170:
485:
453:
1421:
469:
311:
19:
323:
154:
264:
in humans in the 1990s. It has been described as "skinning fish alive to feed on their flesh" or chemically sensing fish and producing lethal toxins to kill their prey and feed off the decaying remains. Its deadly nature has led to
716:
Jeong HJ, Du Yoo Y, Kim JS, et al. (2004). "Mixotrophy in the phototrophic harmful alga
Cochlodinium polykrikoides (Dinophycean): prey species, the effects of prey concentration, and grazing impact".
63:
from digesting other organisms. About one half of dinoflagellates lack photosynthetic pigments and specialize in consuming other eukaryotic cells, and even photosynthetic forms are often predatory.
405:, Martel explained that the carnivorous algae island had the purpose of representing the more fantastical of two competing stories in his novel and challenge the reader to a "leap of faith."
438:
is a unicellular, microscopic predator capable of producing a paralytic toxin. Like cellular slime molds, it can release chemical stress signals that cause the cells to aggregate into a
630:
Jeong HJ, Kim SK, Kim JS, Kim ST, Yoo YD, Yoon JY (2001). "Growth and grazing rates of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate
Polykrikos kofoidii on red-tide and toxic dinoflagellates".
468:
120:, which feed on diverse prey including fish skin and human blood cells. Predatory dinoflagellates can kill their prey by releasing toxins or phagocytize small prey directly.
673:
Smalley GW, Coats DW (2002). "Ecology of the red-tide dinoflagellate
Ceratium furca: distribution, mixotrophy, and grazing impact on ciliate populations of Chesapeake Bay".
139:
and related species have been discovered to kill and feed on fish, and since have been (mistakenly) referred to as carnivorous "algae" by the media.
880:
1204:
224:
that utilizes a hit and run feeding strategy by releasing a toxin that paralyzes the respiratory systems of susceptible fish, such as
1247:
999:
966:
787:
Vogelbein WK, Lovko VJ, Shields JD, et al. (2002). "Pfiesteria shumwayae kills fish by micropredation not exotoxin secretion".
573:
548:
1063:
1179:
169:
838:
Jeong HJ, Ha JH, Yoo YD, et al. (2007). "Feeding by the
Pfiesteria-like heterotrophic dinoflagellate Luciella masanensis".
1787:
484:
1015:
760:
Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2006). "Ciguatera fish poisoning--Texas, 1998, and South Carolina, 2004".
361:
452:
1131:"Pfiesteria Hysteria, Agriculture, and Water Quality in the Chesapeake Bay: The Extension Bridge over Troubled Waters"
409:
442:
which allows the newly formed superorganism to feed on much larger animals and produce a fruiting body that releases
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1256:
491:
90:
1792:
1766:
348:
153:
105:
338:
has been referred to as "super villain" and subsequently has been used as such in several fictional works. A
1802:
1746:
1797:
515:
1391:
1240:
459:
414:
96:
892:
Martel CM, Flynn KJ (2008). "Morphological controls on cannibalism in a planktonic marine phagotroph".
1152:
Greenberg DR, Tracy JK, Grattan LM (1998). "A critical review of the
Pfiesteria hysteria hypothesis".
930:
1674:
796:
298:. However, a study published the following year concluded the symptoms were unlikely to be caused by
192:
186:
176:
160:
34:
1761:
1615:
475:
205:
116:
88:, which is primarily photosynthetic but also capable of ingesting other protists such as ciliates,
78:
1208:
343:
1756:
1406:
863:
820:
742:
698:
655:
505:
353:
991:
1751:
1396:
1161:
1111:
995:
962:
909:
855:
812:
769:
734:
690:
647:
612:
569:
544:
536:
510:
217:
1620:
1420:
1401:
1233:
1101:
901:
847:
804:
726:
682:
639:
602:
1728:
1600:
1579:
357:
315:
221:
125:
68:
32:
Top row: unaffected fish; bottom row: fish preyed upon by the carnivorous alga
1067:
800:
1703:
1679:
1662:
1457:
1183:
730:
686:
643:
327:
291:
287:
269:
being referred to as "killer algae" and has earned the organism the reputation as the "
257:
237:
201:
84:
1043:
984:
18:
1781:
1713:
1708:
1667:
1657:
1605:
1370:
1365:
1284:
851:
394:
299:
271:
249:
73:
702:
659:
1733:
1610:
1498:
1319:
1309:
824:
746:
427:
867:
1019:
905:
389:, the protagonist encounters a floating island of carnivorous algae inhabited by
1554:
1539:
1534:
1524:
1519:
1503:
1462:
1452:
1299:
1294:
1289:
380:
261:
245:
229:
130:
49:
282:
as carnivorous algae attacking fish and humans has been implicated in causing "
1718:
1574:
1569:
1559:
1482:
1472:
1360:
1334:
1324:
1130:
385:
310:
135:
110:
24:
1723:
1652:
1595:
1564:
1544:
1529:
1477:
1467:
1447:
1442:
1429:
1339:
1329:
1314:
1304:
1264:
322:
209:
123:
Some predatory algae have evolved extreme survival strategies. For example,
56:
53:
1115:
913:
859:
816:
773:
738:
694:
651:
607:
591:"Rapid method for cell cycle analysis in a predatory marine dinoflagellate"
590:
82:, which feeds on several species of red-tide and/or toxic dinoflagellates,
1165:
616:
1549:
1437:
956:
295:
225:
60:
46:
808:
184:
The media has applied the term carnivorous or predatory algae mainly to
1689:
1375:
1355:
1279:
398:
390:
365:
253:
28:
1694:
1684:
1225:
1016:"Cyber Diver News Network: Cell from Hell - Killer Algae Eating Fish"
402:
1090:"Pfiesteria, "the cell from hell," and other toxic algal nightmares"
133:
on its own species when no suitable non-self prey is available, and
1106:
1089:
443:
439:
321:
309:
290:
in 1997 resulting in an apparent outbreak of human illness in the
101:
17:
982:
Eichhorn, Susan E.; Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray
Franklin (2005).
1044:"Killer Algae | Unusual Organisms | DISCOVER Magazine"
369:
244:) has been blamed for killing more than one billion fish in the
1229:
66:
Organisms that derive their nutrition in this manner include
232:. It then consumes the tissue sloughed off its dead prey.
275:
of the dinoflagellate world" or "the Cell from Hell."
950:
948:
946:
1588:
1512:
1491:
1428:
1384:
1348:
1272:
1263:
1038:
1036:
564:Bhattacharya, Debashish; Olson, Laura Katz (2006).
983:
541:Molecular systematics of plants II: DNA sequencing
278:The prominent and exaggerating media coverage of
1205:"National Geographic Channel: EXTRATERRESTRIAL"
990:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp.
566:Genomics and evolution of microbial eukaryotes
1241:
8:
589:Whiteley AS, Burkill PH, Sleigh MA (1993).
216:is named after the American protistologist
1269:
1248:
1234:
1226:
931:"AAAS Atlas of Population and Environment"
1105:
606:
334:During the media coverage in the 1990s,
925:
923:
527:
448:
149:
543:. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
342:subspecies killing humans featured in
100:, which feeds on algae and produces a
958:Bird Flu: A Virus of Our Own Hatching
7:
568:. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
731:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2004.tb00292.x
687:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2002.tb00343.x
644:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2001.tb00318.x
59:that derive some or most of their
14:
1180:"FFWD Weekly - November 20, 2003"
535:Doyle, Jeff; Soltis, Douglas E.;
1419:
852:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2007.00259.x
483:
467:
451:
168:
152:
94:, which feeds on phytoplankton,
72:, which feeds phagocytically on
346:'s 1999 environmental thriller
1:
906:10.1016/j.protis.2007.05.003
762:MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep
422:combines characteristics of
418:, the alien organism termed
114:and related species such as
1819:
1100:(6): 1191–6, quiz 1197–8.
1064:"The Fuss Over Pfiesteria"
492:Cochlodinium polykrikoides
91:Cochlodinium polykrikoides
1767:Category:Eating behaviors
1742:
1417:
393:while shipwrecked in the
43:Predatory dinoflagellates
228:, thus causing death by
106:ciguatera fish poisoning
1747:Antipredator adaptation
955:Michael Greger (2006).
397:. At a book reading in
372:spread the killer alga
1788:Dinoflagellate biology
840:J. Eukaryot. Microbiol
719:J. Eukaryot. Microbiol
675:J. Eukaryot. Microbiol
632:J. Eukaryot. Microbiol
608:10.1002/cyto.990140809
516:Protocarnivorous plant
331:
319:
241:
39:
460:Gambierdiscus toxicus
325:
313:
97:Gambierdiscus toxicus
21:
1135:Journal of Extension
1129:Terlizzi DE (2006).
428:cellular slime molds
234:Pfiesteria piscicida
206:harmful algal blooms
193:Pfiesteria shumwayae
187:Pfiesteria piscicida
177:Pfiesteria piscicida
161:Pfiesteria shumwayae
35:Pfiesteria shumwayae
1762:Carnivorous protist
1616:Intraguild predator
809:10.1038/nature01008
801:2002Natur.418..967V
476:Polykrikos kofoidii
410:National Geographic
374:Pfiesteria homicida
117:Luciella masanensis
108:when ingested, and
79:Polykrikos kofoidii
1757:Carnivorous fungus
1407:Sexual cannibalism
1392:Animal cannibalism
1257:Feeding behaviours
1088:Morris JG (1999).
881:Wiley Interscience
506:Carnivorous fungus
446:for reproduction.
332:
320:
306:In popular culture
40:
1775:
1774:
1752:Carnivorous plant
1628:Aquatic predation
1415:
1414:
1397:Human cannibalism
1094:Clin. Infect. Dis
986:Biology of plants
961:. Lantern Books.
537:Soltis, Pamela S.
511:Carnivorous plant
286:hysteria" in the
218:Lois Ann Pfiester
1810:
1793:Eating behaviors
1621:Pursuit predator
1423:
1402:Self-cannibalism
1270:
1250:
1243:
1236:
1227:
1220:
1219:
1217:
1216:
1207:. Archived from
1201:
1195:
1194:
1192:
1191:
1182:. Archived from
1176:
1170:
1169:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1109:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1076:
1075:
1066:. Archived from
1060:
1054:
1053:
1051:
1050:
1040:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1027:
1018:. Archived from
1012:
1006:
1005:
989:
979:
973:
972:
952:
941:
940:
938:
937:
927:
918:
917:
889:
883:
878:
872:
871:
835:
829:
828:
795:(6901): 967–70.
784:
778:
777:
757:
751:
750:
713:
707:
706:
670:
664:
663:
627:
621:
620:
610:
586:
580:
579:
561:
555:
554:
532:
487:
471:
455:
415:Extraterrestrial
399:Calgary, Alberta
172:
156:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1808:
1807:
1778:
1777:
1776:
1771:
1738:
1729:Surplus killing
1601:Ambush predator
1584:
1508:
1487:
1424:
1411:
1380:
1344:
1259:
1254:
1224:
1223:
1214:
1212:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1189:
1187:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1151:
1150:
1146:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1073:
1071:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1041:
1034:
1025:
1023:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1002:
981:
980:
976:
969:
954:
953:
944:
935:
933:
929:
928:
921:
891:
890:
886:
879:
875:
837:
836:
832:
786:
785:
781:
759:
758:
754:
715:
714:
710:
672:
671:
667:
629:
628:
624:
588:
587:
583:
576:
563:
562:
558:
551:
534:
533:
529:
524:
502:
495:
488:
479:
472:
463:
456:
358:science fiction
354:Frank Schätzing
316:Oxyrrhis marina
308:
222:ambush predator
202:dinoflagellates
180:
173:
164:
157:
148:
126:Oxyrrhis marina
69:Oxyrrhis marina
31:
12:
11:
5:
1816:
1814:
1806:
1805:
1803:Marine biology
1800:
1795:
1790:
1780:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1704:Hypercarnivore
1701:
1700:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1687:
1680:Cattle feeding
1677:
1672:
1671:
1670:
1665:
1663:Feeding frenzy
1660:
1655:
1650:
1648:Suction feeder
1645:
1640:
1635:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1585:
1583:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1488:
1486:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1458:Seed predation
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1434:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1276:
1274:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1252:
1245:
1238:
1230:
1222:
1221:
1196:
1171:
1144:
1121:
1107:10.1086/514799
1080:
1055:
1032:
1007:
1000:
974:
967:
942:
919:
884:
873:
830:
779:
752:
708:
665:
638:(3): 298–308.
622:
581:
574:
556:
549:
526:
525:
523:
520:
519:
518:
513:
508:
501:
498:
497:
496:
489:
482:
480:
473:
466:
464:
457:
450:
426:with those of
383:'s 2001 novel
328:Ceratium furca
307:
304:
288:Chesapeake Bay
258:North Carolina
204:implicated in
182:
181:
174:
167:
165:
158:
151:
147:
141:
85:Ceratium furca
22:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1815:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1798:Fish diseases
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1783:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1714:Mesocarnivore
1712:
1710:
1709:Hypocarnivore
1707:
1705:
1702:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1668:Filter feeder
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1658:Bottom feeder
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1606:Apex predator
1604:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1594:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1422:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:cannibalistic
1383:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1371:Breastfeeding
1369:
1367:
1366:Placentophagy
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1347:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1285:Egg predation
1283:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1246:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1232:
1231:
1228:
1211:on 2007-12-12
1210:
1206:
1200:
1197:
1186:on 2008-02-02
1185:
1181:
1175:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1148:
1145:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1084:
1081:
1070:on 2008-02-02
1069:
1065:
1059:
1056:
1045:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1022:on 2008-11-19
1021:
1017:
1011:
1008:
1003:
1001:0-7167-1007-2
997:
993:
988:
987:
978:
975:
970:
968:1-59056-098-1
964:
960:
959:
951:
949:
947:
943:
932:
926:
924:
920:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
888:
885:
882:
877:
874:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
846:(3): 231–41.
845:
841:
834:
831:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
783:
780:
775:
771:
768:(34): 935–7.
767:
763:
756:
753:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
712:
709:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
669:
666:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
626:
623:
618:
614:
609:
604:
601:(8): 909–15.
600:
596:
592:
585:
582:
577:
575:0-19-856974-2
571:
567:
560:
557:
552:
550:0-412-11121-7
546:
542:
538:
531:
528:
521:
517:
514:
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509:
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503:
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494:
493:
486:
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478:
477:
470:
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462:
461:
454:
449:
447:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
416:
411:
406:
404:
400:
396:
395:Pacific Ocean
392:
388:
387:
382:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
350:
345:
341:
337:
330:
329:
324:
318:
317:
312:
305:
303:
301:
300:mass hysteria
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
276:
274:
273:
268:
263:
259:
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131:cannibalistic
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50:heterotrophic
48:
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26:
25:pfiesteriosis
20:
16:
1734:Trophallaxis
1638:Pivot feeder
1633:Lunge feeder
1611:Egg predator
1499:Phagocytosis
1349:reproductive
1320:Myrmecophagy
1310:Molluscivore
1213:. Retrieved
1209:the original
1199:
1188:. Retrieved
1184:the original
1174:
1160:(3): 133–6.
1157:
1153:
1147:
1138:
1134:
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1072:. Retrieved
1068:the original
1058:
1047:. Retrieved
1024:. Retrieved
1020:the original
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934:. Retrieved
900:(1): 41–51.
897:
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725:(5): 563–9.
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681:(1): 63–73.
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408:In the 2005
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378:
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347:
344:James Powlik
339:
335:
333:
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279:
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270:
266:
262:skin lesions
260:and causing
233:
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104:that causes
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67:
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42:
41:
33:
15:
1555:Planktivore
1540:Detritivore
1535:Coprophagia
1525:Bacterivore
1520:Microbivory
1504:Myzocytosis
1463:Nectarivore
1453:Graminivore
1300:Lepidophagy
1295:Insectivore
1290:Hematophagy
1141:(5): 5FEA3.
381:Yann Martel
376:to humans.
242:fish killer
230:suffocation
220:. It is an
54:mixotrophic
1782:Categories
1719:Parasitism
1653:Bait balls
1643:Ram feeder
1575:Plastivore
1570:Lithotroph
1560:Saprophagy
1483:Osteophagy
1473:Palynivore
1430:Herbivores
1361:Paedophagy
1335:Spongivore
1325:Ophiophagy
1265:Carnivores
1215:2008-01-05
1190:2008-01-05
1074:2008-01-05
1049:2008-02-09
1026:2008-02-09
936:2008-01-05
522:References
432:Pfiesteria
424:Pfiesteria
386:Life of Pi
349:Sea Change
340:Pfiesteria
336:Pfiesteria
294:region in
284:Pfiesteria
280:Pfiesteria
267:Pfiesteria
214:Pfiesteria
210:fish kills
198:Pfiesteria
196:and other
144:Pfiesteria
136:Pfiesteria
111:Pfiesteria
57:alveolates
1724:Scavenger
1596:Predation
1565:Xenophagy
1545:Geophagia
1530:Fungivore
1478:Xylophagy
1468:Mellivory
1448:Frugivore
1443:Florivore
1340:Vermivore
1330:Piscivore
1315:Mucophagy
1305:Man-eater
595:Cytometry
362:The Swarm
254:estuaries
129:can turn
61:nutrients
47:predatory
1675:Browsing
1550:Omnivore
1492:Cellular
1438:Folivore
1154:Md Med J
1116:10451151
914:17768088
860:17552978
817:12198545
774:16943762
739:15537091
703:20834759
695:11908900
660:27126586
652:11411838
539:(1998).
500:See also
436:Hysteria
420:Hysteria
412:TV show
391:meerkats
366:lobsters
356:'s 2004
296:Maryland
292:Pocomoke
226:menhaden
146:hysteria
1690:Grazing
1589:Methods
1376:Weaning
1356:Oophagy
1280:Avivore
1166:9601200
894:Protist
825:4388577
797:Bibcode
747:4641093
617:7507024
430:. Like
250:Pamlico
29:tilapia
1695:Forage
1685:Fodder
1513:Others
1164:
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998:
965:
912:
868:614623
866:
858:
823:
815:
789:Nature
772:
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547:
444:spores
403:Canada
360:novel
272:T. rex
252:river
200:-like
23:Acute
1273:adult
864:S2CID
821:S2CID
743:S2CID
699:S2CID
656:S2CID
440:swarm
370:crabs
352:. In
246:Neuse
238:Latin
102:toxin
1580:Pica
1162:PMID
1112:PMID
996:ISBN
963:ISBN
910:PMID
856:PMID
813:PMID
770:PMID
735:PMID
691:PMID
648:PMID
613:PMID
570:ISBN
545:ISBN
368:and
248:and
208:and
45:are
1102:doi
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848:doi
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