46:
33:
352:
in the water has been questioned as no toxin could be isolated and no toxicity was observed in some experiments. Toxicity appears to depend on the strains and assays used. The lesions observed on fish presumed killed by
216:. In reaction to the toxic outbreaks, six states along the US east coast have initiated a monitoring program to allow for rapid response in the case of new outbreaks and to better understand the factors involved in
321:
biology and the role of PCOs in killing fish and sickening humans have been subject to several controversies and conflicting research results over the last few years.
3641:
3667:
958:
Moeller PD, Beauchesne KR, Huncik KM, Davis WC, Christopher SJ, Riggs-Gelasco P, Gelasco AK (2007). "Metal complexes and free radical toxins produced by
334:, but this has become controversial over the past few years due to conflicting research results. Especially contested is the question of whether toxic
3615:
3654:
1206:
715:
1243:
409:
conference in 2000. A subsequent evaluation, however, concluded that PCOs can cause human illness. The controversy about the risk of
3703:
1284:
624:
Parrow, M.W.; Burkholder, J.M. (2004). "The sexual life cycles of
Pfiesteria piscicida and cryptoperidiniopsoids (dinophyceae)".
585:
Steidinger, K.A.; Burkholder, J.M.; Glasgow, H.B. Jr.; Hobbs, C.W.; Garrett, J.K.; Truby, E.W.; Noga, E.J.; Smith, S.A. (1996). "
1279:
239:
857:
3731:
534:"Detection of the Dinozoans Pfiesteria piscicida and P. shumwayae: a review of detection methods and geographic distribution"
3659:
450:
1363:
1353:
1336:
398:
1522:
731:
208:
complex organisms (PCOs) were claimed to be responsible for large fish kills in the 1980s and 1990s on the coast of
45:
3672:
809:
Peglar MT, Nerad TA, Anderson OR, Gillevet PM (2004). "Identification of amoebae implicated in the life cycle of
589:
gen. et sp. nov. (Pfiesteriaceae fam. nov.), a new toxic dinoflagellate with a complex life cycle and behavior".
433:
3115:
287:
3355:
3253:
2921:
2391:
1368:
1236:
3542:
2409:
3164:
2684:
1703:
1642:
1564:
1331:
2208:
2198:
136:
2720:
2361:
2203:
2152:
2142:
298:" feeding strategy. Release of a toxin paralyzes the respiratory systems of susceptible fish, such as
3736:
3708:
3682:
3602:
3417:
3270:
2712:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2344:
2244:
1456:
363:
330:
178:
172:
3405:
3393:
3344:
2966:
2660:
2644:
2640:
2386:
2332:
2157:
146:
3411:
3388:
3371:
2978:
2716:
2652:
2589:
2546:
2403:
2398:
2226:
1738:
1403:
295:
201:
3471:
3275:
3241:
3212:
2958:
2887:
2704:
2648:
2147:
2100:
1732:
1397:
1388:
1090:"Occupational exposure to pfiesteria species in estuarine waters is not a risk factor for illness"
428:
3463:
3446:
3429:
3380:
3337:
3332:
3282:
2700:
2656:
2636:
2436:
2373:
2349:
1655:
1612:
1498:
1431:
1348:
1326:
1314:
1289:
1229:
1070:
940:
838:
680:
641:
606:
564:
496:
455:
40:
3594:
3500:
3492:
3438:
2708:
2368:
2307:
1709:
1698:
1408:
445:
3476:
1600:
707:
533:
3690:
3646:
3451:
3325:
3287:
2762:
2680:
2324:
2162:
2023:
1946:
1517:
1358:
1321:
1309:
1299:
1202:
1172:
1119:
1062:
1010:
979:
932:
893:
830:
791:
711:
556:
514:
243:
2379:
3695:
3200:
2754:
2730:
2726:
2564:
2508:
2005:
1809:
1547:
1273:
1162:
1154:
1109:
1101:
1054:
971:
924:
883:
873:
822:
781:
672:
633:
598:
548:
504:
488:
385:
hysteria hypothesis." A critical review of this hypothesis in the late 1990s concluded that
3580:
3188:
2766:
2734:
2554:
2550:
2513:
2491:
2456:
2167:
1966:
1898:
1828:
1559:
1552:
291:
258:(from Latin Pisces, fish; cida, killer.), which has a complex life cycle and the species
552:
3083:
2999:
2909:
2830:
2770:
2740:
2523:
2467:
2444:
2267:
2028:
1983:
1816:
1796:
1685:
1451:
1304:
1256:
1167:
1138:
1114:
1089:
826:
509:
476:
271:
213:
209:
197:
116:
83:
70:
888:
786:
761:
700:
3725:
3349:
3258:
3098:
3047:
3034:
3017:
2941:
2788:
2676:
2597:
2518:
2473:
2461:
2426:
2218:
2129:
2059:
1971:
1954:
1833:
1674:
1661:
1493:
1195:
1058:
676:
637:
602:
390:
267:
1074:
842:
684:
645:
610:
568:
3511:
3217:
3205:
3159:
3139:
3088:
3065:
2933:
2916:
2904:
2847:
2835:
2799:
2776:
2670:
2666:
2632:
2574:
2569:
2558:
2542:
2538:
2500:
2355:
2337:
2261:
2071:
2047:
2035:
1877:
1857:
1840:
1821:
1787:
1723:
1607:
1577:
1475:
944:
3628:
3574:
3399:
3320:
3303:
3193:
3184:
3121:
3109:
3103:
3008:
2854:
2841:
2614:
2579:
2533:
2528:
2299:
2237:
2088:
2016:
2010:
1959:
1925:
1905:
1773:
1667:
1650:
1630:
1589:
1534:
1505:
1480:
368:
303:
246:(1936–1992), a biologist who did much of the early research on dinoflagellates.
194:
126:
32:
3505:
3246:
3151:
3128:
3076:
3028:
3022:
2971:
2946:
2896:
2823:
2811:
2805:
2781:
2626:
2622:
2602:
2479:
2449:
2279:
2179:
2174:
2117:
2111:
2064:
2052:
2040:
1992:
1865:
1845:
1619:
1582:
1540:
1528:
1439:
358:
3565:
3589:
3312:
3223:
3133:
3058:
3040:
2983:
2859:
2793:
2255:
2249:
2231:
2105:
2076:
2000:
1882:
1804:
1743:
1570:
1260:
1252:
1221:
878:
96:
57:
1176:
1123:
1066:
983:
936:
897:
834:
795:
560:
518:
1014:
739:
3559:
3263:
3176:
3052:
2817:
2312:
2273:
2191:
2135:
1936:
1624:
1486:
1463:
1343:
1158:
335:
299:
220:
928:
3620:
2185:
2123:
1870:
1762:
1679:
1510:
1468:
1444:
1422:
500:
371:. In early 2007, a highly unstable toxin produced by the toxic form of
106:
3633:
975:
659:
Parrow, M.W.; Burkholder, J.M. (2003). "Reproduction and sexuality in
1594:
1105:
997:
Greenberg DR, Tracy JK, Grattan LM (1998). "A critical review of the
3536:
492:
393:. Concluding that there was no evidence to support the existence of
381:
The effects of PCOs on humans have been questioned, leading to the "
242:
researchers JoAnn
Burkholder and Ed Noga. The genus was named after
477:"State monitoring activities related to Pfiesteria-like organisms"
349:
223:
and outbreaks. New molecular detection methods have revealed that
698:
Eichhorn, Susan E.; Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray
Franklin (2005).
361:
by some researchers. However, it has also been established that
3540:
1225:
1031:: From Biology to Public Health October 18–20, 2000, Atlanta GA
3607:
858:"Demonstration of toxicity to fish and to mammalian cells by
856:
Burkholder JM, Gordon AS, Moeller PD, et al. (2005).
532:
Rublee PA, Remington DL, Schaefer EF, Marshall MM (2005).
911:
Vogelbein WK, Lovko VJ, Shields JD, et al. (2002). "
262:, also with a complex life cycle. The type locality of
580:
578:
1088:
Morris JG, Grattan LM, Wilson LA, et al. (2006).
915:
kills fish by micropredation not exotoxin secretion".
458:
created by the yrr, the main antagonists of the novel.
401:
discontinued funding for research into the effects of
310:
then consumes the tissue sloughed off its dead prey.
3549:
3491:
3462:
3437:
3428:
3379:
3370:
3311:
3302:
3234:
3175:
3150:
3007:
2998:
2957:
2932:
2895:
2886:
2753:
2613:
2588:
2499:
2490:
2435:
2424:
2323:
2298:
2217:
2087:
1991:
1982:
1945:
1934:
1923:
1856:
1795:
1786:
1771:
1760:
1731:
1722:
1641:
1430:
1421:
1396:
1387:
1194:
1143:in estuarine waters: the question of health risks"
699:
862:species: comparison of assay methods and strains"
328:Early research suggested a complex lifecycle of
706:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp.
282:Early research resulted in the hypothesis that
405:toxin on humans shortly after a CDC sponsored
389:-related illness was unlikely to be caused by
1237:
8:
770:, and other Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates"
367:kills fish by feeding on their skin through
3537:
3434:
3376:
3308:
3004:
2892:
2883:
2496:
2432:
2093:
1988:
1942:
1931:
1792:
1783:
1779:
1768:
1728:
1427:
1393:
1384:
1244:
1230:
1222:
413:exposure to human health is still ongoing.
31:
20:
1166:
1113:
887:
877:
785:
508:
427:species dangerous to humans featured in
467:
1045:complex organisms and human illness".
813:and Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates".
7:
3683:4e996f5d-aab8-4d2b-9a33-050eb298e4cf
1213:—An in-depth story of the discovery
553:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.05202007.x
1201:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
827:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2004.tb00290.x
14:
254:There are two species described,
1059:10.1097/00007611-200295070-00012
677:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.03057.x
638:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2004.03202.x
603:10.1111/j.0022-3646.1996.00157.x
44:
16:Genus of single-celled organisms
1137:Shoemaker RC, Lawson W (2007).
431:'s 1999 environmental thriller
397:-associated human illness, the
240:North Carolina State University
1197:And the Waters Turned to Blood
1041:Collier DN, Burke WA (2002). "
444:was one of the antagonists in
227:has a worldwide distribution.
200:that has been associated with
1:
787:10.1016/S0923-2508(03)00027-5
736:: Frequently Asked Questions"
399:National Institutes of Health
348:killing fish via releasing a
866:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
1027:CDC National Conference on
760:Miller TR, Belas R (2003).
3753:
238:was discovered in 1988 by
212:and in tributaries of the
2882:
2096:
1893:
1782:
1696:
1383:
1267:
169:
164:
41:Scientific classification
39:
30:
23:
1147:Environ. Health Perspect
1094:Environ. Health Perspect
481:Environ. Health Perspect
357:have been attributed to
288:predatory dinoflagellate
2922:Vitrella brassicaformis
1193:Barker, Rodney (1998).
879:10.1073/pnas.0500168102
1001:hysteria hypothesis".
815:J. Eukaryot. Microbiol
541:J. Eukaryot. Microbiol
440:The fictional species
3732:Dinoflagellate genera
1643:Postciliodesmatophora
964:Environ. Sci. Technol
2345:Eleutheroschizonidae
1457:Cariacothrix caudata
1159:10.1289/ehp.115-a126
960:Pfiesteria piscicida
913:Pfiesteria shumwayae
764:Pfiesteria piscicida
661:Pfiesteria shumwayae
587:Pfiesteria piscicida
373:Pfiesteria piscicida
364:Pfiesteria shumwayae
331:Pfiesteria piscicida
264:Pfiesteria piscicida
260:Pfiesteria shumwayae
256:Pfiesteria piscicida
231:Discovery and naming
202:harmful algal blooms
179:Pfiesteria shumwayae
173:Pfiesteria piscicida
2590:Blastogregarinorina
2547:Oligochaetocystinae
929:10.1038/nature01008
475:Magnien RE (2001).
442:Pfiesteria homicida
302:, causing death by
2685:Amphiplatysporidae
2637:Cephaloidophoridae
2437:Archigregarinorida
1432:Intramacronucleata
487:(Suppl 5): 711–4.
344:The hypothesis of
3719:
3718:
3691:Open Tree of Life
3543:Taxon identifiers
3534:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3522:
3521:
3487:
3486:
3366:
3365:
3298:
3297:
2994:
2993:
2878:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2870:
2869:
2763:Schizogregarinina
2749:
2748:
2420:
2419:
2325:Protococcidiorida
2294:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2209:Selenococcidiidae
2199:Elleipsisomatidae
2163:Cryptosporidiidae
2024:Haemogregarinidae
1947:Agamococcidiorida
1919:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1718:
1717:
1518:Oligohymenophorea
1417:
1416:
1208:978-0-684-83845-8
976:10.1021/es0617993
717:978-0-7167-1007-3
702:Biology of plants
456:biological weapon
342:Toxicity to fish:
244:Lois Ann Pfiester
186:
185:
137:Thoracosphaerales
3744:
3712:
3711:
3699:
3698:
3686:
3685:
3676:
3675:
3663:
3662:
3650:
3649:
3637:
3636:
3624:
3623:
3611:
3610:
3598:
3597:
3585:
3584:
3583:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3538:
3435:
3377:
3309:
3201:Duboscquellaceae
3005:
2893:
2884:
2755:Neogregarinorida
2731:Actinocephalidae
2727:Stylocephaloidea
2721:Trichorhynchidae
2565:Schaudinnellidae
2509:Aikinetocystidae
2497:
2433:
2362:Eleutheroschizon
2204:Lankesterellidae
2153:Calyptosporiidae
2143:Atoxoplasmatidae
2094:
2006:Dactylosomatidae
1989:
1943:
1932:
1793:
1784:
1780:
1769:
1729:
1548:Parablepharismea
1523:Ichthyophthirius
1428:
1394:
1385:
1296:
1276:
1246:
1239:
1232:
1223:
1212:
1200:
1181:
1180:
1170:
1134:
1128:
1127:
1117:
1106:10.1289/ehp.8627
1085:
1079:
1078:
1038:
1032:
1025:
1019:
1018:
994:
988:
987:
955:
949:
948:
923:(6901): 967–70.
908:
902:
901:
891:
881:
853:
847:
846:
806:
800:
799:
789:
757:
751:
750:
748:
747:
738:. Archived from
728:
722:
721:
705:
695:
689:
688:
663:(Dinophyceae)".
656:
650:
649:
621:
615:
614:
582:
573:
572:
538:
529:
523:
522:
512:
472:
290:that acts as an
278:Feeding strategy
204:and fish kills.
49:
48:
35:
21:
3752:
3751:
3747:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3722:
3721:
3720:
3715:
3707:
3702:
3694:
3689:
3681:
3679:
3671:
3666:
3658:
3653:
3645:
3640:
3632:
3627:
3619:
3614:
3606:
3601:
3593:
3588:
3579:
3578:
3573:
3564:
3563:
3558:
3545:
3535:
3518:
3483:
3458:
3424:
3418:Rhizellobiopsis
3362:
3294:
3271:Pronoctilucidae
3230:
3189:Amoebophryaceae
3171:
3146:
3097:Without theca:
2990:
2953:
2928:
2866:
2767:Caulleryellidae
2745:
2735:Stylocephalidae
2713:Sphaerocystidae
2697:Dactylophoridae
2693:Cnemidosporidae
2689:Brustiophoridae
2609:
2584:
2555:Stomatophorinae
2551:Rhynchocystinae
2514:Allantocystidae
2492:Eugregarinorida
2486:
2457:Selenidioididae
2429:
2416:
2319:
2286:
2245:Toxoplasmatinae
2213:
2168:Cryptosporidium
2083:
1978:
1967:Rhytidocystidae
1939:
1928:
1911:
1899:Cardiosporidium
1889:
1852:
1829:Leucocytozoidae
1776:
1765:
1748:
1714:
1692:
1637:
1560:Phyllopharyngea
1553:Parablepharisma
1413:
1379:
1378:
1294:
1272:
1263:
1250:
1220:
1209:
1192:
1189:
1187:Further reading
1184:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1026:
1022:
996:
995:
991:
957:
956:
952:
910:
909:
905:
855:
854:
850:
808:
807:
803:
759:
758:
754:
745:
743:
730:
729:
725:
718:
697:
696:
692:
658:
657:
653:
623:
622:
618:
584:
583:
576:
536:
531:
530:
526:
493:10.2307/3454918
474:
473:
469:
465:
446:Frank Schätzing
420:
375:was identified.
316:
294:, utilizing a "
292:ambush predator
280:
252:
233:
198:dinoflagellates
176:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3750:
3748:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3724:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3713:
3700:
3687:
3677:
3664:
3651:
3638:
3625:
3612:
3599:
3586:
3571:
3555:
3553:
3547:
3546:
3541:
3532:
3531:
3528:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3520:
3519:
3517:
3516:
3497:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3468:
3466:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3443:
3441:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3406:Parallobiopsis
3394:Elliobiocystis
3385:
3383:
3374:
3368:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3360:
3345:Rastromonadida
3342:
3330:
3317:
3315:
3306:
3300:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3280:
3268:
3256:
3251:
3238:
3236:
3232:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3210:
3198:
3181:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3156:
3154:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3144:
3126:
3094:
3093:
3084:Prorocentrales
3081:
3063:
3045:
3016:With a theca:
3013:
3011:
3002:
3000:Dinoflagellata
2996:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2976:
2967:Alphamonadidae
2963:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2951:
2938:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2926:
2914:
2910:Chromera velia
2901:
2899:
2890:
2880:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2852:
2831:Schizocystidae
2828:
2786:
2774:
2771:Ophryocystidae
2759:
2757:
2751:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2741:Blabericolidae
2738:
2724:
2674:
2664:
2661:Uradiophoridae
2645:Didymophoridae
2641:Cephalolobidae
2630:
2619:
2617:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2594:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2524:Enterocystidae
2521:
2516:
2511:
2505:
2503:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2485:
2484:
2468:Meroselenidium
2454:
2445:Exoschizonidae
2441:
2439:
2430:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2396:
2387:Mackinnoniidae
2384:
2366:
2342:
2333:Angeiocystidae
2329:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2317:
2304:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2284:
2268:Nephroisospora
2242:
2223:
2221:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2172:
2160:
2158:Caryotrophidae
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2097:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2069:
2057:
2045:
2033:
2029:Haemogregarina
2021:
2003:
1997:
1995:
1986:
1984:Eucoccidiorida
1980:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1964:
1951:
1949:
1940:
1935:
1929:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1902:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1875:
1862:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1838:
1826:
1817:Haemoproteidae
1814:
1801:
1799:
1797:Haemospororida
1790:
1777:
1772:
1766:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1737:
1735:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1716:
1715:
1697:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1690:
1686:Tracheloraphis
1672:
1647:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1617:
1605:
1587:
1575:
1557:
1545:
1515:
1503:
1491:
1473:
1461:
1452:Cariacotrichea
1449:
1436:
1434:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1402:
1400:
1391:
1381:
1380:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1369:Mesomycetozoea
1366:
1361:
1351:
1341:
1340:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1318:
1317:
1305:Diaphoretickes
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1251:
1249:
1248:
1241:
1234:
1226:
1219:
1218:External links
1216:
1215:
1214:
1207:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1182:
1129:
1100:(7): 1038–43.
1080:
1033:
1020:
989:
970:(4): 1166–72.
950:
903:
848:
801:
774:Res. Microbiol
752:
723:
716:
690:
671:(4): 697–711.
651:
632:(4): 664–673.
616:
574:
524:
466:
464:
461:
460:
459:
454:. They are a
448:'s 2004 novel
438:
419:
416:
415:
414:
379:Human illness:
376:
339:
315:
312:
279:
276:
272:North Carolina
251:
248:
232:
229:
214:Chesapeake Bay
210:North Carolina
193:is a genus of
184:
183:
167:
166:
162:
161:
154:
150:
149:
147:Pfiesteriaceae
144:
140:
139:
134:
130:
129:
124:
120:
119:
117:Dinoflagellata
114:
110:
109:
104:
100:
99:
94:
87:
86:
81:
74:
73:
71:Diaphoretickes
68:
61:
60:
55:
51:
50:
37:
36:
28:
27:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3749:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3710:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3678:
3674:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3591:
3587:
3582:
3576:
3572:
3567:
3561:
3557:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3539:
3514:
3513:
3508:
3507:
3502:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3494:
3490:
3479:
3478:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3461:
3454:
3453:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3419:
3414:
3413:
3412:Thalassomyces
3408:
3407:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3389:Ellobiopsidae
3387:
3386:
3384:
3382:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3372:Protalveolata
3369:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3351:
3350:Parvilucifera
3346:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3316:
3314:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3301:
3290:
3289:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3259:Oxyrrhinaceae
3257:
3255:
3254:Ichthyodinium
3252:
3249:
3248:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3226:
3225:
3220:
3219:
3214:
3211:
3208:
3207:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3123:
3118:
3117:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3105:
3100:
3099:Gymnodiniales
3096:
3095:
3091:
3090:
3085:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3072:
3067:
3064:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3048:Gonyaulacales
3046:
3043:
3042:
3037:
3036:
3035:Ornithocercus
3031:
3030:
3025:
3024:
3019:
3018:Dinophysiales
3015:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2997:
2986:
2985:
2980:
2979:Voromonadidae
2977:
2974:
2973:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2948:
2943:
2942:Colpodellidae
2940:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2931:
2924:
2923:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2862:
2861:
2856:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2819:
2814:
2813:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2801:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2789:Lipotrophidae
2787:
2784:
2783:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2756:
2752:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2718:
2717:Stenophoridae
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2677:Stenophoricae
2675:
2672:
2668:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2653:Hirmocystidae
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2598:Siedleckiidae
2596:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2519:Diplocystidae
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2489:
2482:
2481:
2476:
2475:
2474:Selenidioides
2470:
2469:
2464:
2463:
2462:Merogregarina
2458:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2434:
2431:
2428:
2427:Gregarinasina
2423:
2412:
2411:
2406:
2405:
2404:Myriosporides
2400:
2399:Myriosporidae
2397:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2351:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2257:
2252:
2251:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2227:Sarcocystinae
2225:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2219:Sarcocystidae
2216:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2181:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2131:
2130:Pseudoklossia
2126:
2125:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2060:Klossiellidae
2058:
2055:
2054:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1973:
1972:Rhytidocystis
1968:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1955:Gemmocystidae
1953:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1922:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1901:
1900:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1847:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1834:Leucocytozoon
1830:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1739:Colponemadida
1736:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1712:
1711:
1706:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1687:
1682:
1681:
1676:
1675:Karyorelictea
1673:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1663:
1662:Climacostomum
1658:
1657:
1652:
1651:Heterotrichea
1649:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1626:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1536:
1531:
1530:
1525:
1524:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1512:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1494:Muranotrichea
1492:
1489:
1488:
1483:
1482:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1470:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1411:
1410:
1405:
1404:Acavomonadida
1401:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1345:
1342:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1332:Stramenopiles
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1295:(major groups
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1242:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1228:
1227:
1224:
1217:
1210:
1204:
1199:
1198:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1153:(3): A126–7.
1152:
1148:
1144:
1142:
1133:
1130:
1125:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1084:
1081:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1047:South. Med. J
1044:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1024:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
993:
990:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
954:
951:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
907:
904:
899:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
872:(9): 3471–6.
871:
867:
863:
861:
852:
849:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
821:(5): 542–52.
820:
816:
812:
805:
802:
797:
793:
788:
783:
779:
775:
771:
769:
765:
756:
753:
742:on 2007-09-28
741:
737:
735:
727:
724:
719:
713:
709:
704:
703:
694:
691:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
655:
652:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
620:
617:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
581:
579:
575:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
535:
528:
525:
520:
516:
511:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
471:
468:
462:
457:
453:
452:
447:
443:
439:
436:
435:
430:
426:
422:
421:
417:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
391:mass hysteria
388:
384:
380:
377:
374:
370:
366:
365:
360:
356:
351:
347:
343:
340:
337:
333:
332:
327:
324:
323:
322:
320:
313:
311:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
277:
275:
273:
269:
268:Pamlico River
265:
261:
257:
249:
247:
245:
241:
237:
230:
228:
226:
222:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
196:
195:heterotrophic
192:
191:
182:
181:
180:
175:
174:
168:
163:
160:
159:
155:
152:
151:
148:
145:
142:
141:
138:
135:
132:
131:
128:
125:
122:
121:
118:
115:
112:
111:
108:
105:
102:
101:
98:
95:
92:
89:
88:
85:
82:
79:
76:
75:
72:
69:
66:
63:
62:
59:
56:
53:
52:
47:
42:
38:
34:
29:
26:
22:
19:
3550:
3512:Platyproteum
3510:
3504:
3475:
3472:Chilovoridae
3450:
3416:
3410:
3404:
3398:
3392:
3354:
3348:
3336:
3324:
3286:
3276:Pronoctiluca
3274:
3262:
3245:
3242:Acrocoelidae
3222:
3218:Hematodinium
3216:
3213:Syndiniaceae
3206:Duboscquella
3204:
3192:
3163:
3160:Noctilucales
3140:Symbiodinium
3138:
3132:
3120:
3114:
3108:
3102:
3089:Prorocentrum
3087:
3075:
3070:
3069:
3066:Peridiniales
3057:
3051:
3039:
3033:
3027:
3021:
2982:
2970:
2959:Voromonadida
2945:
2934:Colpodellida
2920:
2917:Vitrellaceae
2908:
2905:Chromeraceae
2888:Apicomonadea
2858:
2848:Schizocystis
2846:
2840:
2836:Lymphotropha
2834:
2822:
2816:
2810:
2804:
2800:Farinocystis
2798:
2792:
2780:
2777:Gigaductidae
2705:Monoductidae
2671:Porosporidae
2667:Porosporicae
2649:Gregarinidae
2633:Gregarinicae
2601:
2575:Thiriotiidae
2570:Selenidiidae
2559:Zygocystinae
2543:Monocystinae
2539:Monocystidae
2501:Aseptatorina
2478:
2472:
2466:
2460:
2448:
2408:
2402:
2390:
2378:
2372:
2360:
2356:Defretinella
2354:
2348:
2338:Angeiocystis
2336:
2311:
2278:
2272:
2266:
2262:Hyaloklossia
2260:
2254:
2248:
2236:
2230:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2166:
2148:Barrouxiidae
2134:
2128:
2122:
2116:
2110:
2104:
2101:Aggregatidae
2075:
2072:Legerellidae
2063:
2051:
2048:Karyolysidae
2039:
2036:Hepatozoidae
2027:
2015:
2009:
1970:
1958:
1904:
1897:
1881:
1878:Theileriidae
1869:
1858:Piroplasmida
1844:
1841:Plasmodiidae
1832:
1822:Haemoproteus
1820:
1808:
1788:Aconoidasida
1742:
1733:Colponemadea
1724:Colponemidia
1708:
1702:
1684:
1678:
1666:
1660:
1654:
1629:
1623:
1620:Spirotrichea
1611:
1608:Protocruziea
1599:
1593:
1581:
1569:
1565:Chilodonella
1563:
1551:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1521:
1509:
1497:
1485:
1479:
1476:Litostomatea
1467:
1455:
1443:
1407:
1398:Acavomonadea
1389:Acavomonidia
1354:Opisthokonta
1196:
1150:
1146:
1140:
1132:
1097:
1093:
1083:
1053:(7): 720–6.
1050:
1046:
1042:
1036:
1028:
1023:
1009:(3): 133–6.
1006:
1002:
998:
992:
967:
963:
959:
953:
920:
916:
912:
906:
869:
865:
859:
851:
818:
814:
810:
804:
780:(2): 85–90.
777:
773:
768:P. shumwayae
767:
763:
755:
744:. Retrieved
740:the original
733:
726:
701:
693:
668:
664:
660:
654:
629:
625:
619:
594:
590:
586:
544:
540:
527:
484:
480:
470:
449:
441:
432:
429:James Powlik
424:
423:A fictional
410:
406:
402:
394:
386:
382:
378:
372:
362:
354:
345:
341:
338:forms exist.
329:
325:
318:
317:
307:
283:
281:
263:
259:
255:
253:
235:
234:
224:
217:
205:
189:
188:
187:
177:
171:
170:
157:
156:
113:Superclass:
90:
77:
64:
24:
18:
3737:Dinophyceae
3629:iNaturalist
3575:Wikispecies
3464:Chilovorida
3447:Algovoridae
3430:Myzomonadea
3400:Ellobiopsis
3381:Ellobiopsea
3356:Rastrimonas
3338:Phagodinium
3333:Phagodinida
3321:Perkinsidae
3304:Perkinsozoa
3283:Psammosidae
3194:Amoebophyra
3185:Syndiniales
3122:Karlodinium
3110:Gymnodinium
3104:Amphidinium
3009:Dinokaryota
2855:Syncystidae
2842:Machadoella
2701:Leidyanidae
2657:Metameridae
2615:Septatorina
2580:Urosporidae
2534:Lecudinidae
2529:Ganymedidae
2392:Mackinnonia
2374:Coelotropha
2350:Coelotropha
2300:Ixorheorida
2238:Sarcocystis
2089:Eimeriorina
2017:Dactylosoma
2011:Babesiosoma
1960:Gemmocystis
1926:Conoidasida
1906:Nephromyces
1774:Apicomplexa
1668:Blepharisma
1631:Stylonychia
1613:Protocruzia
1590:Prostomatea
1578:Plagiopylea
1535:Tetrahymena
1506:Nassophorea
1499:Muranothrix
1481:Balantidium
597:: 157–164.
547:(2): 83–9.
369:myzocytosis
359:water molds
326:Life cycle:
314:Controversy
304:suffocation
296:hit and run
127:Dinophyceae
3726:Categories
3581:Pfiesteria
3551:Pfiesteria
3506:Filipodium
3501:Squirmidae
3493:Squirmidea
3439:Algovorida
3247:Acrocoelus
3152:Noctilucea
3129:Suessiales
3077:Peridinium
3071:Pfiesteria
3029:Histioneis
3023:Dinophysis
2972:Alphamonas
2947:Colpodella
2897:Chromerida
2824:Menzbieria
2812:Lipocystis
2806:Lipotropha
2782:Gigaductus
2709:Monoicidae
2627:Fusionidae
2623:Fusionicae
2603:Siedleckia
2480:Veloxidium
2450:Exoschizon
2410:Myriospora
2369:Grelliidae
2308:Ixorheidae
2280:Toxoplasma
2180:Cyclospora
2175:Eimeriidae
2118:Merocystis
2112:Grasseella
2065:Klossiella
2053:Karyolysus
2041:Hepatozoon
1993:Adeleorina
1866:Babesiidae
1846:Plasmodium
1710:Myrionecta
1704:Mesodinium
1699:Mesodiniea
1583:Plagiopyla
1541:Vorticella
1529:Paramecium
1440:Armophorea
1423:Ciliophora
1409:Acavomonas
1141:Pfiesteria
1043:Pfiesteria
1029:Pfiesteria
999:Pfiesteria
860:Pfiesteria
811:Pfiesteria
746:2008-01-06
734:Pfiesteria
463:References
434:Sea Change
425:Pfiesteria
418:In fiction
411:Pfiesteria
407:Pfiesteria
403:Pfiesteria
395:Pfiesteria
387:Pfiesteria
383:Pfiesteria
355:Pfiesteria
346:Pfiesteria
319:Pfiesteria
308:Pfiesteria
284:Pfiesteria
236:Pfiesteria
225:Pfiesteria
218:Pfiesteria
206:Pfiesteria
190:Pfiesteria
158:Pfiesteria
25:Pfiesteria
3590:AlgaeBase
3477:Chilovora
3326:Perkinsus
3313:Perkinsea
3224:Syndinium
3165:Noctiluca
3134:Polarella
3059:Gonyaulax
3041:Oxyphysis
2984:Voromonas
2860:Syncystis
2794:Apicystis
2256:Hammondia
2250:Besnoitia
2232:Frenkelia
2106:Aggregata
2077:Legerella
2001:Adeleidae
1883:Theileria
1805:Garniidae
1744:Colponema
1601:Holophrya
1571:Tokophrya
1349:Amoebozoa
1327:Alveolata
1315:Cryptista
1290:Eukaryota
1261:Alveolata
1253:Eukaryota
665:J. Phycol
626:J. Phycol
591:J. Phycol
451:The Swarm
274:, U.S.A.
270:Estuary,
97:Alveolata
58:Eukaryota
3560:Wikidata
3452:Algovora
3288:Psammosa
3264:Oxyrrhis
3177:Syndinea
3053:Ceratium
2818:Mattesia
2681:Acutidae
2313:Ixorheis
2274:Neospora
2192:Isospora
2136:Selysina
1937:Coccidia
1625:Euplotes
1487:Dileptus
1464:Colpodea
1344:Amorphea
1322:Rhizaria
1310:Hacrobia
1300:Excavata
1285:Bacteria
1177:17431460
1124:16835056
1075:38879446
1067:12144078
1003:Md Med J
984:17598275
937:12198545
898:15728353
843:43191086
835:15537089
796:12648722
685:86061227
646:83695348
611:85246132
569:15838304
561:15817112
519:11677180
336:amoeboid
300:menhaden
221:toxicity
165:Species
143:Family:
103:Phylum:
54:Domain:
3647:1222711
3621:9813584
3566:Q311572
3116:Karenia
2380:Grellia
2186:Eimeria
2124:Ovivora
1871:Babesia
1763:Myzozoa
1680:Loxodes
1656:Stentor
1511:Nassula
1469:Colpoda
1445:Metopus
1359:Animals
1280:Archaea
1168:1849899
1115:1513342
1015:9601200
945:4388577
510:1240602
501:3454918
250:Species
153:Genus:
133:Order:
123:Class:
107:Myzozoa
3709:246597
3696:490529
3680:NZOR:
3660:553097
3634:607723
1810:Garnia
1595:Coleps
1337:Plants
1274:Domain
1205:
1175:
1165:
1122:
1112:
1073:
1065:
1013:
982:
943:
935:
917:Nature
896:
889:552923
886:
841:
833:
794:
714:
683:
644:
609:
567:
559:
517:
507:
499:
3704:WoRMS
3673:71000
3642:IRMNG
3608:90504
3595:45993
3235:Other
1364:Fungi
1071:S2CID
941:S2CID
839:S2CID
681:S2CID
642:S2CID
607:S2CID
565:S2CID
537:(PDF)
497:JSTOR
350:toxin
286:is a
91:Clade
78:Clade
65:Clade
3668:NCBI
3655:ITIS
3616:GBIF
1203:ISBN
1173:PMID
1120:PMID
1063:PMID
1011:PMID
980:PMID
933:PMID
894:PMID
831:PMID
792:PMID
712:ISBN
557:PMID
515:PMID
3603:EoL
1257:SAR
1163:PMC
1155:doi
1151:115
1110:PMC
1102:doi
1098:114
1055:doi
972:doi
962:".
925:doi
921:418
884:PMC
874:doi
870:102
823:doi
782:doi
778:154
708:205
673:doi
634:doi
599:doi
549:doi
505:PMC
489:doi
485:109
266:is
84:SAR
3728::
3706::
3693::
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
