185:
33:
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Since the discovery happened several millennia before the invention of writing, there is no written record of how it was made. However, tin and lead can be smelted by placing the ores in a wood fire, leaving the possibility that the discovery may have occurred by accident. Recent scholarship however
563:
the carbonate and sulfide minerals in the air converts them to oxides. The oxides, in turn, are smelted into the metal. Carbon monoxide was (and is) the reducing agent of choice for smelting. It is easily produced during the heating process, and as a gas comes into intimate contact with the ore.
490:
furnace, the
Teniente reactor, the Vunyukov smelter, and the SKS technology. Top-jetting lance smelters include the Mitsubishi smelting reactor. Flash smelters account for over 50% of the world's copper smelters. There are many more varieties of smelting processes, including the Kivset, Ausmelt,
470:
are today about 40 meters long, 3 meters high, and 10 meters wide. Fuel is burned at one end to melt the dry sulfide concentrates (usually after partial roasting) which are fed through openings in the roof of the furnace. The slag floats over the heavier matte and is removed and
677:
How smiths learned to produce copper/tin bronzes is unknown. The first such bronzes may have been a lucky accident from tin-contaminated copper ores. However, by 2000 BC, people were mining tin on purpose to produce bronze—which is remarkable as tin is a semi-rare metal, and even a rich
575:
times, more than 8000 years ago. The discovery and use of the "useful" metals – copper and bronze at first, then iron a few millennia later – had an enormous impact on human society. The impact was so pervasive that scholars traditionally divide ancient history into
418:
Flux and slag can provide a secondary service after the reduction step is complete; they provide a molten cover on the purified metal, preventing contact with oxygen while still hot enough to readily oxidize. This prevents impurities from forming in the metal.
414:
are often used for this purpose, since they react with sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon impurities to allow them to be readily separated and discarded, in the form of slag. Fluxes may also serve to control the viscosity and neutralize unwanted acids.
1819:
Loveluck, Christopher P.; McCormick, Michael; Spaulding, Nicole E.; Clifford, Heather; Handley, Michael J.; Hartman, Laura; Hoffmann, Helene; Korotkikh, Elena V.; Kurbatov, Andrei V.; More, Alexander F.; Sneed, Sharon B. (December 2018).
461:
have been used to keep the charge being smelted separately from the fuel. Traditionally, they were used for the first step of smelting: forming two liquids, one an oxide slag containing most of the impurities, and the other a sulfide
628:
Copper was the first metal to be smelted. How the discovery came about is debated. Campfires are about 200 °C short of the temperature needed, so some propose that the first smelting of copper may have occurred in pottery
671:. The Inca bronze alloys were also of this type. Arsenic is often an impurity in copper ores, so the discovery could have been made by accident. Eventually, arsenic-bearing minerals were intentionally added during smelting.
689:. Metals were hard enough to make weapons that were heavier, stronger, and more resistant to impact damage than wood, bone, or stone equivalents. For several millennia, bronze was the material of choice for weapons such as
1666:
808:
Lead is a common metal, but its discovery had relatively little impact in the ancient world. It is too soft to use for structural elements or weapons, though its high density relative to other metals makes it ideal for
603:
in Peru had mastered the smelting of copper and silver at least six centuries before the first
Europeans arrived in the 16th century, while never mastering the smelting of metals such as iron for use with weapon craft.
2411:(2005) Technical Ceramics in Early Iron Smelting. The Role of Ceramics in the Early First Millennium Bc Iron Production at Tell Hammeh (Az-Zarqa), Jordan. In: PrudĂŞncio, I.Dias, I. and Waerenborgh, J.C. (Eds.)
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before smelting in order to convert the sulfides to oxides, which are more readily reduced to the metal. Roasting heats the ore in the presence of oxygen from air, oxidizing the ore and liberating the sulfur as
777:. Tin and copper also contributed to the establishment of trade networks that spanned large areas of Europe and Asia and had a major effect on the distribution of wealth among individuals and nations.
850:. Souckova-Siegolová (2001) shows that iron implements were made in Central Anatolia in very limited quantities around 1800 BCE and were in general use by elites, though not by commoners, during the
345:). After successive interactions with carbon monoxide, all of the oxygen in the ore will be removed, leaving the raw metal element (e.g. Fe). As most ores are impure, it is often necessary to use
1501:. Vol. I—Plenary Lectures/Movement of Copper and Industry Outlook/Copper Applications and Fabrication. Warrendale, Pennsylvania: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. pp. 55–79.
2258:. Development Document for Final Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Iron and Steel Manufacturing Point Source Category (Report). EPA. 2002. pp. 7–1ff. EPA 821-R-02-004.
1609:
1927:
Hutchinson, T.C.; Whitby, L.M. (1974). "Heavy-metal pollution in the
Sudbury mining and smelting region of Canada, I. Soil and vegetation contamination by nickel, copper, and other metals".
1373:
313:
Reduction is the final, high-temperature step in smelting, in which the oxide becomes the elemental metal. A reducing environment (often provided by carbon monoxide, made by incomplete
2270:
Development
Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines, New Source Performance Standards and Pretreatment Standards for the Iron and Steel Manufacturing Point Source Category; Vol. I
884:, where the temperature is kept low enough so that the iron does not melt. This produces a spongy mass of iron called a bloom, which then must be consolidated with a hammer to produce
1013:
continued to be a major regional source of mercury. Lakes will likely receive mercury contamination from the smelter for decades, from both re-emissions returning as rainwater and
801:), and dated from about 6500 BC. However, recent research has discovered that this was not lead, but rather cerussite and galena, minerals rich in, but distinct from, lead.
1674:
938:
231:" removes the unwanted carbon or sulfur, leaving an oxide, which can be directly reduced. Roasting is usually carried out in an oxidizing environment. A few practical examples:
482:
that was difficult to capture; a new generation of copper smelting technologies has supplanted them. More recent furnaces exploit bath smelting, top-jetting lance smelting,
2456:
869:(ca. 1100–750 BCE). Significantly though, they have found no evidence of iron ore smelting in any (pre-modern) period. In addition, very early instances of
842:
The earliest evidence for iron-making is a small number of iron fragments with the appropriate amounts of carbon admixture found in the Proto-Hittite layers at
644:
and
Belovode, Serbia. A mace head found in Turkey and dated to 5000 BC, once thought to be the oldest evidence, now appears to be hammered, native copper.
195:
Smelting involves more than just melting the metal out of its ore. Most ores are the chemical compound of the metal and other elements, such as oxygen (as an
402:
Fluxes are materials added to the ore during smelting to catalyze the desired reactions and to chemically bind to unwanted impurities or reaction products.
2287:
2123:
2353:
2141:
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While reverberatory furnaces produced slags containing very little copper, they were relatively energy inefficient and off-gassed a low concentration of
2105:
1613:
2026:"Anthropogenic mercury deposition in Flin Flon Manitoba and the Experimental Lakes Area Ontario (Canada): A multi-lake sediment core reconstruction"
2926:
2080:
2305:
Development
Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing Point Source Category; Volume IV
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431:
1527:
1910:
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1280:
2304:
2024:
Wiklund, Johan A.; Kirk, Jane L.; Muir, Derek C.G.; Evans, Marlene; Yang, Fan; Keating, Jonathan; Parsons, Matthew T. (15 May 2017).
2477:
1646:
1497:
W. G. Davenport (1999). "Copper extraction from the 60s into the 21st century". In G. A. Eltringham; N. L. Piret; M. Sahoo (eds.).
321:
atoms from the raw metal. The carbon source acts as a chemical reactant to remove oxygen from the ore, yielding the purified metal
1175:
Pollutants generated by other types of smelters varies with the base metal ore. For example, aluminum smelters typically generate
3090:
1786:
1587:
1212:
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921:, which then had to undergo a further process to make forgeable bar iron. Processes for the second stage include fining in a
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1220:
866:
2210:"Heavy Metal Pollution Assessment in Stream Sediments from Urban and Different Types of Industrial Areas in South Korea"
1255:
2999:
640:
The earliest current evidence of copper smelting, dating from between 5500 BC and 5000 BC, has been found in
2840:
368:
The required temperature varies both in absolute terms and in terms of the melting point of the base metal. Examples:
2269:
3085:
2255:
475:. The precise details of the process vary from one furnace to another depending on the mineralogy of the ore body.
37:
2413:
Understanding People through Their
Pottery; Proceedings of the 7th European Meeting on Ancient Ceramics (Emac '03)
1347:
862:
472:
90:. Smelting uses heat and a chemical reducing agent to decompose the ore, driving off other elements as gases or
2318:
Sjöstrand, Torgny (12 January 1947). "Changes in the
Respiratory Organs of Workmen at an Ore Smelting Works1".
2161:"Potentially toxic elements pollution in road deposited sediments around the active smelting industry of Korea"
1050:
913:
From the medieval period, an indirect process began to replace the direct reduction in bloomeries. This used a
184:
288:, the most common mineral of lead, is primarily lead sulfide (PbS). The sulfide is oxidized to a sulfite (PbSO
2381:
1887:
Souckova-Siegolová, J. (2001). "Treatment and usage of iron in the
Hittite empire in the 2nd millennium BC".
950:
Both processes are now obsolete, and wrought iron is now rarely made. Instead, mild steel is produced from a
1550:
1474:. Leonard Waldo (translator, additions). New York, London: John Wiley and Sons, Chapman & Hall. p.
633:. (The development of copper smelting in the Andes, which is believed to have occurred independently of the
877:, based on complex preheating principles. These discoveries are significant for the history of metallurgy.
2725:
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63:
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2421:(2006) Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell Hammeh (Az-Zarqa), Jordan. In: PĂ©rez-Arantegui, J. (Ed.)
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in North
America in the 20th century. Even after smelter releases were drastically reduced, landscape
2678:
2221:
2037:
2025:
1987:
1936:
1759:
1014:
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the blast furnace was introduced by China who had been using it since as early as 200 b.c during the
674:
Copper–tin bronzes, harder and more durable, were developed around 3500 BC, also in Asia Minor.
725:. Bronze also supplanted stone, wood, and organic materials in tools and household utensils—such as
325:
as a product. The carbon source is oxidized in two stages. First, carbon (C) combusts with oxygen (O
2946:
2835:
2721:
2668:
2474:
1226:
1200:
1038:
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Tin was much less common than lead, is only marginally harder, and had even less impact by itself.
500:
1697:
1475:
790:
32:
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2003:
1960:
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Radivojević, Miljana; Rehren, Thilo; Farid, Shahina; Pernicka, Ernst; Camurcuoğlu, Duygu (2017).
1717:
1523:
951:
837:
463:
354:
165:
1978:
Likens, Gene E.; Wright, Richard F.; Galloway, James N.; Butler, Thomas J. (1979). "Acid Rain".
1116:
Wastewater pollutants discharged by iron and steel mills includes gasification products such as
612:
375:
becomes metallic iron at roughly 1250 °C (2282 °F or 1523 K), almost 300 degrees
1907:
1395:
1183:, antimony and nickel, as well as aluminum. Copper smelters typically discharge cadmium, lead,
389:
mercury's melting point of -38 °C (-36.4 °F or 235 K), and also above mercury's
3080:
2973:
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2504:
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1952:
1843:
1794:
1642:
1502:
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The discovery of copper and bronze manufacture had a significant impact on the history of the
664:
532:
446:
403:
346:
208:
71:
1822:"Alpine ice-core evidence for the transformation of the European monetary system, AD 640–670"
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projectiles. However, since it was easy to cast and shape, workers in the classical world of
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2959:
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2519:
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2327:
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2180:
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1995:
1944:
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1709:
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1145:
1030:
930:
822:
660:
439:
322:
275:
1443:
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is occasionally found in commercially significant quantities. These minerals are primarily
385:
becomes vaporous mercury near 550 °C (1022 °F or 823 K), almost 600 degrees
3044:
3004:
2880:
2696:
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2625:
2613:
2608:
2603:
1914:
1479:
1260:
1230:
758:
738:
411:
330:
115:
103:
450:
2425:. Zaragoza, Institución «Fernando el Católico» (C.S.I.C.) Excma. Diputación de Zaragoza.
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1991:
1940:
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176:
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2534:
2423:
Proceedings of the 34th International Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza, 3–7 May 2004
2331:
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1153:
1091: with: Description of air pollution emissions and control options. You can help by
991:
814:
810:
483:
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382:
301:
297:
278:, which can be directly reduced to copper as described in the following section titled
135:
119:
51:
40:
1999:
1583:
1080:
486:, and blast furnaces. Some examples of bath smelters include the Noranda furnace, the
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3049:
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2936:
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2916:
2911:
2906:
2786:
2781:
2241:
1721:
1295:
1270:
955:
914:
908:
873:
were in production around 2000 years ago (around the first-century CE.) in northwest
858:
774:
750:
621:
536:
407:
142:
87:
83:
75:
2049:
1964:
1748:"Repealing the Çatalhöyük extractive metallurgy: The green, the fire and the 'slag'"
2986:
2706:
2701:
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1290:
926:
922:
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870:
818:
742:
508:
188:
157:
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1747:
1636:
1610:"201006274431 | Belovode site in Serbia may have hosted first copper makers"
1318:
2856:
2820:
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2580:
1863:"The significance of Early Bronze Age iron objects from Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey"
1265:
1161:
1121:
934:
889:
762:
679:
362:
292:), which thermally decomposes into lead oxide and sulfur dioxide gas (PbO and SO
270:
O in several stages between 250 °C and 350 °C. The carbon dioxide and
107:
95:
67:
2176:
1734:
1713:
1203:
inhibiting their ability to perform the physical tasks demanded by their jobs.
427:
3059:
3009:
2802:
2741:
2731:
2588:
2529:
1948:
1771:
1275:
1169:
1125:
971:
896:
888:. The earliest evidence to date for the bloomery smelting of iron is found at
722:
698:
668:
641:
581:
572:
372:
314:
59:
2339:
2209:
2057:
1956:
1847:
1798:
1252:, useful in predicting the conditions under which an ore reduces to its metal
129:
Sulfide ores such as those commonly used to obtain copper, zinc or lead, are
2901:
2866:
2736:
2620:
2563:
2112:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 25 May 2022.
1667:"History of Bronze Infographic | About | Website | Makin Metal Powders (UK)"
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1244:
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1058:
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1002:
995:
893:
686:
634:
577:
568:
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350:
235:
204:
161:
2354:"Clean Air Act Standards and Guidelines for the Metals Production Industry"
2194:
2065:
1838:
1821:
1483:
880:
Most early processes in Europe and Africa involved smelting iron ore in a
3029:
2796:
2593:
1188:
1187:, arsenic and nickel, in addition to copper. Lead smelters may discharge
1176:
1070:
1066:
987:
918:
881:
874:
851:
794:
766:
592:
585:
487:
466:
containing the valuable metal sulfide and some impurities. Such "reverb"
146:
111:
2434:
2007:
2653:
2630:
2598:
2524:
1133:
1129:
1117:
1062:
786:
648:
556:
544:
442:
255:
200:
17:
1343:
3034:
2541:
2282:
EPA (1984). "Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing Point Source Category."
1141:
1137:
1069:, lead, manganese, and nickel. Lead smelters typically emit arsenic,
1042:
983:
979:
954:
or by other means including smelting reduction processes such as the
798:
770:
726:
718:
714:
710:
694:
652:
552:
520:
512:
358:
318:
285:
239:
207:). To extract the metal, workers must make these compounds undergo a
114:. The oxygen in the ore binds to carbon at high temperatures, as the
99:
821:
used it extensively to pipe and store water. They also used it as a
1429:
379:
iron's melting point of 1538 °C (2800 °F or 1811 K).
341:) and removes one of its oxygen atoms, releasing carbon dioxide (CO
2568:
1584:"Stone Pages Archaeo News: Ancient metal workshop found in Serbia"
1172:
and biological oxidation for organic pollutants; and evaporation.
746:
706:
702:
690:
656:
611:
600:
548:
426:
271:
196:
183:
175:
150:
31:
2110:
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP)
1787:"Ice Cap Shows Ancient Mines Polluted the Globe (Published 1997)"
457:
The ores of base metals are often sulfides. In recent centuries,
304:
in the previous example), and the lead oxide is reduced as below.
3039:
2307:(Report). EPA. May 1989. pp. 1711–1739. EPA 440/1-89/019.4.
1184:
975:
734:
630:
596:
528:
516:
504:
435:
91:
2438:
2081:"When the smoke stopped: the shutdown of the Flin Flon smelter"
1152:(PAH). Treatment technologies include recycling of wastewater;
94:
and leaving the metal behind. The reducing agent is commonly a
2514:
1917:, Science 22 September 1978: Vol. 201. no. 4361, pp. 1085–1089
1876:. Tokyo: Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology: 313–320.
1499:
Proceedings of the Copper 99–Cobre 99 International Conference
1075:
847:
754:
730:
524:
333:(CO). Second, the carbon monoxide reacts with the ore (e.g. Fe
79:
55:
2272:(Report). EPA. May 1982. pp. 177–216. EPA 440/1-82/024a.
471:
discarded or recycled. The sulfide matte is then sent to the
1191:, asbestos, cadmium, copper and zinc, in addition to lead.
1215:
has published pollution control regulations for smelters.
227:
In the case of sulfides and carbonates, a process called "
27:
Use of heat and a reducing agent to extract metal from ore
1908:
Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania
1199:
Labourers working in the smelting industry have reported
857:
Archaeologists have found indications of iron working in
191:
at an aluminum smelter in Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne, France
1422:
Direct Biohydrometallurgical Extraction of Iron from Ore
2208:
Jeong, Hyeryeong; Choi, Jin Young; Ra, Kongtae (2021).
1092:
2382:"Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing Effluent Guidelines"
1370:"Copper Metal from Malachite | Earth Resources"
659:
that is significantly harder than copper. The first
3022:
2985:
2972:
2945:
2892:
2879:
2849:
2811:
2767:
2754:
2687:
2641:
2579:
2497:
2484:
2415:. Lisboa, Instituto PortuguĂŞs de Arqueologia (IPA).
2403:
Iron in Archaeology. The European Bloomery Smelters
1344:"Malachite: Malachite mineral information and data"
990:into the atmosphere. Smelters also release gaseous
2368:"Iron and Steel Manufacturing Effluent Guidelines"
1572:. London: The Institute of Metals. pp. 16–17.
1518:
1516:
551:of the metal, mixed with other components such as
211:. Smelting, therefore, consists of using suitable
1570:The Prehistory of Metallurgy in the British Isles
1471:The Production of Aluminum and Its Industrial Use
1444:"Mercury processing - Extraction and refining"
616:Casting bronze ding-tripods, from the Chinese
126:) is lower than that of the bonds in the ore.
2450:
962:Environmental and occupational health impacts
50:is a process of applying heat and a chemical
8:
1735:https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/79498371.pdf
1313:
1311:
1057:. Copper smelter emissions include arsenic,
1160:and filtration systems for solids removal;
709:points, as well as protective gear such as
317:in an air-starved furnace) pulls the final
141:Smelting most prominently takes place in a
66:that is used to obtain many metals such as
2982:
2889:
2764:
2494:
2457:
2443:
2435:
1478:(Minet speaking) +116 (HĂ©roult speaking).
274:are expelled into the atmosphere, leaving
242:is primarily copper carbonate hydroxide Cu
180:Copper smelter, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia
2184:
1837:
36:Electric phosphate smelting furnace in a
1144:, together with a range of more complex
1005:was one of the largest point sources of
535:– occur primarily as minerals, although
2159:Jeong, H.; Choi, J. Y.; Ra, K. (2021).
1307:
203:), or carbon and oxygen together (as a
1785:Browne, Malcolm W. (9 December 1997).
1612:. archaeologydaily.com. Archived from
1590:from the original on 24 September 2015
1376:from the original on 23 September 2015
1073:, cadmium and various lead compounds.
637:, may have occurred in the same way.)
2106:"Primary Aluminum Reduction Industry"
2079:Naylor, Jonathon (21 February 2017).
2019:
2017:
1635:Sagona, A.G.; Zimansky, P.E. (2009).
1530:from the original on 9 September 2015
1350:from the original on 8 September 2015
1168:and filtration for dissolved metals;
789:lead beads were thought to be in the
7:
1696:Gale, N.H.; Stos-Gale, Z.A. (1981).
805:has called this find into question.
571:, humans learned to smelt metals in
2405:, Praha, ArcheologickĂ˝ Ăšstav Av Cr.
1702:The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
1281:Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America
978:and releasing such toxic metals as
357:), to remove the accompanying rock
2332:10.1111/j.0954-6820.1947.tb14704.x
1655:from the original on 6 March 2016.
1219:Air pollution standards under the
998:, which acidifies soil and water.
651:in the right proportions produces
25:
2478:Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy
2419:Veldhuijzen, H.A. and Rehren, Th.
2000:10.1038/scientificamerican1079-43
1752:Journal of Archaeological Science
647:Combining copper with tin and/or
2256:"7. Wastewater Characterization"
2030:Science of the Total Environment
1906:Peter Schmidt, Donald H. Avery.
1870:Anatolian Archaeological Studies
1150:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
1079:
507:regularly occurs in nature as a
2214:Soil and Sediment Contamination
2050:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.046
1524:"releases/2007/04/070423100437"
1213:Environmental Protection Agency
721:(metal shin guards), and other
501:seven metals known in antiquity
365:reaction emits carbon dioxide.
895:), and dates to 930 BCE (
106:from incomplete combustion of
1:
2831:Bottom-blown oxygen converter
2234:10.1080/15320383.2021.1893646
599:civilizations of the central
2284:Code of Federal Regulations,
1256:Copper extraction techniques
1025:Air pollutants generated by
846:and dated to 2200–2000
219:elements to free the metal.
1551:"Early metals and smelting"
1225:Water pollution standards (
943:was also introduced in the
3107:
2177:10.1038/s41598-021-86698-x
1929:Environmental Conservation
1724:– via Sage Journals.
1714:10.1177/030751338106700110
1211:In the United States, the
968:effects on the environment
906:
835:
149:, which is converted into
110:—or, in earlier times, of
2472:
2142:"Primary Lead Processing"
2124:"Primary Copper Smelting"
1949:10.1017/S0376892900004240
1889:Mediterranean Archaeology
1772:10.1016/j.jas.2017.07.001
1698:"Ancient Egyptian Silver"
1051:polychlorinated biphenyls
1017:of metals from the soil.
863:Third Intermediate Period
116:chemical potential energy
62:product. It is a form of
2557:Underground in soft rock
2552:Underground in hard rock
2320:Acta Medica Scandinavica
1372:. asminternational.org.
861:, somewhere between the
329:) in the air to produce
215:that combine with those
3091:Metallurgical processes
2130:. EPA. 1 February 2022.
1861:Akanuma, Hideo (2008).
1468:Minet, Adolphe (1905).
1448:Encyclopedia Britannica
1323:Encyclopedia Britannica
1568:Tylecote, R F (1986).
1166:chemical precipitation
1148:known collectively as
661:copper/arsenic bronzes
625:
459:reverberatory furnaces
454:
300:is expelled (like the
192:
181:
44:
2885:(by aqueous solution)
2717:Gravity Concentration
2466:Extractive metallurgy
1839:10.15184/aqy.2018.110
1420:Eisele, T.C. (2005).
1201:respiratory illnesses
966:Smelting has serious
945:Industrial Revolution
682:ore only has 5% tin.
615:
491:Tamano, EAF, and BF.
430:
260:thermal decomposition
187:
179:
64:extractive metallurgy
58:to extract a desired
35:
3000:Hall–Héroult process
2679:Mechanical screening
2384:. EPA. 13 July 2021.
2370:. EPA. 13 July 2021.
2148:. EPA. 7 April 2022.
1913:9 April 2010 at the
1671:www.makin-metals.com
1526:. sciencedaily.com.
1039:polycyclic compounds
825:in stone buildings.
624:, published in 1637.
449:used the process of
2722:Magnetic separation
2669:Cyclonic separation
2490:(by physical means)
2475:Metallurgical assay
2356:. EPA. 1 June 2021.
2226:2021SSCIJ..30..804J
2042:2017ScTEn.586..685W
1992:1979SciAm.241d..43L
1980:Scientific American
1941:1974EnvCo...1..123H
1764:2017JArSc..86..101R
1616:on 29 February 2012
1227:effluent guidelines
903:Later iron smelting
832:Early iron smelting
785:The earliest known
213:reducing substances
164:are referred to as
2803:Refractory linings
2674:Gyratory equipment
2486:Mineral processing
2165:Scientific Reports
2085:Flin Flon Reminder
1832:(366): 1571–1585.
1791:The New York Times
1677:on 8 November 2020
1586:. stonepages.com.
1549:McGeough, Joseph.
1027:aluminium smelters
994:, contributing to
952:Bessemer converter
854:(~1400–1200 BCE).
852:New Hittite Empire
838:Ferrous metallurgy
626:
455:
238:, a common ore of
193:
189:Electrolytic cells
182:
166:aluminium smelters
45:
3086:Firing techniques
3068:
3067:
3018:
3017:
2979:
2974:Electrometallurgy
2968:
2967:
2927:Gold chlorination
2886:
2875:
2874:
2761:
2750:
2749:
2712:Jig concentrators
2510:Natural resources
2505:Geological survey
2491:
2409:Veldhuijzen, H.A.
2326:(S196): 687–699.
1250:Ellingham diagram
1170:carbon adsorption
1146:organic compounds
1109:
1108:
1035:hydrogen fluoride
1003:Flin Flon, Canada
608:Copper and bronze
447:British Aluminium
404:Calcium carbonate
209:chemical reaction
16:(Redirected from
3098:
2983:
2978:(by electricity)
2977:
2960:Pan amalgamation
2932:Gold cyanidation
2922:In situ leaching
2890:
2884:
2765:
2759:
2520:Economic geology
2495:
2489:
2459:
2452:
2445:
2436:
2386:
2385:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2301:
2295:
2293:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2188:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2102:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2021:
2012:
2011:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1924:
1918:
1904:
1898:
1896:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1867:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1841:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1743:
1737:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1673:. Archived from
1663:
1657:
1656:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1565:
1559:
1558:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1520:
1511:
1510:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1465:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1315:
1164:and filtration;
1104:
1101:
1083:
1076:
1031:carbonyl sulfide
982:, silver, iron,
931:High Middle Ages
620:encyclopedia of
453:about this time.
440:Stoke-upon-Trent
432:Cowles Syndicate
276:copper(II) oxide
199:), sulfur (as a
118:of the bonds in
21:
3106:
3105:
3101:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3014:
3005:Castner process
2976:
2964:
2941:
2883:
2881:Hydrometallurgy
2871:
2845:
2841:IsaKidd process
2807:
2758:
2746:
2697:Froth flotation
2683:
2637:
2575:
2488:
2480:
2468:
2463:
2433:
2428:
2394:
2389:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2352:
2351:
2347:
2317:
2316:
2312:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2286:
2281:
2277:
2268:
2267:
2263:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2158:
2157:
2153:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2122:
2121:
2117:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2089:
2087:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2023:
2022:
2015:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1935:(2): 123–13 2.
1926:
1925:
1921:
1915:Wayback Machine
1905:
1901:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1865:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1803:
1801:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1729:
1695:
1694:
1690:
1680:
1678:
1665:
1664:
1660:
1649:
1634:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1593:
1591:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1533:
1531:
1522:
1521:
1514:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1452:
1450:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1419:
1418:
1414:
1404:
1402:
1396:"Blast Furnace"
1394:
1393:
1389:
1379:
1377:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1353:
1351:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1327:
1325:
1317:
1316:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1240:
1231:Clean Water Act
1209:
1197:
1154:settling basins
1114:
1105:
1099:
1096:
1089:needs expansion
1023:
1001:The smelter in
964:
911:
905:
844:Kaman-Kalehöyük
840:
834:
783:
775:horse harnesses
610:
511:. The others –
497:
425:
410:in the form of
400:
344:
340:
336:
331:carbon monoxide
328:
311:
295:
291:
269:
265:
253:
249:
245:
225:
174:
156:Plants for the
125:
104:carbon monoxide
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3104:
3102:
3094:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3073:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3026:
3024:
3020:
3019:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2995:Electrowinning
2991:
2989:
2980:
2970:
2969:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2962:
2957:
2951:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2898:
2896:
2887:
2877:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2826:Parkes process
2823:
2817:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2794:
2792:Flash smelting
2789:
2784:
2779:
2773:
2771:
2762:
2756:Pyrometallurgy
2752:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2693:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2596:
2591:
2585:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2571:
2561:
2560:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2539:
2538:
2537:
2535:Precious metal
2532:
2527:
2522:
2512:
2507:
2501:
2499:
2492:
2482:
2481:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2464:
2462:
2461:
2454:
2447:
2439:
2432:
2431:External links
2429:
2427:
2426:
2416:
2406:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2387:
2373:
2359:
2345:
2310:
2296:
2275:
2261:
2247:
2220:(7): 804–818.
2200:
2151:
2133:
2115:
2097:
2071:
2013:
1970:
1919:
1899:
1879:
1853:
1811:
1777:
1738:
1727:
1708:(1): 103–115.
1688:
1658:
1647:
1638:Ancient Turkey
1627:
1601:
1575:
1560:
1541:
1512:
1489:
1460:
1435:
1430:10.2172/877695
1412:
1387:
1361:
1346:. mindat.org.
1335:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1286:Pyrometallurgy
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1247:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1223:
1208:
1205:
1196:
1195:Health impacts
1193:
1181:benzo(a)pyrene
1113:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1100:September 2021
1086:
1084:
1022:
1019:
992:sulfur dioxide
963:
960:
907:Main article:
904:
901:
836:Main article:
833:
830:
815:Ancient Greece
782:
779:
751:sewing needles
618:Tiangong Kaiwu
609:
606:
496:
493:
484:flash smelting
480:sulfur dioxide
445:, late 1880s.
424:
421:
399:
396:
395:
394:
383:Mercuric oxide
380:
361:as slag. This
342:
338:
334:
326:
310:
307:
306:
305:
302:carbon dioxide
298:sulfur dioxide
293:
289:
283:
267:
263:
251:
247:
243:
224:
221:
173:
170:
136:sulfur dioxide
123:
120:carbon dioxide
52:reducing agent
41:chemical plant
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3103:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3021:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2975:
2971:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2955:Patio process
2953:
2952:
2950:
2948:
2944:
2938:
2937:Bayer process
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2917:Tank leaching
2915:
2913:
2912:Dump leaching
2910:
2908:
2907:Heap leaching
2905:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2891:
2888:
2882:
2878:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2848:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2787:Zinc smelting
2785:
2783:
2782:Lead smelting
2780:
2778:
2777:Iron smelting
2775:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2757:
2753:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2727:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2689:Concentration
2686:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2640:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2619:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2601:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2565:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2540:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2517:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2493:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2476:
2471:
2467:
2460:
2455:
2453:
2448:
2446:
2441:
2440:
2437:
2430:
2424:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2391:
2383:
2377:
2374:
2369:
2363:
2360:
2355:
2349:
2346:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2311:
2306:
2300:
2297:
2292:
2289:
2285:
2279:
2276:
2271:
2265:
2262:
2257:
2251:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2204:
2201:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2101:
2098:
2086:
2082:
2075:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1903:
1900:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1864:
1857:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1815:
1812:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1731:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1692:
1689:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1662:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1648:9780415481236
1644:
1641:. Routledge.
1640:
1639:
1631:
1628:
1615:
1611:
1605:
1602:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1576:
1571:
1564:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1545:
1542:
1529:
1525:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1464:
1461:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1416:
1413:
1401:
1397:
1391:
1388:
1375:
1371:
1365:
1362:
1349:
1345:
1339:
1336:
1324:
1320:
1314:
1312:
1308:
1302:
1297:
1296:Zinc smelting
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1271:Lead smelting
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1222:
1221:Clean Air Act
1218:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1111:
1103:
1094:
1090:
1087:This section
1085:
1082:
1078:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1021:Air pollution
1020:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
999:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
961:
959:
957:
956:Corex Process
953:
948:
946:
942:
939:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
915:blast furnace
910:
909:Blast furnace
902:
900:
898:
894:
891:
887:
883:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
859:Ancient Egypt
855:
853:
849:
845:
839:
831:
829:
826:
824:
820:
816:
812:
806:
802:
800:
796:
792:
788:
780:
778:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
683:
681:
675:
672:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
645:
643:
638:
636:
632:
623:
622:Song Yingxing
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537:native copper
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408:calcium oxide
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160:reduction of
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143:blast furnace
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2987:Electrolysis
2947:Amalgamation
2768:
2702:Jameson cell
2659:Hydrocyclone
2422:
2418:
2412:
2408:
2402:
2398:
2392:Bibliography
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2362:
2348:
2323:
2319:
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2250:
2217:
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2168:
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2154:
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2127:
2118:
2109:
2100:
2088:. Retrieved
2084:
2074:
2033:
2029:
1986:(4): 43–51.
1983:
1979:
1973:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1902:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1873:
1869:
1856:
1829:
1825:
1814:
1802:. Retrieved
1790:
1780:
1755:
1751:
1741:
1730:
1705:
1701:
1691:
1679:. Retrieved
1675:the original
1670:
1661:
1637:
1630:
1618:. Retrieved
1614:the original
1604:
1592:. Retrieved
1578:
1569:
1563:
1554:
1544:
1532:. Retrieved
1498:
1492:
1470:
1463:
1451:. Retrieved
1447:
1438:
1421:
1415:
1403:. Retrieved
1399:
1390:
1378:. Retrieved
1364:
1352:. Retrieved
1338:
1326:. Retrieved
1322:
1291:Wrought iron
1229:) under the
1210:
1198:
1174:
1162:oil skimmers
1115:
1097:
1093:adding to it
1088:
1024:
1000:
970:, producing
965:
949:
927:13th century
923:finery forge
912:
886:wrought iron
879:
871:carbon steel
867:23rd Dynasty
856:
841:
827:
819:Ancient Rome
807:
803:
784:
781:Tin and lead
763:cooking pots
743:blade shears
684:
676:
673:
665:4200 BC
646:
639:
627:
617:
590:
566:
509:native metal
498:
477:
456:
451:Paul HĂ©roult
423:Sulfide ores
417:
401:
390:
386:
376:
367:
312:
279:
226:
194:
158:electrolytic
155:
140:
128:
47:
46:
29:
3023:Co-products
2857:Calcination
2821:Cupellation
2737:Dry washing
2726:Magnetation
2649:Ore sorting
2614:Pebble mill
2581:Comminution
2399:Pleiner, R.
2288:40 CFR
2171:(1): 7238.
2036:: 685–695.
1804:23 February
1758:: 101–122.
1681:23 February
1453:23 February
1400:Science Aid
1328:23 February
1266:Cupellation
1207:Regulations
1122:naphthalene
1011:re-emission
935:Qin dynasty
929:during the
890:Tell Hammeh
699:battle axes
680:cassiterite
573:prehistoric
363:calcination
262:to 2CuO, CO
145:to produce
96:fossil-fuel
3075:Categories
3060:Stamp sand
3010:Downs cell
2742:Buddle pit
2732:Rocker box
2589:Stamp mill
2530:Base metal
2498:Extraction
1555:Brittanica
1405:13 October
1319:"Smelting"
1303:References
1276:Metallurgy
1158:clarifiers
1126:anthracene
1112:Wastewater
972:wastewater
897:C14 dating
892:, Jordan (
791:Çatalhöyük
723:body armor
669:Asia Minor
663:date from
582:Bronze Age
541:carbonates
373:Iron oxide
349:, such as
315:combustion
258:undergoes
102:, such as
98:source of
60:base metal
2902:Lixiviant
2867:Liquation
2760:(by heat)
2621:Ball mill
2564:Recycling
2340:0954-6820
2242:233818266
2058:0048-9697
1957:1469-4387
1895:: 189–93.
1848:0003-598X
1826:Antiquity
1799:0362-4331
1722:192397529
1620:26 August
1594:26 August
1534:26 August
1380:26 August
1354:26 August
1245:Cast iron
1059:beryllium
1047:manganese
996:acid rain
925:. In the
767:cauldrons
687:Old World
635:Old World
578:Stone Age
569:Old World
473:converter
351:limestone
309:Reduction
280:Reduction
236:Malachite
217:oxidizing
205:carbonate
162:aluminium
3081:Smelting
3030:Tailings
2894:Leaching
2862:Roasting
2813:Refining
2797:ISASMELT
2769:Smelting
2626:Rod mill
2609:SAG mill
2594:Arrastra
2195:33790361
2066:28238379
2008:24965312
1965:86686979
1911:Archived
1653:Archived
1588:Archived
1528:Archived
1507:42774618
1374:Archived
1348:Archived
1238:See also
1189:antimony
1177:fluoride
1071:antimony
1067:chromium
1041:, lead,
1029:include
1015:leaching
988:selenium
941:Puddling
919:pig iron
917:to make
882:bloomery
875:Tanzania
795:Anatolia
793:site in
593:Americas
586:Iron Age
561:Roasting
545:sulfides
488:Isasmelt
468:furnaces
355:dolomite
229:roasting
223:Roasting
147:pig iron
112:charcoal
48:Smelting
3055:Red mud
3045:Clinker
2799:furnace
2707:Panning
2664:Trommel
2654:Vanning
2631:IsaMill
2604:AG mill
2599:Crusher
2547:Surface
2525:Mineral
2401:(2000)
2222:Bibcode
2186:8012626
2038:Bibcode
1988:Bibcode
1937:Bibcode
1760:Bibcode
1484:234319W
1261:Clinker
1142:cresols
1138:phenols
1134:ammonia
1130:cyanide
1118:benzene
1063:cadmium
1055:mercury
1007:mercury
771:mirrors
727:chisels
719:greaves
715:helmets
711:shields
695:daggers
649:arsenic
642:PloÄŤnik
591:In the
567:In the
557:alumina
533:mercury
503:, only
499:Of the
495:History
443:England
391:boiling
323:element
296:). The
266:, and H
256:mineral
254:. This
201:sulfide
172:Process
131:roasted
18:Smelter
3035:Gangue
2836:Poling
2642:Sizing
2542:Mining
2338:
2240:
2193:
2183:
2146:NESHAP
2128:NESHAP
2090:6 July
2064:
2056:
2006:
1963:
1955:
1846:
1797:
1720:
1645:
1505:
1482:
1053:, and
1043:nickel
986:, and
984:cobalt
980:copper
823:mortar
799:Turkey
773:, and
747:knives
701:, and
691:swords
653:bronze
595:, pre-
584:, and
553:silica
549:oxides
531:, and
521:silver
513:copper
398:Fluxes
393:point.
359:gangue
319:oxygen
286:Galena
240:copper
138:gas.
100:carbon
76:silver
72:copper
54:to an
43:(1942)
2850:Other
2569:Scrap
2238:S2CID
2004:JSTOR
1961:S2CID
1866:(PDF)
1718:S2CID
811:sling
739:nails
735:adzes
707:arrow
703:spear
667:from
657:alloy
655:, an
631:kilns
601:Andes
547:, or
464:matte
387:above
377:below
272:water
250:)(OH)
197:oxide
151:steel
3050:Chat
3040:Slag
2336:ISSN
2191:PMID
2092:2020
2062:PMID
2054:ISSN
1953:ISSN
1844:ISSN
1806:2021
1795:ISSN
1683:2021
1643:ISBN
1622:2015
1596:2015
1536:2015
1503:OCLC
1455:2021
1407:2021
1382:2015
1356:2015
1330:2021
1185:zinc
1140:and
976:slag
974:and
865:and
817:and
787:cast
765:and
759:jugs
755:pins
753:and
731:saws
705:and
597:Inca
555:and
529:iron
517:lead
505:gold
436:Ohio
412:lime
353:(or
347:flux
108:coke
92:slag
88:zinc
86:and
84:lead
68:iron
2515:Ore
2328:doi
2324:128
2291:421
2230:doi
2181:PMC
2173:doi
2046:doi
2034:586
1996:doi
1984:241
1945:doi
1834:doi
1768:doi
1710:doi
1476:244
1426:doi
1095:.
899:).
848:BCE
525:tin
438:in
434:of
406:or
246:(CO
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