32:
385:), which serve as intermediaries between the living and God; the tomb is the ancestor's new home, as death is not seen as an ending but as a transformation into another phase of life. Aloalo today are considered an iconic symbol of Madagascar, and the Mahafaly homeland encompassing its semi-arid ecosystem and wealth of tombs and funerary art has been added to the Tentative List of
401:- upright stone markers up to two meters tall that form part of the tomb structure - while his daughters are responsible for procuring the aloalo and sacrificial zebus; the remaining family members and friends procure the stones required for the construction of the tomb. The tomb's size is consequently dependent on the size of the family and the deceased's social standing.
126:-Ampanihy area. Their name means either "those who make holy" or "those who make happy", although the former is considered more likely by linguists. In 2013 there were an estimated 150,000 Mahafaly in Madagascar. The Mahafaly are believed to have arrived in Madagascar from southeastern Africa around the 12th century. They became known for the
311:- a grouping of all descendants of a living man or woman; an individual belongs simultaneously to multiple foko. Members of a foko typically only gather or work together when the head of the foko is ill, in need of assistance, or has died, in which case the members will organize to take action as needed. An even stronger identity is one's
191:(holy adviser) who served as an intermediary between the ruler and his people. One of the earliest documented Mahafaly political actions was in June 1649, when twelve Mahafaly envoys visited the French settlement at Fort Dauphin to successfully obtain the paid services of French mercenaries to help fight the
187:) through this act, which mirrored popular belief around the principal Maroserana deity Andriamaro, which could not be seen, communicated through a medium intermediary, and commanded obedience by inspiring fear and awe. The followers of this noble remained united in their allegiance to him through the
266:
consisted of those who were descendants of the most powerful chief during the establishment of the
Maroserana dynasty, Tsileliky ("not conquerable"); the descendants of Tsileliky's companions and favored subjects; and particular individuals (or their descendants) who had received a royal favor. The
367:
As in much of
Madagascar, the Mahafaly bury their dead in tombs. The tombs of family members were historically located in sacred forest areas far from the houses of the living, although due to deforestation and other factors this is no longer always the case. Tombs are typically clustered together
162:
rivers. The people themselves do not use this label or identify as part of a single ethnic group, however, and prefer to identify along other kinship or geopolitical lines; the name
Mahafaly holds no meaning for the people originating from this area and instead is a label imposed from the outside.
396:
zebu - all must be purchased or commissioned from a specialized clan that the household has historically relied on to produce these items, and the household must pay for them in zebu and food. Carrying out the various ceremonies and tomb construction can take a year or more, during which time the
299:
The household is the most important social affiliation among the
Mahafaly. A household is defined as a group of cohabiting family members led by and "belonging to" the oldest male in the group. Children remain a member of their father's household until reaching adulthood, at which point young men
171:
According to oral histories, the
Mahafaly people trace their origins back to an early Maroserana noble, Olembetsitoto, who emerged as a leader in the 1500s with the migration of the Maroserana into the southwestern part of Madagascar. Prior to the arrival of the Maroserana, people settled in this
238:
Mahafaly society is generally patriarchal. It is expected that male family members (fathers, sons, brothers) should live in close proximity to one another, while women are expected to move to their husband's village. Society is primarily structured around five types of kinship groups, with the
198:
The
Mahafaly polity began to splinter into independent kingdoms beginning around 1650 with the Sakatovo and Menarandra kingdoms. The Linta kingdom split away around two decades later, and the Onilahy kingdom was formed from the remaining territory around 1750. A conflict between the king of
343:
hold an important place in society for both economic and spiritual reasons, being seen as symbolic of life and nobility, as well as a means of linking the living to the ancestors. Members of a household work together to undertake farming and other livelihood activities to meet the family's
433:
The
Mahafaly are primarily zebu cattle herders and pastoralists. Cotton has been cultivated by the Mahafaly since the 16th century. They also gather wild honey, sell charcoal, weave baskets and mats, practice woodworking, cultivate kitchen gardens and raise small livestock.
315:, the living descendants of a male line of descent traced back to a common male ancestor who died recently enough that the oldest members of the group can trace their kinship ties to him and remember some features about him as a person. All sacrifices to the ancestors (
176:. Maroserana migrants initially formed alliances with these families, but this eventually turned to conflict, with the Maroserana emerging as the victors; as the Maroserana came to power, they allowed the Andriantileliky to retain certain privileges and special status.
381:, tall wooden posts carved with geometric patterns and occasionally topped with carved zebu or other figures that hold significance for the deceased. These posts are meant to indicate that a person has died and attained the status of "ancestor" (
279:). The society was divided into numerous clans, some of which held particular responsibilities such as blacksmithing and honey collecting. Heads of these clans were elected under the title of "royal friend" (
154:
This ethnic group label has been used by other
Malagasy and foreigners to describe the people who traditionally inhabited the southwestern coast of Madagascar, bounded inland by the
1159:
323:
member is responsible for carrying out these rituals on behalf of the group. Members of a tariha typically live near each other and form a village or cluster of villages.
1152:
787:"Etude anthropologique exploratoire: l'organisation sociale et les structures politiques sur le plateau Mahafaly Madagascar, Region Atsimo Andrefana"
372:
zebu sacrificed at this ceremony is particularly important because the meat is shared with all those gathered as a gesture of unity and friendship.
242:
Historically, beginning with the first
Maroserana ruler, the Mahafaly were ruled by kings of the Maroserana line. Kings were buried in tombs called
1128:
1107:
1065:
1044:
988:
967:
1363:
1145:
1330:
1086:
1009:
946:
163:
The majority of the population is concentrated along the banks of the rivers that run through the otherwise largely arid territory.
331:
392:
Households are not allowed to produce their own aloalo or coffins or make use of their own tomb construction materials or
1320:
389:. Tomb sites may only be visited during funerals or to retrieve wandering cattle but are otherwise strictly off limits.
397:
wife of the deceased must stay with the corpse in the deceased's home. His oldest son is responsible for procuring the
1325:
414:
135:
130:
they build to honor dead chiefs and kings. Mainly involved in farming and cattle raising, they speak a dialect of the
119:
1168:
127:
179:
After reigning for some years, Olembetsitoto went into seclusion. His followers believed that he had become holy (
287:) similar to the king himself. Only the heads of clans and the king were authorized to carry a large iron spear (
1368:
1019:
Eggert, Karl (1981). "Who are the Mahafaly? Cultural and social misidentification in southwestern Madagascar".
512:
1315:
609:
1234:
239:
immediate household as the most important. As in other parts of Madagascar, ancestors are venerated.
106:
1028:. Vol. 13–14. Antananarivo: Université de Madagascar, Département d'histoire. pp. 149–176.
386:
214:
in the 19th century. The last Mahafaly king was Tsiampondy, who began ruling in 1890. According to
146:
1020:
1124:
1118:
1103:
1097:
1082:
1061:
1040:
1005:
984:
963:
942:
507:
410:
131:
75:
1055:
1284:
1194:
1176:
521:
418:
155:
1269:
1229:
1214:
1189:
200:
98:
211:
230:
1357:
1259:
159:
102:
1264:
1199:
355:
210:
The Mahafaly kingdom was one of the few that did not come under the control of the
1076:
1034:
999:
978:
957:
936:
1289:
1219:
1209:
218:, Tsiampondy's reign ended in 1911, while according to a French document named
31:
1294:
1239:
1137:
275:) who was responsible for conducting animal sacrifices at the communal altar (
63:
1099:
Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia
1204:
1184:
172:
portion of the island lived in communities ruled by chiefly families called
938:
General history of Africa: Africa in the nineteenth century until the 1880s
786:
757:
222:, Tsiampondy's reign ended after a short French military campaign in 1907.
525:
1299:
1274:
1254:
192:
1344:
123:
307:
A Mahafaly individual's social identity is also defined by his or her
1279:
980:
Encyclopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothing Around the World
422:
377:
319:) are made in the name of this common ancestor, and the oldest male
246:("gold") and they were renamed after their death, a practice called
1249:
1224:
330:
229:
145:
340:
339:
The Mahafaly are mainly involved in farming and cattle raising.
1141:
959:
David Griffiths and the Missionary "History of Madagascar"
720:
718:
716:
643:
641:
628:
626:
567:
565:
563:
561:
559:
453:
451:
449:
447:
203:
influences, such as calling their king by the title
1308:
1175:
1078:
Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century
785:Mattern, Chiarella; Ravelomandeha, Farasoa (2012).
216:
Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century
91:
81:
69:
57:
41:
1120:International Encyclopedia of Linguistics Vol. 1
1153:
469:
291:), which served as a symbol of their status.
8:
375:The Mahafaly also decorate their tombs with
24:
258:) and migrants to the area from elsewhere (
195:people who had stolen their king's cattle.
1160:
1146:
1138:
736:
30:
23:
751:
749:
747:
745:
595:
918:
906:
894:
508:"Le pays Mahafaly dans le sud Malgache"
443:
870:
858:
846:
834:
822:
810:
780:
778:
724:
707:
695:
671:
647:
632:
493:
481:
150:Distribution of Malagasy ethnic groups
882:
183:) and made his land and people holy (
87:Christianity and traditional religion
7:
683:
659:
583:
571:
550:
538:
457:
409:The Mahafaly speak a dialect of the
267:king was supported by a councillor (
58:Regions with significant populations
1039:(in French). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
1096:Shoup, John A. (17 October 2011).
1022:Omaly sy anio: Hier et aujourd'hui
962:. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill.
792:(in French). Action Contre la Faim
283:) and had an official councillor (
14:
1054:LeHoullier, Sara (August 2010).
1004:. San Francisco, CA: Routledge.
935:Ade Ajayi, Jacob Festus (1998).
610:"Observations sur les Mahafalys"
415:Malayo-Polynesian language group
136:Malayo-Polynesian language group
1036:Tabou Et Totémisme à Madagascar
1001:Encyclopedia of African Peoples
122:that inhabit the plains of the
220:Observations sur les Mahafalys
1:
1057:Madagascar (Travel Companion)
47:
506:Zimmermann, Maurice (1911).
1364:Ethnic groups in Madagascar
1169:Ethnic groups of Madagascar
1123:. Oxford University Press.
1060:. Other Places Publishing.
413:, which is a branch of the
134:, which is a branch of the
1385:
1075:Ogot, Bethwell A. (1992).
758:"L'art funeraire Mahafaly"
304:) for ill family members.
120:ethnic group of Madagascar
16:Ethnic group of Madagascar
1339:
983:. Los Angeles: ABC Clio.
96:
86:
74:
62:
46:
29:
956:Campbell, Gwyn (2012).
271:) as well as a priest (
998:Diagram Group (2013).
336:
235:
151:
1033:Gennep, A.V. (1904).
977:Condra, Jill (2013).
526:10.3406/geo.1911.7420
513:Annales de GĂ©ographie
421:, spoken in southern
334:
233:
149:
92:Related ethnic groups
387:World Heritage Sites
281:rainitsy ny mpanjaka
107:Austronesian peoples
26:
586:, pp. 867–68.
496:, pp. 150–51.
470:Diagram Group 2013
337:
295:Family affiliation
236:
152:
1351:
1350:
1331:Vazaha (European)
1326:Vazaha (European)
1130:978-0-19-513977-8
1109:978-1-59884-363-7
1081:. Paris: UNESCO.
1067:978-0-9822619-5-8
1046:978-5-87839-721-6
990:978-0-313-37637-5
969:978-90-04-20980-0
941:. Paris: UNESCO.
417:derived from the
411:Malagasy language
132:Malagasy language
112:
111:
36:Mahafaly children
1376:
1162:
1155:
1148:
1139:
1134:
1117:Various (2003).
1113:
1092:
1071:
1050:
1029:
1027:
1015:
994:
973:
952:
922:
916:
910:
904:
898:
892:
886:
880:
874:
868:
862:
856:
850:
844:
838:
832:
826:
820:
814:
808:
802:
801:
799:
797:
791:
782:
773:
772:
770:
768:
762:
753:
740:
734:
728:
722:
711:
705:
699:
693:
687:
681:
675:
669:
663:
657:
651:
645:
636:
630:
621:
620:
614:
605:
599:
593:
587:
581:
575:
569:
554:
548:
542:
536:
530:
529:
520:(110): 189–191.
503:
497:
491:
485:
479:
473:
467:
461:
455:
419:Barito languages
174:andriantsileliky
52:
49:
42:Total population
34:
27:
1384:
1383:
1379:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1369:Mahafaly people
1354:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1335:
1321:Sinoa (Chinese)
1316:Karana (Indian)
1304:
1171:
1166:
1131:
1116:
1110:
1095:
1089:
1074:
1068:
1053:
1047:
1032:
1025:
1018:
1012:
997:
991:
976:
970:
955:
949:
934:
931:
926:
925:
917:
913:
905:
901:
893:
889:
881:
877:
869:
865:
857:
853:
845:
841:
833:
829:
821:
817:
809:
805:
795:
793:
789:
784:
783:
776:
766:
764:
760:
755:
754:
743:
737:LeHoullier 2010
735:
731:
723:
714:
706:
702:
694:
690:
682:
678:
670:
666:
658:
654:
646:
639:
631:
624:
612:
608:Picard (1907).
607:
606:
602:
594:
590:
582:
578:
570:
557:
549:
545:
537:
533:
505:
504:
500:
492:
488:
480:
476:
468:
464:
456:
445:
440:
431:
407:
365:
352:
329:
297:
228:
169:
144:
142:Ethnic identity
50:
37:
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1382:
1380:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1356:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1334:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1312:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1181:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1157:
1150:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1129:
1114:
1108:
1093:
1087:
1072:
1066:
1051:
1045:
1030:
1016:
1010:
995:
989:
974:
968:
953:
947:
930:
927:
924:
923:
921:, p. 441.
911:
909:, p. 431.
899:
897:, p. 205.
887:
885:, p. 180.
875:
873:, p. 337.
863:
851:
849:, p. 299.
839:
827:
825:, p. 157.
815:
813:, p. 456.
803:
774:
741:
729:
727:, p. 152.
712:
700:
688:
686:, p. 857.
676:
674:, p. 103.
664:
662:, p. 858.
652:
650:, p. 153.
637:
635:, p. 151.
622:
619:. p. 206.
600:
598:, p. 422.
596:Ade Ajayi 1998
588:
576:
574:, p. 868.
555:
553:, p. 859.
543:
541:, p. 856.
531:
498:
486:
484:, p. 149.
474:
462:
460:, p. 867.
442:
441:
439:
436:
430:
427:
406:
403:
364:
361:
351:
346:
328:
325:
296:
293:
277:hangomaza-lava
254:), commoners (
227:
224:
212:Merina Kingdom
168:
165:
143:
140:
110:
109:
94:
93:
89:
88:
84:
83:
79:
78:
72:
71:
67:
66:
60:
59:
55:
54:
51: 150,000
44:
43:
39:
38:
35:
20:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1381:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1346:
1343:
1338:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1235:Betsimisaraka
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1151:
1149:
1144:
1143:
1140:
1132:
1126:
1122:
1121:
1115:
1111:
1105:
1101:
1100:
1094:
1090:
1088:9789231017117
1084:
1080:
1079:
1073:
1069:
1063:
1059:
1058:
1052:
1048:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1031:
1024:
1023:
1017:
1013:
1011:9781135963415
1007:
1003:
1002:
996:
992:
986:
982:
981:
975:
971:
965:
961:
960:
954:
950:
948:9780520067011
944:
940:
939:
933:
932:
928:
920:
919:Campbell 2012
915:
912:
908:
907:Campbell 2012
903:
900:
896:
891:
888:
884:
879:
876:
872:
867:
864:
861:, p. 42.
860:
855:
852:
848:
843:
840:
837:, p. 86.
836:
831:
828:
824:
819:
816:
812:
807:
804:
788:
781:
779:
775:
759:
752:
750:
748:
746:
742:
739:, p. 50.
738:
733:
730:
726:
721:
719:
717:
713:
710:, p. 90.
709:
704:
701:
698:, p. 96.
697:
692:
689:
685:
680:
677:
673:
668:
665:
661:
656:
653:
649:
644:
642:
638:
634:
629:
627:
623:
618:
611:
604:
601:
597:
592:
589:
585:
580:
577:
573:
568:
566:
564:
562:
560:
556:
552:
547:
544:
540:
535:
532:
527:
523:
519:
516:(in French).
515:
514:
509:
502:
499:
495:
490:
487:
483:
478:
475:
471:
466:
463:
459:
454:
452:
450:
448:
444:
437:
435:
428:
426:
424:
420:
416:
412:
404:
402:
400:
395:
390:
388:
384:
380:
379:
373:
371:
363:Funeral rites
362:
360:
358:
357:
350:
347:
345:
342:
335:Mahafaly tomb
333:
326:
324:
322:
318:
314:
310:
305:
303:
294:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
265:
261:
260:folahazomanga
257:
256:valohazomanga
253:
249:
245:
240:
232:
225:
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1102:. ABC-CLIO.
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1210:Antankarana
871:Gennep 1904
859:Gennep 1904
847:Gennep 1904
835:Gennep 1904
823:Gennep 1904
811:Condra 2013
796:20 February
767:20 February
763:(in French)
725:Eggert 1981
708:Gennep 1904
696:Gennep 1904
672:Gennep 1904
648:Eggert 1981
633:Eggert 1981
494:Eggert 1981
482:Eggert 1981
248:anaratahina
128:large tombs
1358:Categories
1295:Zafimaniry
1240:Bezanozano
1177:Indigenous
883:Shoup 2011
438:References
205:andrianony
156:Menarandra
64:Madagascar
1342:See also:
1309:Immigrant
1285:Tsimihety
1205:Antandroy
1195:Antaisaka
1185:Antaifasy
684:Ogot 1992
660:Ogot 1992
617:persee.fr
584:Ogot 1992
572:Ogot 1992
551:Ogot 1992
539:Ogot 1992
458:Ogot 1992
285:ondaty-be
185:maha-faly
70:Languages
1300:Zafisoro
1275:Sihanaka
1270:Sakalava
1255:Masikoro
1245:Mahafaly
1230:Betsileo
1215:Antanosy
1190:Antemoro
756:UNESCO.
405:Language
399:vatolahy
394:ombilahy
370:ombilahy
264:renilemy
252:renilemy
244:volamena
201:Antemoro
193:Masikoro
116:Mahafaly
101:groups;
99:Malagasy
82:Religion
76:Malagasy
25:Mahafaly
1345:Vazimba
429:Economy
327:Culture
273:mpisoro
269:ombiasy
262:). The
226:Society
189:ombiasy
167:History
160:Onilahy
124:Betioky
118:are an
1280:Tanala
1260:Merina
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423:Borneo
383:razana
378:aloalo
321:tariha
313:tariha
289:beraha
97:Other
53:(2013)
1265:Mikea
1250:Makoa
1225:Beosi
1026:(PDF)
790:(PDF)
761:(PDF)
613:(PDF)
302:rombo
1290:Vezo
1220:Bara
1125:ISBN
1104:ISBN
1083:ISBN
1062:ISBN
1041:ISBN
1006:ISBN
985:ISBN
964:ISBN
943:ISBN
798:2017
769:2017
356:Fady
349:Fady
341:Zebu
317:soro
309:foko
181:faly
158:and
114:The
522:doi
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