174:(also called thermal spike), which essentially melts a small portion of the crystal. If that portion is close enough to its surface, large numbers of atoms may be ejected, due to liquid flowing to the surface and/or microexplosions. Heat spike sputtering is most important for heavy ions (e.g. Xe or Au or cluster ions) with energies in the keV–MeV range bombarding dense but soft metals with a low melting point (Ag, Au, Pb, etc.). The heat spike sputtering often increases nonlinearly with energy, and can for small cluster ions lead to dramatic sputtering yields per cluster of the order of 10,000. For animations of such a process see "Re: Displacement Cascade 1" in the
443:
important parameter, high-energy negative O ions are additionally the most abundant species in plasma in case of reactive deposition of oxides. However, energies of other ions/atoms (e.g., Ar, Ar, or In) in the discharge may already be sufficient to dissociate surface bonds or etch soft layers in certain device technologies. In addition, the momentum transfer of high-energy particles from the plasma (Ar, oxygen ions) or sputtered from the target might impinge or even increase the substrate temperature sufficiently to trigger physical (e.g., etching) or thermal degradation of sensitive substrate layers (e.g. thin film metal halide perovskites).
31:
110:
20:
286:. At elevated temperatures, chemical sputtering of carbon can be understood to be due to the incoming ions weakening bonds in the sample, which then desorb by thermal activation. The hydrogen-induced sputtering of carbon-based materials observed at low temperatures has been explained by H ions entering between C-C bonds and thus breaking them, a mechanism dubbed
249:). This sputtering process is characterized by a strong dependence of the observed sputtering yields on the charge state of the impinging ion and can already take place at ion impact energies well below the physical sputtering threshold. Potential sputtering has only been observed for certain target species and requires a minimum potential energy.
234:
447:
damage-related interface gap states, resulting in the formation of
Schottky-barrier impeding carrier transport. Sputter damage can also impair the doping efficiency of materials and the lifetime of excess charge carriers in photoactive materials; in some cases, depending on its extent, such damage can even lead to a reduced shunt resistance.
181:
Physical sputtering has a well-defined minimum energy threshold, equal to or larger than the ion energy at which the maximum energy transfer from the ion to a target atom equals the binding energy of a surface atom. That is to say, it can only happen when an ion is capable of transferring more energy
130:
The average number of atoms ejected from the target per incident ion is called the "sputter yield". The sputter yield depends on several things: the angle at which ions collide with the surface of the material, how much energy they strike it with, their masses, the masses of the target atoms, and the
361:
in order to not continually recontaminate the surface during sputter cleaning. Redeposition of sputtered material on the substrate can also give problems, especially at high sputtering pressures. Sputtering of the surface of a compound or alloy material can result in the surface composition being
195:
can occur at the start when a multicomponent solid target is bombarded and there is no solid state diffusion. If the energy transfer is more efficient to one of the target components, or it is less strongly bound to the solid, it will sputter more efficiently than the other. If in an AB alloy the
113:
Sputtering from a linear collision cascade. The thick line illustrates the position of the surface, with everything below it being atoms inside of the material, and the thinner lines the ballistic movement paths of the atoms from beginning until they stop in the material. The purple circle is the
442:
As seen in the list above, negative ions (e.g., O and In for ITO sputtering) formed at the target surface and accelerated toward the substrate acquire the largest energy, which is determined by the potential between target and plasma potentials. Although the flux of the energetic particles is an
421:
Sputter damage is usually defined during transparent electrode deposition on optoelectronic devices, which is usually originated from the substrate's bombardment by highly energetic species. The main species involved in the process and the representative energies can be listed as (values taken
446:
This can affect the functional properties of underlying charge transport and passivation layers and photoactive absorbers or emitters, eroding device performance. For instance, due to sputter damage, there may be inevitable interfacial consequences such as pinning of the Fermi level, caused by
169:
Another mechanism of physical sputtering is called "heat spike sputtering". This can occur when the solid is dense enough, and the incoming ion heavy enough, that collisions occur very close to each other. In this case, the binary collision approximation is no longer valid, and the collisional
475:. In this way the composition of the target material can be determined and even extremely low concentrations (20 ÎĽg/kg) of impurities detected. Furthermore, because the sputtering continually etches deeper into the sample, concentration profiles as a function of depth can be measured.
196:
component A is sputtered preferentially, the surface of the solid will, during prolonged bombardment, become enriched in the B component, thereby increasing the probability that B is sputtered such that the composition of the sputtered material will ultimately return to AB.
161:
A model for describing sputtering in the cascade regime for amorphous flat targets is
Thompson's analytical model. An algorithm that simulates sputtering based on a quantum mechanical treatment including electrons stripping at high energy is implemented in the program
127:, an atom will be ejected. This process is known as "sputtering". If the target is thin (on an atomic scale), the collision cascade can reach through to its back side; the atoms ejected in this fashion are said to escape the surface binding energy "in transmission".
523:
and optical instruments to minimize light reflection and increase light transmission, which improves clarity and reduces glare. Sputtering is also used to deposit reflective coatings on mirrors, ensuring high reflectivity and durability for applications such as
342:. In 1955 Farnsworth, Schlier, George, and Burger reported using sputter cleaning in an ultra-high-vacuum system to prepare ultra-clean surfaces for low-energy electron-diffraction (LEED) studies. Sputter cleaning became an integral part of the
245:. In these cases the potential energy stored in multiply charged ions (i.e., the energy necessary to produce an ion of this charge state from its neutral atom) is liberated when the ions recombine during impact on a solid surface (formation of
281:
Sputtering observed to occur below the threshold energy of physical sputtering is also often called chemical sputtering. The mechanisms behind such sputtering are not always well understood, and may be hard to distinguish from chemical
208:
can mean either sputtering induced by energetic electrons (for example in a transmission electron microscope), or sputtering due to very high-energy or highly charged heavy ions that lose energy to the solid, mostly by electronic
350:, can be used. Sputter cleaning has some potential problems such as overheating, gas incorporation in the surface region, bombardment (radiation) damage in the surface region, and the roughening of the surface, particularly if
122:
in the target. Such cascades can take many paths; some recoil back toward the surface of the target. If a collision cascade reaches the surface of the target, and its remaining energy is greater than the target's surface
1264:
Farnsworth, H. E.; Schlier, R. E.; George, T. H.; Burger, R. M. (1958). "Application of the Ion
Bombardment Cleaning Method to Titanium, Germanium, Silicon, and Nickel as Determined by Low-Energy Electron Diffraction".
1115:
T. A. Schoolcraft and B. J. Garrison, Journal of the
American Chemical Society (1991). "Initial stages of etching of the silicon Si110 2x1 surface by 3.0-eV normal incident fluorine atoms: a molecular dynamics study".
274:(RIE), a plasma process carried out with chemically active ions and radicals, for which the sputtering yield may be enhanced significantly compared to pure physical sputtering. Reactive ions are frequently used in
278:(SIMS) equipment to enhance the sputter rates. The mechanisms causing the sputtering enhancement are not always well understood, although the case of fluorine etching of Si has been modeled well theoretically.
114:
incoming ion. Red, blue, green and yellow circles illustrate primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary recoils, respectively. Two of the atoms happen to move out from the sample, i.e. they are sputtered.
491:, sputtering of photolyzed water from the surface leads to net loss of hydrogen and accumulation of oxygen-rich materials that may be important for life. Sputtering is also one of the possible ways that
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state, and tend to deposit on all surfaces in the vacuum chamber. A substrate (such as a wafer) placed in the chamber will be coated with a thin film. Sputtering deposition usually uses an
973:
M. Sporn; Libiseller, G.; Neidhart, T.; Schmid, M.; Aumayr, F.; Winter, HP.; Varga, P.; Grether, M.; Niemann, D.; Stolterfoht, N.; et al. (1997). "Potential
Sputtering of Clean SiO
1344:
Aydin, Erkan; Altinkaya, Cesur; Smirnov, Yury; Yaqin, Muhammad A.; Zanoni, Kassio P. S.; Paliwal, Abhyuday; Firdaus, Yuliar; Allen, Thomas G.; Anthopoulos, Thomas D.; Bolink, Henk J.;
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T. Schenkel; Briere, M.; Schmidt-Böcking, H.; Bethge, K.; Schneider, D.; et al. (1997). "Electronic
Sputtering of Thin Conductors by Neutralization of Slow Highly Charged Ions".
548:
Lobbia, R.B.; Polk, J.E.; Hofer, R.R.; Chaplin, V.H; Jorns, B. (2019-08-19). "Accelerating 23,000 hours of ground test backsputtered carbon on a magnetically shielded Hall thruster".
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in precision components. However, the fact that it can be made to act on extremely fine layers of material is utilised in science and industry—there, it is used to perform precise
1221:
Farnsworth, H. E.; Schlier, R. E.; George, T. H.; Burger, R. M. (1955). "Ion
Bombardment-Cleaning of Germanium and Titanium as Determined by Low-Energy Electron Diffraction".
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Reflected atoms and neutralized ions from the target surface (20–50 eV), the formation of which mainly depends on the background gas and the mass of the sputtered element.
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24:
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217:, as the electronic excitations that cause sputtering are not immediately quenched, as they would be in a conductor. One example of this is Jupiter's ice-covered moon
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T. Neidhart; Pichler, F.; Aumayr, F.; Winter, HP.; Schmid, M.; Varga, P.; et al. (1995). "Potential sputtering of lithium fluoride by slow multicharged ions".
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Due to its adaptability with a wide range of materials, Sputtering is used to create various types of coatings that enhance the performance of optical components.
1537:
H. R. Kaufman, J. J. Cuomo and J. M. E. Harper (1982). "Technology and applications of broad-beam ion sources used in sputtering. Part I. Ion source technology".
471:(SIMS), where the target sample is sputtered at a constant rate. As the target is sputtered, the concentration and identity of sputtered atoms are measured using
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889:
Johnson, R. E.; Carlson, R. W.; Cooper, J. F.; Paranicas, C.; Moore, M. H.; Wong, M. C. (2004). Fran
Bagenal; Timothy E. Dowling; William B. McKinnon (eds.).
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Sputtering is one of the forms of space weathering, a process that changes the physical and chemical properties of airless bodies, such as asteroids and the
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G.S. Anderson and Roger M. Moseson, “Method and
Apparatus for Cleaning by Ionic Bombardment,” U.S. Patent #3,233,137 (filed Aug. 28, 1961) (Feb.1, 1966)
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Positive ions formed in the plasma (~15 eV), the formation of which mainly depends on the potential fall in front of a substrate at floating potential;
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S. Bouneau; A. Brunelle; S. Della-Negra; J. Depauw; D. Jacquet; Y. L. Beyec; M. Pautrat; M. Fallavier; J. C. Poizat & H. H. Andersen (2002).
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Negative ions (originating from the carrier gas) formed in the plasma (~5–15 eV), the formation of which mainly depends on the plasma potential;
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G. Hayderer; Schmid, M.; Varga, P.; Winter, H; Aumayr, F.; Wirtz, L.; Lemell, C.; Burgdörfer, J.; Hägg, L.; Reinhold, C.; et al. (1999).
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Sputtered atoms (ions) from the target surface (~10 eV), the formation of which mainly depends on the binding energy of the target material;
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In the semiconductor industry sputtering is used to etch the target. Sputter etching is chosen in cases where a high degree of etching
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E. Salonen; Nordlund, K.; Keinonen, J.; Wu, C.; et al. (2001). "Swift chemical sputtering of amorphous hydrogenated carbon".
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In the case of multiple charged projectile ions a particular form of electronic sputtering can take place that has been termed
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Sputtering only happens when the kinetic energy of the incoming particles is much higher than conventional thermal energies (
35:
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P. Sigmund, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B (1987). "Mechanisms and theory of physical sputtering by particle impact".
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is needed and selectivity is not a concern. One major drawback of this technique is wafer damage and high voltage use.
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Negative ions formed at the target surface (up to 400 eV), the formation of which mainly depends on the target voltage;
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Radiation effects on the surfaces of the
Galilean satellites. In: Jupiter. The planet, satellites and magnetosphere
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213:, where the electronic excitations cause sputtering. Electronic sputtering produces high sputtering yields from
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sputter material off the surrounding test chamber, causing problems for ground testing of high-power thrusters.
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Ion thruster operating on iodine (yellow) using a xenon (blue) hollow cathode. High-energy ions emitted from
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Sputtering by Particle bombardment: Experiments and Computer Calculations from Threshold to Mev Energies
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1350:"Sputtered transparent electrodes for optoelectronic devices: Induced damage and mitigation strategies"
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by sputtering that involves eroding material from a "target" source onto a "substrate", e.g. a silicon
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of a solid material are ejected from its surface, after the material is itself bombarded by energetic
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M.W. Thompson (1962). "Energy spectrum of ejected atoms during the high- energy sputtering of gold".
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Mai Ghaly & R. S. Averback (1994). "Effect of viscous flow on ion damage near solid surfaces".
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Another application of sputtering is to etch away the target material. One such example occurs in
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The Stopping and Range of Ions in Solids," vol. 1 of series Stopping and Ranges of Ions in Matter
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J. KĂĽppers (1995). "The hydrogen surface chemistry of carbon as a plasma facing material".
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structure, the orientation of its axes with respect to the surface is an important factor.
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Raut, Hemant; Ganesh, V. (2011). "Anti-reflective coatings: A critical, in-depth review".
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Surfaces of solids can be cleaned from contaminants by using physical sputtering in a
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Free molecular dynamics simulation program (Kalypso) capable of modeling sputtering
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process should be understood as a many-body process. The dense collisions induce a
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The ions that cause sputtering come from a variety of sources—they can come from
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797:"Very large gold and silver sputtering yields induced by keV to MeV energy Au
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into the target than is required for an atom to break free from its surface.
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893:. Vol. 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 485–512.
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plasma because argon, a noble gas, will not react with the target material.
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When energetic ions collide with atoms of a target material, an exchange of
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process. When the surfaces to be cleaned are large, a similar technique,
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This threshold is typically somewhere in the range of ten to a hundred
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Sputtered atoms are ejected into the gas phase but are not in their
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1462:"The power of anti-reflective coatings on ig4 and ig6 substrates"
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Emission of surface atoms through energetic particle bombardment
394:, solar cell, optical component, or many other possibilities.
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changed. Often the species with the least mass or the highest
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F. Aumayr & H. P. Winter (2004). "Potential sputtering".
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Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B
310:(DC sputtering), voltages of 3-5 kV are used. When done with
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sputtering), frequencies are around the 14 MHz range.
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target's surface binding energy. If the target possesses a
1409:"Exploring the Advantages and Disadvantages of Sputtering"
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Sputtering Basics - animated film of a sputtering process
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Removing atoms by sputtering with an inert gas is called
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is the one preferentially sputtered from the surface.
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continually replenishes its tenuous surface-bounded
713:J. F. Ziegler, J. P, Biersack, U. Littmark (1984).
663:Behrisch, Rainer; Eckstein, Wolfgang, eds. (2007).
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1023:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
25:Cornell NanoScale Science and Technology Facility
1563:(The original paper on Kaufman sputter sources.)
402:during the deposition also by ion bombardment.
74:, carry out analytical techniques, and deposit
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118:These ions, known as "incident ions", set off
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737:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
23:A commercial AJA Orion sputtering system at
1075:"Threshold for Potential Sputtering of LiF"
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1539:Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology
1118:Journal of the American Chemical Society
18:
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1524:American Vacuum Society short courses
550:AIAA Propulsion and Energy 2019 Forum
46:is a phenomenon in which microscopic
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1596:Physical vapor deposition techniques
330:. Sputter cleaning is often used in
66:, and can be an unwelcome source of
270:Sputtering can also play a role in
175:
1435:Energy & Environmental Science
588:Sputtering by Particle bombardment
154:), or radioactive materials (e.g.
14:
1503:- an introduction with animations
1318:"Sputtering Targets | Thin Films"
1576:from the original on 2021-12-11.
1273:(8). AIP Publishing: 1150–1161.
469:secondary ion mass spectrometry
276:secondary ion mass spectrometry
253:Etching and chemical sputtering
1460:Plats, Kelley (Oct 12, 2023).
1229:(2). AIP Publishing: 252–253.
977:by Slow Highly Charged Ions".
237:A commercial sputtering system
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78:layers in the manufacture of
1165:10.1016/0167-5729(96)80002-1
717:. Pergamon Press, New York.
647:10.1016/0168-583X(87)90004-8
1489:Thin Film Evaporation Guide
1413:Stanford Advanced Materials
1102:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.3948
944:10.1103/PhysRevLett.74.5280
868:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2481
487:. On icy moons, especially
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1569:Re: Displacement Cascade 1
1367:10.1016/j.matt.2021.09.021
1267:Journal of Applied Physics
1223:Journal of Applied Physics
1200:10.1103/PhysRevB.63.195415
999:10.1103/PhysRevLett.79.945
825:10.1103/PhysRevB.65.144106
774:10.1103/PhysRevLett.72.364
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354:It is important to have a
294:Applications and phenomena
106:takes place between them.
700:10.1080/14786436808227358
586:R. Behrisch, ed. (1981).
407:thermodynamic equilibrium
288:swift chemical sputtering
92:physical vapor deposition
62:. It occurs naturally in
612:"What is DC Sputtering?"
517:Anti-reflective coatings
142:, specially constructed
1533:on thin film deposition
1145:Surface Science Reports
1082:Physical Review Letters
979:Physical Review Letters
924:Physical Review Letters
848:Physical Review Letters
754:Physical Review Letters
193:Preferential sputtering
1044:10.1098/rsta.2003.1300
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532:, and laser systems.
495:has lost most of its
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206:electronic sputtering
200:Electronic sputtering
148:particle accelerators
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84:semiconductor devices
33:
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1606:Thin film deposition
590:. Springer, Berlin.
272:reactive-ion etching
243:potential sputtering
229:Potential sputtering
150:, outer space (e.g.
1551:1982JVST...21..725K
1494:What is Sputtering?
1279:1958JAP....29.1150F
1235:1955JAP....26..252F
1192:2001PhRvB..63s5415S
1157:1995SurSR..22..249K
1130:10.1021/ja00022a005
1094:1999PhRvL..83.3948H
1036:2004RSPTA.362...77A
991:1997PhRvL..79..945S
936:1995PhRvL..74.5280N
899:2004jpsm.book..485J
860:1997PhRvL..78.2481S
817:2002PhRvB..65n4106B
766:1994PhRvL..72..364G
692:1968PMag...18..377T
667:. Springer, Berlin.
639:1987NIMPB..27....1S
614:. 26 November 2016.
558:10.2514/6.2019-3898
312:alternating current
1529:2006-04-11 at the
1517:2010-05-20 at the
1499:2013-02-15 at the
1447:10.1039/C1EE01297E
801:clusters (n=1–13)"
381:Sputter deposition
376:Sputter deposition
306:). When done with
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120:collision cascades
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90:products. It is a
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1601:Materials science
1572:. YouTube. 2008.
1441:(10): 3779-3804.
1360:(11): 3549–3584.
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1180:Physical Review B
930:(26): 5280–5283.
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978:
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454:
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396:Resputtering
379:
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242:
240:
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43:
42:In physics,
41:
633:(1): 1–20.
344:ion plating
340:ion plating
265:ion etching
260:ion milling
144:ion sources
94:technique.
64:outer space
1585:Categories
1327:2018-08-28
985:(5): 945.
536:References
526:telescopes
497:atmosphere
457:anisotropy
388:thin films
385:depositing
352:over done.
215:insulators
172:heat spike
152:solar wind
44:sputtering
1394:243469180
1386:2590-2393
1322:Admat Inc
1295:0021-8979
1251:0021-8979
833:120941773
733:cite book
680:Phil. Mag
505:exosphere
499:and that
204:The term
178:section.
76:thin film
52:particles
48:particles
1591:Coatings
1574:Archived
1527:Archived
1515:Archived
1497:Archived
1208:67829382
1060:21891721
1052:15306277
1007:59576101
960:33930734
952:10058728
876:56361399
782:10056412
479:In space
104:momentum
1547:Bibcode
1471:July 1,
1418:July 1,
1275:Bibcode
1231:Bibcode
1188:Bibcode
1153:Bibcode
1090:Bibcode
1032:Bibcode
987:Bibcode
932:Bibcode
895:Bibcode
856:Bibcode
813:Bibcode
762:Bibcode
688:Bibcode
635:Bibcode
530:cameras
501:Mercury
451:Etching
422:from):
284:etching
133:crystal
98:Physics
72:etching
1392:
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1354:Matter
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1206:
1058:
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958:
950:
905:
874:
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780:
721:
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521:lenses
511:Optics
489:Europa
359:plasma
328:vacuum
219:Europa
140:plasma
56:plasma
1390:S2CID
1204:S2CID
1078:(PDF)
1056:S2CID
1003:S2CID
956:S2CID
872:S2CID
829:S2CID
411:argon
392:wafer
356:clean
54:of a
1473:2024
1466:NACL
1420:2024
1382:ISSN
1291:ISSN
1247:ISSN
1048:PMID
948:PMID
903:ISBN
778:PMID
739:link
719:ISBN
592:ISBN
562:ISBN
493:Mars
485:Moon
338:and
164:TRIM
86:and
68:wear
1555:doi
1443:doi
1372:hdl
1362:doi
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1239:doi
1196:doi
1161:doi
1126:doi
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