370:, but little detailed information exists related to the development of these techniques and the procedures employed by early smiths. Although early ironworkers must have swiftly noticed that processes of cooling could affect the strength and brittleness of iron, and it can be claimed that heat treatment of steel was known in the Old World from the late second millennium BC, it is hard to identify deliberate uses of quenching archaeologically. Moreover, it appears that, at least in Europe, "quenching and tempering separately do not seem to have become common until the 15th century"; it is helpful to distinguish between "full quenching" of steel, where the quenching is so rapid that only martensite forms, and "slack quenching", where the quenching is slower or interrupted, which also allows pearlite to form and results in a less brittle product.
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media where maximum hardness is desired, but there is a small chance that it may cause distortion and tiny cracking. When hardness can be sacrificed, mineral oils are often used. These oil-based fluids often oxidize and form sludge during quenching, which consequently lowers the efficiency of the process. The cooling rate of oil is much less than water. Intermediate rates between water and oil can be obtained with a purpose-formulated quenchant, a substance with an inverse solubility that therefore deposits on the object to slow the rate of cooling.
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229:, which serves to raise kinetic barriers, which, among other effects, gives material properties (hardness and abrasion resistance) as though the workpiece had been cooled more rapidly than it really has. Even cooling such alloys slowly in the air has most of the desired effects of quenching; high-speed steel weakens much less from heat cycling due to high-speed cutting.
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its density requires significantly more energy to move, and its thermal capacity is less than the alternatives. To minimize distortion in the workpiece, long cylindrical workpieces are quenched vertically; flat workpieces are quenched on the edge; and thick sections should enter the bath first. To prevent steam bubbles the bath is agitated.
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formed when steel or cast iron are manufactured and cooled at a slow rate. Pearlite is not an ideal material for many common applications of steel alloys as it is quite soft. By heating pearlite past its eutectoid transition temperature of 727 °C and then rapidly cooling, some of the material's
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Quenching can also be accomplished using inert gases, such as nitrogen and noble gases. Nitrogen is commonly used at greater than atmospheric pressure ranging up to 20 bar absolute. Helium is also used because its thermal capacity is greater than nitrogen. Alternatively, argon can be used; however,
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Once the workpiece has finished soaking, it moves on to the cooling step. During this step, the part is submerged into some kind of quenching fluid; different quenching fluids can have a significant effect on the final characteristics of a quenched part. Water is one of the most efficient quenching
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The process of quenching is a progression, beginning with heating the sample. Most materials are heated to between 815 and 900 °C (1,499 and 1,652 °F), with careful attention paid to keeping temperatures throughout the workpiece uniform. Minimizing uneven heating and overheating is key to
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The second step in the quenching process is soaking. Workpieces can be soaked in air (air furnace), a liquid bath, or a vacuum. The recommended time allocation in salt or lead baths is up to 6 minutes. Soaking times can range a little higher within a vacuum. As in the heating step, it is important
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Quench hardening is a mechanical process in which steel and cast iron alloys are strengthened and hardened. These metals consist of ferrous metals and alloys. This is done by heating the material to a certain temperature, depending on the material. This produces a harder material by either surface
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crystal structure can be transformed into a much harder structure known as martensite. Steels with this martensitic structure are often used in applications when the workpiece must be highly resistant to deformation, such as the cutting edge of blades. This is very efficient.
409:
mentions quenching, recommending amongst other things that 'tools are also given a harder tempering in the urine of a small, red-headed boy than in ordinary water'. One of the fuller early discussions of quenching is the first
Western printed book on metallurgy,
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during which these undesired reactions are both thermodynamically favorable and kinetically accessible; for instance, quenching can reduce the crystal grain size of both metallic and plastic materials, increasing their hardness.
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as when a man who works as a blacksmith plunges a screaming great axe blade or adze into cold water, treating it for temper, since this is the way steel is made strong, even so
Cyclops' eye sizzled about the beam of the
373:
The earliest examples of quenched steel may come from ancient
Mesopotamia, with a relatively secure example of a fourth-century BC quench-hardened chisel from Al Mina in Turkey. Book 9, lines 389-94 of Homer's
221:, the eutectoid temperature becomes much lower, but the kinetic barriers to phase transformation remain the same. This allows quenching to start at a lower temperature, making the process much easier.
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Often, after quenching, an iron or steel alloy will be excessively hard and brittle due to an overabundance of martensite. In these cases, another heat treatment technique known as
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Once the temperature has dropped enough, the vapor layer will destabilize and the liquid will be able to fully contact the object and heat will be removed much more quickly.
759:
J. Vanpaemel. HISTORY OF THE HARDENING OF STEEL: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Journal de
Physique Colloques, 1982, 43 (C4), pp. C4-847-C4-854. DOI:10.1051/jphyscol:19824139;
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The modern scientific study of quenching began to gain real momentum from the seventeenth century, with a major step being the observation-led discussion by
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However, it is not beyond doubt that the passage describes deliberate quench-hardening, rather than simply cooling. Likewise, there is a prospect that the
692:. Metallurgy in Antiquity, part 2. Copper and Bronze, Tin, Arsenic, Antimony and Iron. Vol. 9 (2d rev. ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 211.
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to reduce the brittleness that may increase from the quench hardening process. Items that may be quenched include gears, shafts, and wear blocks.
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addressed the topic of quenchants, distinguishing the water of different rivers. Chapters 18-21 of the twelfth-century
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structure, instead forcibly dissolving carbon atoms in the ferrite lattice. In steel alloyed with metals such as
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585:. Vol. 1 of 3 (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press (published 2012-10-12). pp. 377–380.
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hardening or through-hardening varying on the rate at which the material is cooled. The material is then often
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There is evidence of the use of quenching processes by blacksmiths stretching back into the middle of the
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The sword and the crucible: a history of the metallurgy of
European swords up to the 16th century
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This stage occurs when the temperature of the object is below the boiling point of the liquid.
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R. K. Dube, 'Ferrous
Arrowheads and Their Oil Quench Hardening: Some Early Indian Evidence',
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that the temperature throughout the sample remains as uniform as possible during soaking.
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Extremely rapid cooling can prevent the formation of all crystal structures, resulting in
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Craddock, Paul T. (2012). "Metallurgy in the Old World". In
Silberman, Neil Asher (ed.).
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being pushed into a quenching car, Hanna furnaces of the Great Lakes Steel
Corporation,
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of a workpiece in water, gas, oil, polymer, air, or other fluids to obtain certain
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Before hardening, cast steels and iron are of a uniform and lamellar (or layered)
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refers to the oil-quenching of iron arrowheads, but the evidence is problematic.
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is widely cited as an early, possibly the first, written reference to quenching:
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Ancient
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Ancient mesopotamian materials and industries: the archaeological evidence
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for a certain period of time, then allowing it to cool in still air.
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transformation, where the steel must be rapidly cooled through its
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Rapid cooling of a workpiece to obtain certain material properties
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JOM: The
Journal of The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society
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618:. History of Warfare. Vol. 77. Leiden: Brill. p. 22.
498:"Development of High-Speed Steels for Cast Metal-Cutting Tools"
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transformations, from occurring. It does this by reducing the
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Stage A: Vapor bubbles formed over metal and starts cooling
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becomes unstable. Rapid cooling prevents the formation of
750:(Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International, 2007), p. 117.
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Legerská, M.; Chovanec, J.; Chaus, Alexander S. (2006).
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Mackenzie, D. S. (June 2008). "History of quenching".
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is performed on the quenched material to increase the
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International Heat Treatment and Surface Engineering
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67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
724:(Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1999), p. 284.
647:Moorey, P. R. S. (Peter Roger Stuart) (1999).
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761:https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jpa-00222126
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330:Heat is removed in three particular stages:
688:Forbes, R. J. (Robert James) (1972-01-01).
655:. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. pp.
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326:Mechanism of heat removal during quenching
748:Steel Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
138:
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310:. Tempering is usually performed after
279:imparting desired material properties.
514:10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.113.559
261:grain structure. This is a mixture of
190:, quenching is most commonly used to
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65:adding citations to reliable sources
583:The Oxford companion to archaeology
479:"Quenching and tempering of steel"
25:
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346:Stage B: Vapor-transport cooling
205:point, the temperature at which
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314:, to reduce some of the excess
52:needs additional citations for
338:During this stage, due to the
1:
836:History of ferrous metallurgy
690:Studies in ancient technology
614:Williams, Alan (2012-05-03).
1079:Argon oxygen decarburization
1240:Differential heat treatment
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1164:Ferritic nitrocarburizing
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737:, 60.5 (May 2008), 25-31.
1255:Post weld heat treatment
560:10.1179/174951508x358437
421:Giambattista della Porta
841:List of steel producers
354:Stage C: Liquid cooling
32:Quench (disambiguation)
1069:Electro-slag remelting
459:Hardening (metallurgy)
387:
151:
1338:Metal heat treatments
1279:Production by country
502:Solid State Phenomena
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236:or "metallic glass".
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1265:Superplastic forming
1184:Quench polish quench
1074:Vacuum arc remelting
1053:Basic oxygen process
1048:Electric arc furnace
785:at Wikimedia Commons
413:Von Stahel und Eysen
407:Theophilus Presbyter
61:improve this article
30:For other uses, see
1220:Cryogenic treatment
1043:Open hearth furnace
1031:Primary (Post-1850)
1022:Cementation process
909:Direct reduced iron
746:John D. Verhoeven,
168:material properties
991:Primary (Pre-1850)
340:Leidenfrost effect
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720:P. R. S. Moorey,
403:De diversis artis
156:materials science
148:Detroit, Michigan
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1207:Martempering
1202:Austempering
1111:Low hydrogen
929:Finery forge
925:Wrought iron
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554:(2): 68–73.
551:
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525:. Retrieved
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454:Austempering
449:Martempering
439:Quench press
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170:. A type of
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59:Please help
54:verification
51:
1250:Forming gas
1154:Carburizing
1011:Wootz steel
977:Steelmaking
876:sponge iron
508:: 559–564.
483:tec-science
392:Mahabharata
76:"Quenching"
1307:Luxembourg
1287:Bangladesh
1229:Deflashing
1139:Ausforming
982:Steel mill
892:Cold blast
884:(produces
874:(produces
826:production
527:2019-04-05
465:References
199:martensite
188:metallurgy
87:newspapers
1260:Quenching
1234:Hardening
1224:Deburring
1194:Tempering
1174:Nitriding
1169:Induction
1159:Cryogenic
1126:Hardening
1103:Annealing
1062:Secondary
945:Cast iron
918:Secondary
897:Hot blast
854:Ironworks
783:Quenching
634:794328540
601:819762187
568:1749-5148
522:137397169
444:Tempering
312:hardening
300:toughness
296:tempering
267:cementite
259:pearlitic
219:manganese
211:cementite
207:austenite
203:eutectoid
160:quenching
117:July 2023
1332:Category
1144:Boriding
936:Puddling
886:pig iron
872:Bloomery
864:Smelting
675:42907384
433:See also
368:Iron Age
316:hardness
247:tempered
227:tungsten
18:Quenched
1312:Nigeria
1095:methods
939:Furnace
708:1022929
377:Odyssey
362:History
306:-based
274:Process
263:ferrite
253:Purpose
164:cooling
101:scholar
706:
696:
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632:
622:
599:
589:
566:
520:
385:olive.
308:alloys
215:nickel
192:harden
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
1302:Italy
1297:India
1292:China
947:(via
927:(via
824:steel
659:–85.
518:S2CID
195:steel
176:phase
108:JSTOR
94:books
931:or
822:and
820:Iron
704:OCLC
694:ISBN
671:OCLC
661:ISBN
630:OCLC
620:ISBN
597:OCLC
587:ISBN
564:ISSN
304:iron
265:and
217:and
144:Coke
80:news
951:or
657:283
556:doi
510:doi
506:113
405:by
302:of
186:In
154:In
63:by
1334::
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1009:,
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